1.
Euro coins
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There are eight euro coin denominations, ranging from one cent to two euros. The coins first came into use in 2002, four European microstates which use the euro as their currency also have the right to mint coins with their own designs on the obverse side. The coins, and various coins, are minted at numerous national mints across the European Union to strict national quotas. Obverse designs are chosen nationally, while the reverse and the currency as a whole is managed by the European Central Bank, the euro came into existence on 1 January 1999. It had been a goal of the European Union and its predecessors since the 1960s, the Maastricht Treaty entered into force in 1993 with the goal of creating economic and monetary union by 1999 for all EU states except the UK and Denmark. In 1999 the currency was born virtually and in 2002 notes and it rapidly replaced the former national currencies and the eurozone has since expanded further to some newer EU states. In 2009 the Lisbon Treaty formalised its political authority, the Eurogroup, in 2004 €2 commemorative coins were allowed to be minted in six states. By 2007, all states but France, Ireland and the Netherlands had minted a commemorative issue, in 2009, the second eurozone-wide issue of a 2-euro commemorative coin was issued, celebrating ten years of the Economic and Monetary Union. In 2012, the third issue of a 2-euro commemorative coin was issued, celebrating 10 years of euro coins. To date, only Cyprus has not independently issued a €2 commemorative coin, slovenia joined the eurozone in 2007, Cyprus and Malta joined in 2008, Slovakia in 2009, Estonia in 2011, Latvia in 2014 and Lithuania in 2015, introducing seven more national-side designs. There are eight different denominations of coins, €0.01, €0.02, €0.05, €0.10, €0.20, €0.50, €1. The €0.01, €0.02 and €0.05 coins show Europe in relation to Asia and Africa in the world. The €0.10 to €2 coins show the EU before its enlargement in May 2004 if minted before 1 January 2007, coins from Italy, San Marino, the Vatican City, Austria and Portugal show the geographical map if minted in 2008 or later. The common side was designed by Luc Luycx of the Royal Belgian Mint and they symbolise the unity of the EU. The national sides were designed by the NCBs of the eurozone in separate competitions, there are specifications which apply to all coins such as the requirement of including twelve stars. National designs were not allowed to change until the end of 2008, national designs have seen some changes due to a new rule stating that national designs should include the name of the issuing country. The common side of the €0.01, €0.02 and €0.05 coins depict the denomination, the words EURO CENT beside it, twelve stars and Europe highlighted on a globe in relation to Asia and Africa in the world. The common side of the €0.10, €0.20 and €0.50 coins currently depict the denomination on the right, the words EURO CENT underneath it, with twelve stars and the European continent on the left
2.
2 euro commemorative coins
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€2 commemorative coins are special euro coins minted and issued by member states of the eurozone since 2004 as legal tender in all eurozone member states. Only the national sides of the coins differ, the common reverse sides do not. The coins typically commemorate the anniversaries of events or draw attention to current events of special importance. In 2007,2009,2012 and 2015, there were common commemorative coins with only different national inscriptions, Finland, Luxembourg, San Marino and the Vatican City are the only countries to have released at least one national commemorative coin every year. Cyprus has not minted any national commemorative coin yet, the number of commemorative coins is limited to two per country per year and to 5 percent of the total mintage output. Limits on the designs are also in place to ensure uniformity, the basis for the commemorative coins is derived from a decision of the European Council, which allowed changing the national obverse sides of euro coins from 1 January 2004 onwards. However, a number of recommendations and restrictions still apply, Euro coins must still have a common reverse side, so only the national obverse sides may be varied. Also, the national obverse sides per se should not be changed before 2008 at the earliest. Further regulations restrict the frequency and number of commemorative coin issues, until 2012, each member state could only issue one commemorative coin per year, and since that year two coins per year, and they shall only be denominated as €2 coins. This limit can exceptionally be increased to up to 2,5. 0% of the total number of €2 coins put into circulation by the member state issuing the €2 commemorative coin. Another decision added two more guidelines regarding the design of the coins, however, the five countries whose designs violated the first update to the rules initially were assumed to have to change their design in the future, which Finland did for 2007 and Belgium for 2008. Another decision changed the rules again, The twelve stars of the European Union surrounding the coin designs need to surround the national design, including year marks, the stars have to appear in the same way as they are aligned on the flag of the European Union. The design of euro coins may not be changed except for two circumstances, If a coin design is in violation of the recommendations, it may be updated to bring it into line with them. If a coin design depicts a head of state, it may be updated, every fifteen years to bring it line with the head of states current appearance. However, temporary heads of state may not be used as a reason for changing the design, the edge lettering of commemorative coins has to be the same as the one on the regular coins. The Belgian coins from 2009 onwards show the royal portrait of 1999. These provisions additionally prohibit further sede vacante sets of coins by the Vatican City, spain updated their design from 2010 onwards to meet the new rules, leaving Austria, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg and Slovenia in breach of them still. In 2012, the European Council set up new specifications of euro coins, also in 2012, a new EU regulation on the issuance of euro coins was concluded, increasing the allowed number of national €2 commemorative coins per year to two
3.
50 State Quarters
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The 50 State Quarters Program was the release of a series of circulating commemorative coins by the United States Mint. From 1999 through 2008, it featured each of the 50 U. S. states on unique designs for the reverse of the quarter. The U. S. federal government so far has made additional profits of $3.0 billion from collectors taking the coins out of circulation, in 2009, the U. S. Mint began issuing quarters under the 2009 District of Columbia and U. S. The Territories Quarter Program was authorized by the passage of a legislative act. This program features the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the United States Virgin Islands, and the Northern Mariana Islands. From the first days of the CCCAC, one of its members, David Ganz, urged the committee to endorse the 50 States Quarters program, and in 1995, the CCCAC did so. The committee then sought the support of Representative Michael Castle, chairman of the House Banking subcommittee with jurisdiction over the nations coinage, castles initial caution was resolved when Diehl suggested the coins be issued in the order the states entered the Union. Castle subsequently held hearings and filed legislation to authorize the program, the mints economic models estimated the program would earn the government between $2.6 billion and $5.1 billion in additional seignorage and $110 million in additional numismatic profits. Diehl and Castle used these profit projections to urge the Treasurys support, Diehl worked with Castle behind the scenes to move legislation forward despite the Treasurys opposition to the program. However, the Treasury suggested to Castle that the department should conduct a study to determine the feasibility of the program, with Diehls advice, Castle accepted the Treasurys offer, and the agreement was codified in the United States Commemorative Coin Act of 1996. The act also authorized the secretary to proceed with the 50 States Quarters program without further action if the results of the feasibility study were favorable. The Treasury Department engaged the consulting firm Coopers and Lybrand to conduct the study in 1997, among other conclusions, the study found that 98 million Americans were likely to save one or more full sets of the quarters. Nevertheless, the Treasury Department continued to oppose the program and declined to proceed with it without a mandate to do so. In 1997, Congress issued that mandate in the form of S.1228, the United States Commemorative Coin Program Act, the 50 state quarters were released by the United States Mint every ten weeks, or five each year. They were released in the order that the states ratified the Constitution. Each quarters reverse commemorated one of the 50 states with a design emblematic of its history, traditions. Certain design elements, such as flags, images of living persons. The authorizing legislation and Mint procedures gave states a substantial role and considerable discretion in determining the design that would represent their state
4.
