1.
Cucking stool
–
Cucking stools or ducking stools were chairs formerly used for punishment of disorderly women, scolds, and dishonest tradesmen in England, Scotland, and elsewhere. The cucking-stool was a form of wyuen pine as referred to in Langlands Piers Plowman, the stools were technical devices which formed part of the wider method of law enforcement through social humiliation. A common alternative was an order to recite one’s crimes or sins after Mass or in the market place on market day or informal action such as a Skimmington ride. They were usually of local manufacture with no standard design, most were simply chairs into which the offender could be tied and exposed at her door or the site of her offence. Some were on wheels like a tumbrel that could be dragged around the parish, some were put on poles so that they could be plunged into water, hence ducking stool. Stocks or pillories were used for punishment of men or women by humiliation. The term cucking-stool is older, with records dating back to the 13th and 14th centuries. Written records for the name ducking stool appear from 1597, the cucking-stool, or Stool of Repentance, has a long history, and was used by the Saxons, who called it the scealding or scolding stool. It is mentioned in Domesday Book as being in use at Chester, being called cathedra stercoris, tied to this stool the woman—her head and feet bare—was publicly exposed at her door or paraded through the streets amidst the jeers of the crowd. The term cucking-stool is known to have been in use from about 1215 and it means literally defecation chair, as its name is derived from the old verb cukken which means to defecate, rather than, as popularly believed, from the word cuckold. Commodes or chamber pots were used as cucking-stools, hence the name. The cucking-stool could incidentally be used for both sexes—indeed, unruly married couples were occasionally bound back-to-back and ducked, however the device was most commonly used for the punishment of dishonest brewers and bakers. Both seem to have more common in the second half of the sixteenth century. It has been suggested this reflected developing strains in gender relations, the ducking-stool was a strongly made wooden armchair in which the offender was seated, an iron band being placed around her so that she should not fall out during her immersion. The earliest record of the use of such is towards the beginning of the 17th century and it was used both in Europe and in the English colonies of North America. Usually the chair was fastened to a wooden beam fixed as a seesaw on the edge of a pond or river. In sentencing a woman the magistrates ordered the number of duckings she should have, yet another type of ducking-stool was called a tumbrel. It was a chair on two wheels with two long shafts fixed to the axles and this was pushed into the pond and then the shafts released, thus tipping the chair up backwards
2.
Common law
–
Common law is the body of law developed from the thirteenth century to the present day, as case law or precedent, by judges, courts, and tribunals. In cases where the parties disagree on what the law is, if a similar dispute has been resolved in the past, the court is usually bound to follow the reasoning used in the prior decision. Resolution of the issue in one case becomes precedent that binds future courts, stare decisis, the principle that cases should be decided according to consistent principled rules so that similar facts will yield similar results, lies at the heart of all common law systems. A common law system is a system that gives great precedential weight to common law. Common law systems originated during the Middle Ages in England, today, one third of the worlds population live in common law jurisdictions or in systems mixed with civil law. The term common law has many connotations, the first three set out here are the most-common usages within the legal community. Other connotations from past centuries are seen, and are sometimes heard in everyday speech. Blacks Law Dictionary, 10th Ed. gives as definition 1,1, the body of law derived from judicial decisions, rather than from statutes or constitutions, CASELAW, STATUTORY LAW. In this connotation, common law distinguishes the authority that promulgated a law. e, examples include most criminal law and procedural law before the 20th century, and even today, most contract law and the law of torts. Interstitial common law decisions that analyze, interpret and determine the fine boundaries. Publication of decisions, and indexing, is essential to the development of common law, while all decisions in common law jurisdictions are precedent, some become leading cases or landmark decisions that are cited especially often. Blacks 10th Ed. definition 2, differentiates common law jurisdictions, by contrast, in civil law jurisdictions, courts lack authority to act