Gold
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Gold is a chemical element with symbol Au and atomic number 79. In its purest form, it is a bright, slightly yellow, dense, soft, malleable. Chemically, gold is a metal and a group 11 element. It is one of the least reactive chemical elements and is solid under standard conditions, Gold often occurs in free elemental form, as nuggets or grains, in rocks, in veins, and in alluvial deposits. It occurs in a solid solution series with the element silver and also naturally alloyed with copper. Less commonly, it occurs in minerals as gold compounds, often with tellurium, golds atomic number of 79 makes it one of the higher numbered, naturally occurring elements. It is thought to have produced in supernova nucleosynthesis, from the collision of neutron stars. Because the Earth was molten when it was formed, almost all of the present in the early Earth probably sank into the planetary core. Gold is resistant to most acids, though it does dissolve in aqua regia, a mixture of acid and hydrochloric acid. Gold also dissolves in solutions of cyanide, which are used in mining and electroplating. Gold dissolves in mercury, forming amalgam alloys, but this is not a chemical reaction, as a precious metal, gold has been used for coinage, jewelry, and other arts throughout recorded history. A total of 186,700 tonnes of gold is in existence above ground, the world consumption of new gold produced is about 50% in jewelry, 40% in investments, and 10% in industry. Gold is also used in infrared shielding, colored-glass production, gold leafing, certain gold salts are still used as anti-inflammatories in medicine. As of 2014, the worlds largest gold producer by far was China with 450 tonnes, Gold is cognate with similar words in many Germanic languages, deriving via Proto-Germanic *gulþą from Proto-Indo-European *ǵʰelh₃-. The symbol Au is from the Latin, aurum, the Latin word for gold, the Proto-Indo-European ancestor of aurum was *h₂é-h₂us-o-, meaning glow. This word is derived from the root as *h₂éu̯sōs, the ancestor of the Latin word Aurora. This etymological relationship is presumably behind the frequent claim in scientific publications that aurum meant shining dawn, Gold is the most malleable of all metals, a single gram can be beaten into a sheet of 1 square meter, and an avoirdupois ounce into 300 square feet. Gold leaf can be thin enough to become semi-transparent
5.
Silver
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Silver is a metallic element with symbol Ag and atomic number 47. The symbol Ag stems from Latin argentum, derived from the Greek ὰργὀς, a soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. The metal is found in the Earths crust in the pure, free form, as an alloy with gold and other metals. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper, gold, lead, Silver is more abundant than gold, but it is much less abundant as a native metal. Its purity is measured on a per mille basis, a 94%-pure alloy is described as 0.940 fine. As one of the seven metals of antiquity, silver has had a role in most human cultures. Silver has long valued as a precious metal. Silver metal is used in many premodern monetary systems in bullion coins, Silver is used in numerous applications other than currency, such as solar panels, water filtration, jewelry, ornaments, high-value tableware and utensils, and as an investment medium. Silver is used industrially in electrical contacts and conductors, in specialized mirrors, window coatings, Silver compounds are used in photographic film and X-rays. Dilute silver nitrate solutions and other compounds are used as disinfectants and microbiocides, added to bandages and wound-dressings, catheters. Silver is similar in its physical and chemical properties to its two neighbours in group 11 of the periodic table, copper and gold. This distinctive electron configuration, with an electron in the highest occupied s subshell over a filled d subshell. Silver is a soft, ductile and malleable transition metal. Silver crystallizes in a cubic lattice with bulk coordination number 12. Unlike metals with incomplete d-shells, metallic bonds in silver are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak and this observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of silver. Silver has a brilliant white metallic luster that can take a polish. Protected silver has greater optical reflectivity than aluminium at all wavelengths longer than ~450 nm, at wavelengths shorter than 450 nm, silvers reflectivity is inferior to that of aluminium and drops to zero near 310 nm. The electrical conductivity of silver is the greatest of all metals, greater even than copper, during World War II in the US,13540 tons of silver were used in electromagnets for enriching uranium, mainly because of the wartime shortage of copper
6.
Proof coinage
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Nearly all countries have issued proof coinage. Preparation of a proof striking usually involved polishing of the dies and they can usually be distinguished from normal circulation coins by their sharper rims and design, as well as much smoother fields – the blank areas not part of the coins design. The dies for making modern proof coins are often treated with chemicals to certain parts of the design take on a frosted appearance. Several other methods have used in the past to achieve this effect, including sand blasting the dies. Proof coins of the early 19th century even appear to be scratched, the term proof refers to the process by which the coins are made and not to the condition of the coin. Certification agencies can grade and assign numerical ratings for proof coins, most proof coins are double struck under higher pressure. This does not normally result in doubling that is readily observable, after being struck, they are separately and individually handled, in contrast to normal coins which are thrown into bins. The U. S. had largely stopped striking proof coins in 1916, beginning in 1936, the U. S. Mint began producing proof coins again. Proof coins through 1942 could be ordered individually from the mint, because of this the lowest mintage for any denomination determines the total number of complete sets that can exist. Consequently, this number is used to indicate the mintages of proof sets for the years 1936 through 1942, sets struck from 1936 to 1942 and, when resumed, from 1950 to 72 include the cent, nickel, dime, quarter, and half dollar. From 1973 through 1981 the dollar was included, and also from 2000 on. From 1950 to 1955, proof sets were packaged in a box,1955 saw both the original box packaging and introduced the flat-pack, where the coins were sealed in cellophane and presented in an envelope. The flat-pack packaging continued through 1964, after which the coins were sealed in various styles of hard plasticized cases, the 1999–2008 proof sets also contain five different Statehood quarters. The 2004–2005 series also contain the two Lewis and Clark nickels, the 2007-2017 proof sets also include Presidential dollars. The 2010-2021 proof sets also contain America the Beautiful quarters, depicting different National Parks, Proof sets containing only 2009 cents, Statehood quarters, America the Beautiful quarters, and Presidential dollars are also available. From 1971 to 1974, proof silver-clad Eisenhower dollars were issued in a plastic case contained in a brown wood-grain finish slipcase box, anthony dollars were struck in 1999. S. Mint to advise the public that these sets were not government-issued sets, a proof Coin & Chronicles set was issued for 2009, which included one each of the 4 different Lincoln Cent designs and a commemorative Lincoln Silver Dollar, presented in special packaging. Other sets, called Prestige Proof sets, also contain selected commemorative coins and these sets were sold from 1983 to 1997 at an additional premium
7.
Lucius Verus
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Lucius Verus was the Roman Emperor from 161 to 169. When he was adopted by Caesar Antoninus Pius in February 138 and his name changed again following his ascension in 161. He ruled together with his adoptive brother Marcus Aurelius as co-emperor from 161 until his own death in 169, during his reign, the Roman Empire defeated a revitalized Parthia in the east, Veruss general, Avidius Cassius, sacked their capital, Ctesiphon, in 164. He was deified by the Roman Senate as the Divine Verus, Lucius Verus was the first-born son to Avidia Plautia and Lucius Aelius Caesar, the first adopted son and heir of Roman Emperor Hadrian. He was born and raised in Rome, Verus had another brother, Gaius Avidius Ceionius Commodus, and two sisters, Ceionia Fabia and Ceionia Plautia. His maternal grandparents were the Roman senator, Gaius Avidius Nigrinus, although his adoptive paternal grandparent was the Roman Emperor Hadrian, his biological paternal grandparents were the consul Lucius Ceionius Commodus and noblewoman Aelia or Fundania Plautia. When his father died in early 138, Hadrian chose Antoninus Pius as his successor, Antoninus was adopted by Hadrian on the condition that Verus and Hadrian’s great-nephew Marcus Aurelius be adopted by Antoninus as his sons and heirs. By this scheme, Verus, who was already Hadrians adoptive grandson through his father, remained Hadrians adoptive grandson through his new father. The adoption of Marcus Aurelius was probably a suggestion of Antoninus himself, faustinas betrothal to Ceionias brother Lucius Commodus would also have to be annulled. As a prince and future emperor, Verus received careful education from the famous grammaticus Marcus Cornelius Fronto and he was reported to have been an excellent student, fond of writing poetry and delivering speeches. Verus started his career as a quaestor in 153, became consul in 154. Antoninus died on 7 March 161, and was succeeded by Marcus Aurelius, Marcus Aurelius bore deep affection for Antoninus, as evidenced by the first book of Meditations. Although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers, the senate accepted, granting Lucius the imperium, the tribunician power, and the name Augustus. It was the first time that Rome was ruled by two emperors, in spite of their nominal equality, Marcus held more auctoritas, or authority, than Verus. He had been once more than Lucius, he had shared in Pius administration. It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior, as the biographer wrote, Verus obeyed Marcus. as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor. Immediately after their confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetoria. Lucius addressed the troops, which then acclaimed the pair as imperatores
8.
Roman currency
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Roman currency for most of Roman history consisted of gold, silver, bronze, orichalcum and copper coinage. From its introduction to the Republic, during the third century BC, well into Imperial times, Roman currency saw many changes in form, denomination, a persistent feature was the inflationary debasement and replacement of coins over the centuries. Notable examples of this followed the reforms of Diocletian and this trend continued into Byzantine times. The manufacture of coins in the Roman culture, dating from about the 4th century BC, the origin of the word mint is ascribed to the manufacture of silver coin at Rome in 269 BC at the temple of Juno Moneta. This goddess became the personification of money, and her name was applied both to money and to its place of manufacture, Roman mints were spread widely across the Empire, and were sometimes used for propaganda purposes. The populace often learned of a new Roman Emperor when coins appeared with the new Emperors portrait. The Romans cast their larger copper coins in clay moulds carrying distinctive markings, not because they knew nothing of striking, Roman adoption of metallic commodity money was a late development in monetary history. Bullion bars and ingots were used as money in Mesopotamia since the 7th millennium BC, coinage proper was only introduced by the Roman Republican government c.300 BC. For these reasons, the Romans would have known about coinage systems long before their government actually introduced them. The reason behind Romes adoption of coinage was likely cultural, the Romans had no pressing economic need, but they wanted to emulate Greek culture, and they considered the institution of minted money a significant feature of that culture. However, Roman coinage initially saw limited use. The type of money introduced by Rome was unlike that found elsewhere in the ancient Mediterranean and it combined a number of uncommon elements. One example is the large bronze bullion, the aes signatum and it measured about 160 by 90 millimetres and weighed around 1,500 to 1,600 grams, being made out of a highly leaded tin bronze. Although similar metal bars had been produced in Italy and northern Etruscan areas, these had been made of Aes grave. Along with the aes signatum, the Roman state also issued a series of bronze, produced using the manner of manufacture then utilised in Greek Naples, the designs of these early coins were also heavily influenced by Hellenic designs. The designs on the coinage of the Republican period displayed a solid conservatism, usually illustrating mythical scenes or personifications of various gods, in 27 BC, the Roman Republic came to an end as Augustus ascended to the throne as the first emperor. Taking autocratic power, it became recognized that there was a link between the emperors sovereignty and the production of coinage. The imagery on coins took an important step when Julius Caesar issued coins bearing his own portrait, while moneyers had earlier issued coins with portraits of ancestors, Caesars was the first Roman coinage to feature the portrait of a living individual
9.
Roman Empire
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Civil wars and executions continued, culminating in the victory of Octavian, Caesars adopted son, over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC and the annexation of Egypt. Octavians power was then unassailable and in 27 BC the Roman Senate formally granted him overarching power, the imperial period of Rome lasted approximately 1,500 years compared to the 500 years of the Republican era. The first two centuries of the empires existence were a period of unprecedented political stability and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, following Octavians victory, the size of the empire was dramatically increased. After the assassination of Caligula in 41, the senate briefly considered restoring the republic, under Claudius, the empire invaded Britannia, its first major expansion since Augustus. Vespasian emerged triumphant in 69, establishing the Flavian dynasty, before being succeeded by his son Titus and his short reign was followed by the long reign of his brother Domitian, who was eventually assassinated. The senate then appointed the first of the Five Good Emperors, the empire reached its greatest extent under Trajan, the second in this line. A period of increasing trouble and decline began with the reign of Commodus, Commodus assassination in 192 triggered the Year of the Five Emperors, of which Septimius Severus emerged victorious. The assassination of Alexander Severus in 235 led to the Crisis of the Third Century in which 26 men were declared emperor by the Roman Senate over a time span. It was not until the reign of Diocletian that the empire was fully stabilized with the introduction of the Tetrarchy, which saw four emperors rule the empire at once. This arrangement was unsuccessful, leading to a civil war that was finally ended by Constantine I. Constantine subsequently shifted the capital to Byzantium, which was renamed Constantinople in his honour and it remained the capital of the east until its demise. Constantine also adopted Christianity which later became the state religion of the empire. However, Augustulus was never recognized by his Eastern colleague, and separate rule in the Western part of the empire ceased to exist upon the death of Julius Nepos. The Eastern Roman Empire endured for another millennium, eventually falling to the Ottoman Turks in 1453, the Roman Empire was among the most powerful economic, cultural, political and military forces in the world of its time. It was one of the largest empires in world history, at its height under Trajan, it covered 5 million square kilometres. It held sway over an estimated 70 million people, at that time 21% of the entire population. Throughout the European medieval period, attempts were made to establish successors to the Roman Empire, including the Empire of Romania, a Crusader state. Rome had begun expanding shortly after the founding of the republic in the 6th century BC, then, it was an empire long before it had an emperor
10.
Christian X of Denmark
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Christian X was the King of Denmark from 1912 to 1947 and the only king of Iceland, between 1918 and 1944. Among his siblings was King Haakon VII of Norway and his character as a ruler has been described as authoritarian and he strongly stressed the importance of royal dignity and power. His reluctance to embrace democracy resulted in the Easter Crisis of 1920, in which he dismissed the democratically elected cabinet with which he disagreed, and instated one of his own choosing. He also became the subject of a persistent urban legend according to which, during Nazi occupation, Danish Jews were not forced to wear the Star of David. However, the legend stems from a 1942 British report that claimed he threatened to don the star if this was forced upon Danish Jews. I stated that I could not meet such a demand towards Danish citizens, if such a demand is made, we would best meet it by all wearing the Star of David. In addition, he helped finance the transport of Danish Jews to unoccupied Sweden, Christian was born on 26 September 1870 at Charlottenlund Palace in Gentofte Municipality north of Copenhagen, during the reign of his paternal grandfather, King Christian IX. He was born as the oldest son and child of Crown Prince Frederick of Denmark and his wife Louise of Sweden and he was baptised in the Chapel of Christiansborg Palace on 31 October 1870 by the Bishop of Zealand, Hans Lassen Martensen. She eventually became his queen consort, furthermore, the couple received Marselisborg Palace in Aarhus as a wedding present from the people of Denmark in 1898. In 1914, the King also built the villa Klitgården in Skagen, on 29 January 1906, King Christian IX died, and Christians father ascended the throne as King Frederick VIII. Christian himself now became crown prince, on 14 May 1912, King Frederick VIII died after collapsing from shortness of breath while taking a walk in a park in Hamburg, Germany. He had been returning from a stay in Nice, France. Christian was in Copenhagen when he heard about his fathers demise, in April 1920, Christian instigated the Easter Crisis, perhaps the most decisive event in the evolution of the Danish monarchy in the Twentieth Century. Danish claims to the region persisted to the end of World War I, according to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the disposition of Schleswig was to be determined by two plebiscites, one in Northern Schleswig, the other in Central Schleswig. In Northern Schleswig, seventy-five percent voted for reunification with Denmark, in this vote, the entire region was considered to be an indivisible unit, and the entire region was awarded to Denmark. In Central Schleswig, the situation was reversed with eighty percent voting for Germany, in this vote, each municipality decided its own future, and German majorities prevailed everywhere. Christian X agreed with these sentiments, and ordered Prime Minister Zahle to include Flensburg in the re-unification process, as Denmark had been operating as a parliamentary democracy since the Cabinet of Deuntzer in 1901, Zahle felt he was under no obligation to comply. He refused the order and resigned days later after a heated exchange with the King
11.
Frederick VIII of Denmark
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Frederik VIII was King of Denmark from 1906 to 1912. Before his accession to the throne at age 62, he served as prince for 42 years. During the long reign of his father, King Christian IX, he was excluded from influence. Frederiks parents were Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg and Louise of Hesse-Kassel, in 1853, his father was chosen as the heir presumptive to the Danish throne, because Frederiks mother, Louise of Hesse-Kassel, was a close relative of the last Danish king of the Oldenburg main line. Accordingly, Frederik became a Prince of Denmark in 1853, after his confirmation in 1860, Frederik was given a military education. In 1863, Prince Frederik was sent to do studies at the University of Oxford but when his father ascended the throne in November that year, he became Crown Prince and returned to Denmark. As Crown Prince of Denmark, he was given a seat in the State Council, in 1864, he formally took part in the Second Schleswig War against Prussia. Louise of Hesse wanted her eldest son to marry as well as her two daughters, Alexandra and Dagmar, had, Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom had two yet unmarried daughters, Princess Helena and Princess Louise, and Louise tried to marry Frederik to one of them. However, the British Queen didnt want her daughters to marry the heirs to foreign crowns and she preferred German princes who could establish homes in the UK. In addition, Victoria had always been pro-German and another Danish alliance, in July 1868, Frederik became engaged to Princess Louise of Sweden, the 17-year-old only daughter of King Charles XV of Sweden and IV of Norway. Princess Louises family was related by marriage to Napoleon Bonaparte and he married Désirée Clary, who had once been engaged to the French Emperor. Charles XIVs son, Oscar I of Sweden, married Josephine of Leuchtenberg, granddaughter of Napoleons first wife, King Oscar I and Queen Josephine were Princess Louises paternal grandparents. The marriage was suggested as a way of creating friendship between Denmark and Sweden, the two countries were in a tense situation after Sweden had not assisted Denmark during the war with Prussia in 1864. Frederik and Louise had met for the first time in 1862, but in 1868 Frederik was invited to Sweden to get to know Louise and they became engaged the same year. Crown Prince Frederik and Louise of Sweden married at the Royal Palace in Stockholm on 28 July 1869, the couple resided at Amalienborg Palace in Copenhagen, spending the summers at Charlottenlund Palace north of the city. They had four sons and four daughters, the marriage was not a happy one, nor did it have any effect on the relationship between the two countries. Frederik became king of Denmark as Frederik VIII on Christian IXs death on 29 January 1906 and he was 62 years old at the time and had been Crown Prince for 43 years. In many ways Frederik VIII was a ruler who was much more favorable to the new parliamentarian system than his father had been
12.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
13.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
14.
Decimalisation
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Decimalisation is the process of converting a currency from its previous non-decimal denominations to a decimal system. Decimal currencies have sub-units based on a factor of 10, there are most commonly 100 sub-units to the base currency unit, but currencies based on 1000 sub-units also exist, especially in Arab countries. For example,100 cents make one dollar in various countries,1,000 Tunisian millimes make one dinar. Historically, non-decimal currencies were much more common, such as the British pound sterling before decimalisation in 1971, until 1971, the pound sterling had sub-units of account of shillings and pence. Like other currencies, it also had coins with other names, there were nineteen different fractions of a pound of a whole number of pence. For example, a third, quarter, fifth and sixth of a pound were respectively 80,60,48, and 40 pence, normally written as shillings and pence, 6/8, 5/-, 4/-, there were eight additional fractions which were a whole number of farthings. Russia converted to a currency under Tsar Peter the Great in 1704, with the ruble being equal to 100 kopecks. France introduced the franc in 1795 to replace the livre tournois, france introduced decimalisation in a number of countries that it occupied during the Napoleonic period. Sweden introduced decimal currency in 1855, the currency riksdaler was divided into 100 öre. The riksdaler was renamed krona in 1873, the Austro-Hungarian Empire decimalised the Austro-Hungarian gulden in 1857, concurrent with its transition from the Conventionsthaler to the Vereinsthaler standard. Spain introduced its decimal currency unit, the peseta, in 1868, cyprus decimalised the Cypriot pound in 1955, which comprised 1,000 mils, later replaced by 100 cents. On Decimal Day,15 February 1971, the United Kingdom decimalised the pound sterling, malta decimalised the lira in 1972. The euro, which comprises 100 cents, was introduced in the eurozone, the following table shows the conversion of common denominations of coins of the £sd system. The farthing, at 1⁄4 penny, was never converted, as it ceased to be legal tender a decade prior to decimalisation, in 1971, a new penny would have been worth 9.6 farthings. For example, the Spanish dollar, a currency, was accepted as official currency in the United States alongside the U. S. dollar until 1857. Decimalisation in Canada was complicated by the different jurisdictions before Confederation in 1867, in 1841, the united Province of Canadas Governor General, Lord Sydenham, argued for establishment of a bank that would issue dollar currency. Francis Hincks, who would become the Province of Canadas Prime Minister in 1851, ultimately the provincial assembly rejected the proposal. In June 1851, the Canadian legislature passed a law requiring provincial accounts to be kept decimalised as dollars, the establishment of a central bank was not touched upon in the 1851 legislation
15.
Crown (British coin)
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The British crown, the successor to the English crown and the Scottish dollar, came into being with the Union of the kingdoms of England and Scotland in 1707. As with the English coin, its value was five shillings, in that format it has continued to be minted, even following decimalisation of the British currency in 1971. However, as the result of inflation the value of the coin was revised upwards in 1990 to five pounds, the kingdom of England also minted gold Crowns in the 16th and 17th centuries. The dies for all gold and silver coins of Queen Anne and King George I were engraved by John Croker, the British crown was always a large coin, and from the 19th century it did not circulate well. However, crowns were struck in a new monarchs coronation year, true of each monarch since King George IV up until the present monarch in 1953. The Queen Victoria Gothic crown of 1847 and produced to celebrate the Gothic revival) is considered by many to be the most beautiful British coin ever minted. The King George V wreath crowns struck from 1927 through 1936 depict a wreath on the reverse of the coin and were struck in very low numbers. Generally struck late in the year and intended to be purchased as Christmas gifts, they did not circulate well, with the rarest of all dates,1934, the 1927 wreath crowns were struck as proofs only. With its large size, many of the coins were primarily commemoratives. The 1951 issue was for the Festival of Britain, and was struck in proof condition. The 1965 issue carried the image of Winston Churchill on the reverse, the first time a non-monarch or commoner was ever placed on a British coin, production of the Churchill Crown began on 11 October 1965, and stopped in the summer of 1966. The crown was worth five shillings until decimalisation in February 1971, the last five shilling piece was minted in 1965. The crown coin was nicknamed the dollar, but is not to be confused with the British trade dollar that circulated in the Orient, in 2014, a new world record price was achieved for a milled silver crown. The coin was issued as a pattern by engraver Thomas Simon in 1663 and this was presented to Charles II as the new crown piece but was ultimately rejected in favour of the Roettiers Brothers design. Auctioneers Spink & Son of London sold the coin on 27 March 2014 for £396,000 including commission, after decimalisation on 15 February 1971, a new coin known as a 25p piece was introduced. All of these issues were struck in large mintages, in cases, and in cupro-nickel. The legal tender value of the crown remained as five shillings from 1544 to 1965, however, for most of this period there was no denominational designation or face value mark of value displayed on the coin. From 1927 to 1939, the word CROWN appears, and from 1951 to 1960 this was changed to FIVE SHILLINGS
16.
Shilling
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The shilling is a unit of currency formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, United States, and other British Commonwealth countries. The word shilling comes from scilling, a term that dates back to Anglo-Saxon times, and from there back to Old Norse. Slang terms for the old shilling coins include bob and hog, while the derivation of bob is uncertain, John Camden Hotten in his 1864 Slang Dictionary says the original version was bobstick and wonders if it is connected with Sir Robert Walpole. One abbreviation for shilling is s, often it was represented by a solidus symbol, which may have originally stood for a long s or ſ, thus 1/9 would be one shilling and ninepence. A price with no pence was sometimes written with a slash, the solidus symbol is still used for the shilling currency unit in former British East Africa, rather than sh. During the Great Recoinage of 1816, the mint was instructed to coin one troy pound of silver into 66 shillings. This set the weight of the shilling, and its subsequent decimal replacement 5 new pence coin, at 87.2727 grains or 5.655 grams from 1816 until 1990, in the past, the English world has had various myths about the shilling. One myth was that it was deemed to be the value of a cow in Kent or a sheep elsewhere, a shilling was a coin used in England from the reign of Henry VII. The term shilling was in use in Scotland from early medieval times, the common currency created in 1707 by Article 16 of the Articles of Union continued in use until decimalisation in 1971. In the traditional pounds, shillings and pence system, there were 20 shillings per pound and 12 pence per shilling, three coins denominated in multiple shillings were also in circulation at this time. In the Irish Free State and Republic of Ireland the shilling was issued as scilling in Irish and it was worth 1/20th of an Irish pound, and was interchangeable at the same value to the British coin, which continued to be used in Northern Ireland. The coin featured a bull on the reverse side, the first minting, from 1928 until 1941, contained 75% silver, more than the equivalent British coin. The original Irish shilling coin ) was withdrawn from circulation on 1 January 1993, Australian shillings, twenty of which made up one Australian pound, were first issued in 1910, with the Australian coat of arms on the reverse and King Edward VII on the face. The coat of arms design was retained through the reign of King George V until a new head design was introduced for the coins of King George VI. This design continued until the last year of issue in 1963, in 1966, Australias currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin, where 10 shillings made up one Australian dollar. The slang term for a coin in Australia was deener. The slang term for a shilling as currency unit was bob, after 1966, shillings continued to circulate, as they were replaced by 10-cent coins of the same size and weight. New Zealand shillings, twenty of which made up one New Zealand pound, were first issued in 1933, in 1967, New Zealands currency was decimalised and the shilling was replaced by a ten cent coin of the same size and weight
17.
Coronation of the British monarch
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The coronation of the British monarch is a ceremony in which the monarch of the United Kingdom is formally invested with regalia and crowned at Westminster Abbey. It corresponds to the coronations that took place in other European monarchies. The coronation usually takes several months after the death of the previous monarch. This interval also gives the planners enough time to complete the elaborate arrangements required, the ceremony is performed by the Archbishop of Canterbury, the most senior cleric in the Church of England, of which the monarch is supreme governor. Other clergy and members of the nobility also have roles, most participants in the ceremony are required to wear uniforms or robes. Many other government officials and guests attend, including representatives of other countries, the essential elements of the coronation have remained largely unchanged for the past thousand years. The sovereign is first presented to, and acclaimed by, the people and he or she then swears an oath to uphold the law and the Church. Following that, the monarch is anointed with oil, invested with regalia. Wives of kings are then anointed and crowned as queen consort, the main elements of the coronation service and the earliest form of oath can be traced to the ceremony devised by Saint Dunstan for the coronation of King Edgar in 973 AD at Bath Abbey. It drew on ceremonies used by the kings of the Franks, two versions of coronation services, known as ordines or recensions, survive from before the Norman Conquest. It is not known if the first rescension was ever used in England and it was the second recension which was used by Edgar in 973 and by subsequent Anglo-Saxon and early Norman kings. A third recension was compiled during the reign of King Henry I and was used at the coronation of King Stephen in 1135. It remained in use until the coronation of Edward II in 1308 when the fourth recension was first used, having been compiled over several preceding decades. Although influenced by its French counterpart, the new ordo focussed on the balance between the monarch and his nobles and on the oath, neither of which concerned the absolutist French kings. One manuscript of this recension is the Liber Regalis at Westminster Abbey which has come to be regarded as the definitive version, however, six years later, he was succeeded by his half-sister, Mary I, who restored the Catholic rite. Scottish coronations were held at Scone Abbey, with the king seated on the Stone of Destiny. The original rituals were a fusion of ceremonies used by the kings of Dál Riata, based on the inauguration of Aidan by Columba in 574, a crown does not seem to have been used until the inauguration of Alexander II in 1214. The ceremony included the laying on of hands by a senior cleric, Alexander III was the last Scottish king to be crowned in this way in 1249, since the Stone was captured by the English forces of Edward I in 1296
18.
Monarch
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A monarch is the sovereign head of state in a monarchy. A monarch may exercise the highest authority and power in the state, alternatively, an individual may become monarch by conquest, acclamation or a combination of means. A monarch usually reigns for life or until abdication, if a young child is crowned the monarch, a regent is often appointed to govern until the monarch reaches the requisite adult age to rule. A monarch can reign in multiple monarchies simultaneously, for example, the monarchy of Canada and the monarchy of the United Kingdom are separate states, but they share the same monarch through personal union. Monarchs, as such, bear a variety of titles — king or queen, prince or princess, emperor or empress, archduke, duke or grand duke, Prince is sometimes used as a generic term to refer to any monarch regardless of title, especially in older texts. A king can also be a husband and a queen can be a kings wife. If both people in a reign, neither person is generally considered to be a consort. Monarchy is political or sociocultural in nature, and is associated with hereditary rule. Most monarchs, both historically and in the present day, have been born and brought up within a royal family, different systems of succession have been used, such as proximity of blood, primogeniture, agnatic seniority, Salic law, etc. In an elective monarchy, the monarch is elected but otherwise serves as any other monarch, historical examples of elective monarchy include the Holy Roman Emperors and the free election of kings of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In recent centuries, many states have abolished the monarchy and become republics, advocacy of government by a republic is called republicanism, while advocacy of monarchy is called monarchism. A principal advantage of hereditary monarchy is the continuity of national leadership. In cases where the monarch serves mostly as a ceremonial figure real leadership does not depend on the monarch, a form of government may in fact be hereditary without being considered monarchy, such as a family dictatorship. Monarchies take a variety of forms, such as the two co-princes of Andorra, positions held simultaneously by the Roman Catholic Bishop of Urgel and the elected President of France. Similarly, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia is considered a monarch despite only holding the position for five years at a time, hereditary succession within one patrilineal family has been most common, with preference for children over siblings, sons over daughters. Other European realms practice one form or another of primogeniture, whereunder a lord was succeeded by his eldest son or, if he had none, by his brother, the system of tanistry was semi-elective and gave weight also to ability and merit. The Salic law, practiced in France and in the Italian territories of the House of Savoy, in most fiefs, in the event of the demise of all legitimate male members of the patrilineage, a female of the family could succeed. Spain today continues this model of succession law, in the form of cognatic primogeniture, in more complex medieval cases, the sometimes conflicting principles of proximity and primogeniture battled, and outcomes were often idiosyncratic
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Winston Churchill
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
20.
Penny
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A penny is a coin or a unit of currency in various countries. Borrowed from the Carolingian denarius, it is usually the smallest denomination within a currency system, presently, it is the formal name of the British penny and the informal name of one American cent as well as the informal Irish designation of 1 cent euro coin. It is the name of the cent unit of account in Canada. The name is used in reference to various historical currencies also derived from the Carolingian system, such as the French denier. It may also be used to refer to any similar smallest-denomination coin. The Carolingian penny was originally a. 940-fine silver coin weighing 1/240 pound, the British penny remained a silver coin until the expense of the Napoleonic Wars prompted the use of base metals in 1797. Despite the decimalization of currencies in the United States and, later, throughout the British Commonwealth, no penny is currently formally subdivided, although farthings, halfpennies, and half cents have previously been minted and the mill remains in use as a unit of account in some contexts. Penny is first attested in a 1394 Scots text, a variant of Old English peni, a development of numerous variations including pennig, penning, and pending. The etymology of the penny is uncertain, although cognates are common across almost all Germanic languages and suggest a base *pan-, *pann-. Recently, it has proposed that it may represent an early borrowing of Punic PN. Following decimalization, the British and Irish coins were marked new penny until 1982 and 1985, the regular plural pennies fell out of use in England from the 16th century, except in reference to coins considered individually. The informal name for the American cent seems to have spread from New York, in British English, prior to decimalization, values from two to eleven pence and of twenty pence are often written and spoken as a single word, as twopence, threepence, &c. Where a single coin represented a number of pence, it was treated as a single noun, thus, a threepence would be single coin of that value whereas three pence would be its value and three pennies would be three penny coins. In British English, divisions of a penny were added to such combinations without a conjunction, as sixpence-farthing, adjectival use of such coins used the ending -penny, as sixpenny. The British abbreviation d. derived from the Latin denarius and it followed the amount after a space. It has been replaced since decimalization by p, usually written without a space or period, from this abbreviation, it is common to speak of pennies and values in pence as p. In North America, it is common to abbreviate cents with the currency symbol ¢, elsewhere, it is usually written with a simple c. The medieval silver penny was modeled on similar coins in antiquity, such as the Greek drachma, the Carthaginian shekel, forms of these seem to have reached as far as Norway and Sweden
21.
Fifty pence (British coin)
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The British decimal fifty pence coin – often pronounced fifty pee – is a unit of currency equaling one half of a pound sterling. It is a seven-sided coin formed as an equilateral-curve heptagon, or Reuleaux polygon and its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s introduction in 1969. Four different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the latest design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015, the second and current reverse, featuring a segment of the Royal Shield, was introduced in 2008. As of March 2014 there were an estimated 948 million 50p coins in circulation, in 1967 the Deputy Master of the Royal Mint approached the Decimal Currency Board to ask for their advice on the introduction of a new coin. The 10 shilling note then in use was lasting only five months and it had suggested that a coin. Each coin was identified within its tier by its size and each tier had to be capable of being identified by sight and touch. This was achieved in the existing sets by the use of different materials with the copper coins having plain rims, the bronze 3d bit being 12-sided. It would therefore have to be in a new tier of its own, the Mint could not find a suitable metal which was sufficiently different in colour to the existing coins and which would not tarnish. This last point was thought to be important because the new coin would be the most valuable coin in circulation in the world. It therefore had to be a different shape, various methods had been used overseas to overcome this problem, the Technical Member on the Decimal Currency Board was Hugh Conway, at that time President of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers and Managing Director of Bristol Siddeley Engines, Bristol. However, this out to be a wavy-edged form with re-entrant sides which would not roll. Wherever it was measured, the breadth of this shape was one small radius plus one large radius, the number of corners could be any odd number greater than one. A drawing was made to illustrate the proposal which was accepted by Hugh Conway, the legend 50 was photo-etched on the faces of the samples since it had already been decided that the new coin would be the first coin of the new Decimal series. When the Decimal Currency Board met none of the members had any suggestion to make. The shape of the original 50p coin has been copied all over the world, to date, three different obverses have been used. In all cases, the inscription is ELIZABETH II D. G. REG. F. D,2013, where 2013 is replaced by the year of minting, the Benjamin Britten coin additionally has the denomination, FIFTY PENCE, on the obverse, before the year. As with all new decimal currency, until 1984 the portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Arnold Machin appeared on the obverse, in which the Queen wears the Girls of Great Britain and Ireland Tiara. Between 1985 and 1997 the portrait by Raphael Maklouf was used, in 1997 the 50p coin was reduced in size and the older coins were removed from circulation
22.
Two pounds (British coin)
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The British two pound coin is a denomination of the pound sterling. Its obverse has featured the profile of Queen Elizabeth II since the coin’s introduction, three different portraits of the Queen have been used, with the current design by Jody Clark being introduced in 2015. The coin was introduced on 15 June 1998 after a review of the United Kingdoms coinage decided that a general-circulation £2 coin was needed, the new bi-metallic design replaced a series of commemorative, uni-metallic coins which were issued between 1986 and 1996 to celebrate special occasions. Although legal tender, these coins have never been common in everyday circulation, as of March 2014 there were an estimated 417 million £2 coins in circulation with an estimated face value of £831.756 million. The coin consists of a yellow metal nickel-brass ring made from 76% copper, 20% zinc, and 4% nickel. The coin weighs 12 grams and is 28.4 millimetres in diameter, the design itself was first tried out in 1994 when the Royal Mint produced a short run of demonstration pieces to the new bi-metal standard. These pieces were not for circulation and were intended to test the manufacturing process. The 1994 pieces were never legal tender but were released for sale as part of a presentation set in 1998. At the same time in 1994 the Royal Mint produced a mono-metallic trial two-pound coin, with the same reverse and inscription. These were never issued in sets, and so are much scarcer than the bi-metallic version. Because of technical difficulties, the 1997-dated coins, which bear the effigy of Queen Elizabeth II by Raphael Maklouf, were not released to circulation until June 1998,1998 and later dated coins bear the effigy of the Queen by Ian Rank-Broadley. The Maklouf-effigy coins bear the inscription ELIZABETH II DEI GRATIA REGINA F D on the obverse, an oddity of the design is that it depicts nineteen interlocking gears. Because there is an odd number of them, the mechanism could not actually turn, if I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants. In February 2015, the Royal Mint announced a new design featuring Britannia by Antony Dufort replacing the previous design. The new coins will feature the edge inscription QUATUOR MARIA VINDICO, meaning I will claim the four seas, in addition to the standard designs there have been several variant reverse designs used on the £2 coin to commemorate important events. These are summarised in the table below, Coins of the pound sterling Banknotes of the pound sterling Royal Mint – £2 coin Coins of the UK – Decimal £2 Coins The Pemember error on the £2 Gunpowder Plot commemorative
23.
Denmark
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The term Danish Realm refers to the relationship between Denmark proper, the Faroe Islands and Greenland—three countries constituting the Kingdom of Denmark. The legal nature of the Kingdom of Denmark is fundamentally one of a sovereign state. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have been part of the Crown of Denmark since 1397 when the Kalmar Union was ratified, legal matters in The Danish Realm are subject to the Danish Constitution. Beginning in 1953, state law issues within The Danish Realm has been governed by The Unity of the Realm, a less formal name for The Unity of the Realm is the Commonwealth of the Realm. In 1978, The Unity of The Realm was for the first time referred to as rigsfællesskabet. The name caught on and since the 1990s, both The Unity of The Realm and The Danish Realm itself has increasingly been referred to as simply rigsfællesskabet in daily parlance. The Danish Constitution stipulates that the foreign and security interests for all parts of the Danish Realm are the responsibility of the Danish government, the Faroes received home rule in 1948 and Greenland did so in 1979. In 2005, the Faroes received a self-government arrangement, and in 2009 Greenland received self rule, the Danish Realms unique state of internal affairs is acted out in the principle of The Unity of the Realm. This principle is derived from Article 1 of the Danish Constitution which specifies that constitutional law applies equally to all areas of the Danish Realm, the Constitutional Act specifies that sovereignty is to continue to be exclusively with the authorities of the Realm. The language of Denmark is Danish, and the Danish state authorities are based in Denmark, the Kingdom of Denmarks parliament, with its 179 members, is located in the capital, Copenhagen. Two of the members are elected in each of Greenland and the Faroe Islands. The Government ministries are located in Copenhagen, as is the highest court, in principle, the Danish Realm constitutes a unified sovereign state, with equal status between its constituent parts. Devolution differs from federalism in that the powers of the subnational authority ultimately reside in central government. The Self-Government Arrangements devolves political competence and responsibility from the Danish political authorities to the Faroese, the Faroese and Greenlandic authorities administer the tasks taken over from the state, enact legislation in these specific fields and have the economic responsibility for solving these tasks. The Danish government provides a grant to the Faroese and the Greenlandic authorities to cover the costs of these devolved areas. The 1948 Home Rule Act of the Faroe Islands sets out the terms of Faroese home rule, the Act states. the Faroe Islands shall constitute a self-governing community within the State of Denmark. It establishes the government of the Faroe Islands and the Faroese parliament. The Faroe Islands were previously administered as a Danish county, the Home Rule Act abolished the post of Amtmand and these powers were expanded in a 2005 Act, which named the Faroese home government as an equal partner with the Danish government
24.
Aluminium bronze
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Aluminium bronze is a type of bronze in which aluminium is the main alloying metal added to copper, in contrast to standard bronze or brass. The following table lists the most common standard aluminium bronze wrought alloy compositions, the percentages show the proportional composition of the alloy by weight. Copper is the remainder by weight and is not listed, Aluminium bronzes are most valued for their higher strength and they are also resistant to corrosion in sea water. The addition of tin can improve corrosion resistance, another notable property of aluminium bronzes are their biostatic effects. Aluminium bronzes tend to have a golden color, Aluminium bronzes are most commonly used in applications where their resistance to corrosion makes them preferable to other engineering materials. These applications include plain bearings and landing gear components on aircraft, guitar strings, engine components, underwater fastenings in naval architecture, Aluminium bronze is also used to fulfil the ATEX directive for Zones 1,2,21, and 22. The attractive gold-toned coloration of aluminium bronzes has also led to their use in jewellery, Aluminium bronze is used to replace gold for the casting of dental crowns. The alloys used are chemically inert and have the appearance of gold, publication Number 80, Aluminium Bronze Alloys Corrosion Resistance Guide, PDF. Publication Number 82, Aluminium Bronze Alloys Technical Data
25.
Danish krone
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The krone is the official currency of Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, introduced on 1 January 1875. Both the ISO code DKK and currency sign kr. are in use, the former precedes the value. The currency is referred to as the Danish crown in English. Historically, krone coins have been minted in Denmark since the 17th century, one krone is subdivided into 100 øre, the name øre possibly deriving from Latin aureus meaning gold coin. Altogether there are eleven denominations of the krone, with the smallest being the 50 øre coin, formerly there were more øre coins, but those were discontinued due to inflation. The krone is pegged to the euro via the ERM II, the oldest known Danish coin is a penny struck AD 825–840, but the earliest systematic minting produced the so-called korsmønter or cross coins minted by Harald Bluetooth in the late 10th century. Organised minting in Denmark was introduced on a larger scale by Canute the Great in the 1020s, for almost 1,000 years, Danish kings – with a few exceptions – have issued coins with their name, monogram and/or portrait. Taxes were sometimes imposed via the coinage, e. g. by the substitution of coins handed in by new coins handed out with a lower silver content. Danish coinage was based on the Carolingian silver standard. Periodically, the value of the minted coins was reduced. This was mainly done to generate income for the monarch and/or the state, as a result of the debasement, the public started to lose trust in the respective coins. Danish currency was overhauled several times in attempts to restore public trust in the coins, in 1619 a new currency was introduced in Denmark, the krone. One krone had the value of 1 1/2 Danish Rigsdaler Species accounting for 96 Kroneskillinger, later for 144 common Skillings, until the late 18th century, the krone was a denomination equal to 8 mark, a subunit of the Danish rigsdaler. A new krone was introduced as the currency of Denmark in January 1875 and it replaced the rigsdaler at a rate of 2 kroner =1 rigsdaler. This placed the krone on the standard at a rate of 2480 kroner =1 kilogram fine gold. The latter part of the 18th century and much of the 19th century saw expanding economic activity, consequently, banknotes were increasingly used instead of coins. The introduction of the new krone was a result of the Scandinavian Monetary Union, the parties to the union were the three Scandinavian countries, where the name was krone in Denmark and Norway and krona in Sweden, a word which in all three languages literally means crown. The three currencies were on the standard, with the krone/krona defined as 1⁄2480 of a kilogram of pure gold
26.
East Germany
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East Germany, formally the German Democratic Republic, was an Eastern Bloc state during the Cold War period. The Soviet zone surrounded West Berlin, but did not include it, as a result, the German Democratic Republic was established in the Soviet Zone, while the Federal Republic was established in the three western zones. East Germany, which lies culturally in Central Germany, was a state of the Soviet Union. Soviet occupation authorities began transferring administrative responsibility to German communist leaders in 1948, Soviet forces, however, remained in the country throughout the Cold War. Until 1989, the GDR was governed by the Socialist Unity Party, though other parties participated in its alliance organisation. The economy was centrally planned, and increasingly state-owned, prices of basic goods and services were set by central government planners, rather than rising and falling through supply and demand. Although the GDR had to pay war reparations to the USSR. Nonetheless it did not match the growth of West Germany. Emigration to the West was a significant problem—as many of the emigrants were well-educated young people, the government fortified its western borders and, in 1961, built the Berlin Wall. Many people attempting to flee were killed by guards or booby traps. In 1989, numerous social and political forces in the GDR and abroad led to the fall of the Berlin Wall, the following year open elections were held, and international negotiations led to the signing of the Final Settlement treaty on the status and borders of Germany. The GDR was dissolved and Germany was unified on 3 October 1990, internally, the GDR also bordered the Soviet sector of Allied-occupied Berlin known as East Berlin which was also administered as the states de facto capital. It also bordered the three sectors occupied by the United States, United Kingdom and France known collectively as West Berlin. The three sectors occupied by the Western nations were sealed off from the rest of the GDR by the Berlin Wall from its construction in 1961 until it was brought down in 1989, the official name was Deutsche Demokratische Republik, usually abbreviated to DDR. West Germans, the media and statesmen purposely avoided the official name and its abbreviation, instead using terms like Ostzone, Sowjetische Besatzungszone. The centre of power in East Berlin was referred to as Pankow. Over time, however, the abbreviation DDR was also used colloquially by West Germans. However, this use was not always consistent, for example, before World War II, Ostdeutschland was used to describe all the territories east of the Elbe, as reflected in the works of sociologist Max Weber and political theorist Carl Schmitt
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Canada
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Canada is a country in the northern half of North America. Canadas border with the United States is the worlds longest binational land border, the majority of the country has a cold or severely cold winter climate, but southerly areas are warm in summer. Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its territory being dominated by forest and tundra. It is highly urbanized with 82 per cent of the 35.15 million people concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, One third of the population lives in the three largest cities, Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver. Its capital is Ottawa, and other urban areas include Calgary, Edmonton, Quebec City, Winnipeg. Various aboriginal peoples had inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Pursuant to the British North America Act, on July 1,1867, the colonies of Canada, New Brunswick and this began an accretion of provinces and territories to the mostly self-governing Dominion to the present ten provinces and three territories forming modern Canada. With the Constitution Act 1982, Canada took over authority, removing the last remaining ties of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is officially bilingual at the federal level and it is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Its advanced economy is the eleventh largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources, Canadas long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a country and has the tenth highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the ninth highest ranking in the Human Development Index. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, Canada is an influential nation in the world, primarily due to its inclusive values, years of prosperity and stability, stable economy, and efficient military. While a variety of theories have been postulated for the origins of Canada. In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona, from the 16th to the early 18th century Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the St. Lawrence River. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named The Canadas, until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841. Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the name for the new country at the London Conference. The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, later that year, the name of national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day
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Euro gold and silver commemorative coins
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This article covers the gold and silver issues of the euro commemorative coins. It also includes some cases of bimetal collector coins. See €2 commemorative coins for circulating commemorative coins, in the Eurozone, as a legacy of old national practice is the minting of silver and gold commemorative coins. Unlike normal issues, these coins are not legal tender in all the Eurozone, for instance, a €10 Finnish commemorative coin cannot be used in the Netherlands. Despite this, these coins are not really intended to be used as means of payment, as their value generally vastly exceeds their face value. The major exception is Germany, where silver ten euro commemoratives are available at banks, the coins, however, generally do not circulate. It is uncertain whether the Council of Ministers will grant them legal tender status elsewhere outside national boundaries, as San Marino, Monaco, the Europa coin programme is a multi-member participation of minting precious metal coin with a particular theme that changes each year. This is a summary of the gold and silver commemorative coins issued by all countries in the eurozone. Austria introduced the Eurocoins in 2002 alongside the general issuance of euros in the Eurozone, from the very beginning, they have been minting a fairly large set of collectors coins. The record was reached in 2004, when 14 different coins were minted, there was a unique and particular edition of a very special coin, the €100,000 Vienna Philharmonic, only 15 coins minted. Austria uses mainly gold and silver for its collectors coins, a unique piece in the Austrian collection is the Vienna Philharmonic coin. This coin is struck in gold,999.9 fine. It is issued every year, in four different face values, sizes and it is used as an investment product, although it finishes almost always in hands of collectors. According to the World gold Council, it was the best selling gold coin in 1992,1995 and 1996 worldwide, since 1 February 2008, this coin is being minted in silver as well. Both sides of the feature the same as on the Vienna Philharmonic pure gold coin. Its face value of 1.50 euros gives the piece its coin character. Once again Austria made a milestone in numismatics, the launch of the largest silver coin in the world has been made by Hall in Tirol. It was revealed on the occasion of the 2008 European Championship of Football in Austria, the front side design of the coin is as old as five centuries
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Shooting thaler
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A shooting thaler is a commemorative coin minted to commemorate one of the Schützenfest or free shooting tournaments held in various cantons within the Swiss Confederation. Most of the designs differ from their counterparts, though the pieces issued for the shooting festivals in Geneva in 1851. Most shooting thaler designs depict strongly cantonal or patriotic themes, such as military leaders or heraldry. The entire series can be distinguished from shooting medals by their adherence to the specifications of circulating coinage, all but the Stans and St. Gallen issues are denominated. Other countries have minted coins in honor of shooting festivals or marksmanship competitions, the first shooting thaler was issued for the Chur shooting festival in 1842 and is denominated at four francs. The second, issued for Glarus, has a value of forty batzen. The third, minted for the festival in Geneva, is denominated at ten francs. A total of eighteen designs were struck in the nineteenth century, all those struck from 1855 to 1885 bear the denomination of five francs. Many nineteenth-century issues were struck in various other metals besides silver, including gold and white metal. In 1934, a new series began production and this series, however, was cut short due to the outbreak of World War II. Another series of shooting thalers began mintage in 1984, the first coins issued in this new series were those minted for the festival at Oberhasli. Every year since has seen the mintage of two coins, each bearing the design, one struck in silver, the other in gold. The only exceptions are the issues of Zürich and Sion in 1999, one of which was struck in copper–nickel, until 1995, silver issues were denominated at fifty francs, while gold pieces were denominated at 1,000 francs. Later, gold issues were denominated at 500 francs, excepting only the Zürich issues of 1999, the first shooting thalers were cantonal pieces, minted by the sovereign cantons of Switzerland. All of these pieces, as well as the 1855 Solothurn issue, were legal tender. Nineteenth-century Confederation shooting thaler issues were minted to legal fineness, and were allowed to bear the denomination of five francs. Beginning in 1865, Switzerland became a member of the Latin Monetary Union, shooting thalers were not included in the mintages authorized by the Union. Therefore, these issues are commonly considered semi-medallic, though they could due to their size
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Coins of the Indian rupee
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Coins of the Indian rupee were first minted in 1950. New coins have been produced annually since then and they make up an aspect of the Indian currency system. Today, circulating coins exist in denominations of 50 p, ₹1, ₹2, ₹5, all of these are produced by four mints located across India, in Kolkata, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Noida. After the Indian independence, the old British India coins continued to be in use as a frozen currency till 1950, the first rupee coins of Republic of India were minted in 1950. Other denomination coins produced were 1/2 rupee, 1/4 rupee,2 Anna,1 Anna, one rupee was divided into 16 annas or 64 pice, with each anna therefore equal to 4 pice. In 1957, India shifted to the system, but for a short period both decimal and non-decimal coins were in circulation. To distinguish between the two pice, the coins minted between 1957 and 1964 have the legend Naya Paisa, the denominations in circulation were 1,2,3,5,10,20,25,50 paisa and one rupee which remained as the same pre-decimal value. Therefore pre-decimal coins of one, half and quarter rupees could remain in circulation after decimalisation, the word naya was dropped in 1964. In this year a new denomination the 3 paisa was introduced, both these coins however did not gain much popularity. The 1,2 and 3 paisa coins were phased out gradually in the 1970s, in 1982 a new coin,2 rupee, was introduced as an experiment to replace 2 rupee notes. The 2 rupee coin was not minted again till 1990, after which it was minted every year, Stainless steel coinage of 10,25 and 50 paisa, was introduced in 1988 and in 1992, a new rupee coin was minted. This coin was smaller and lighter than the older rupee and was made of stainless steel. In 1992, a 5 rupee Cupronickel coin was introduced, in 2005,10 rupee coin was minted for the first time. The higher denomination coins were introduced due to increasing demand for change, effective from 30 June 2011, all coins in denominations of 25 paisa and below were officially demonetised. While other special coins were minted in years in the memory of events or people. Commemorative coins can be for collectors and also for circulation and they can be found in various denominations. The new Dominion of India retained the previous imperial currency with images of British monarchs, the basic unit of currency was the Indian rupee, which was itself divided into annas and pice. The coins used after 1947 until the introduction of Republic of India - Pre decimalisation series were as follows, On 26 January 1950 and this series was introduced on 15 August 1950 and represented the first coinage of Republic India
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Commemorative coins of Lithuania
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The commemorative coins of Lithuania are minted by the Lithuanian mint, headquartered in Vilnius, Lithuania. Bank of Lithuania, Issued commemorative coins
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Commemorative coins of Poland
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Commemorative coins in Poland are special coins minted by the Polish Mint and issued by the National Bank of Poland. The material used for production of the coins is usually alloy of silver Ag 925. Most of the coins have their equivalents in occasional coins of common use. The following table shows the number of coins minted per year, in the first section, the coins are grouped by the metal used, while in the second section they are grouped by their face value. As a result of inflation in the early 1990s, the currency underwent redenomination, thus, on 1 January 1995,10000 old złotych became one new złoty
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Commemorative coins of the Soviet Union
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Commemorative coins were released in the USSR between 1965 and 1991. Most of them were made of alloy, but there were also silver coins, gold coins, palladium coins. All of the coins were minted either by the Moscow Mint or by the Leningrad Mint, certain parts of the mintage of almost each coin were minted using the proof coinage technology. 2009 Standard Catalog of World Coins, 1901–2000
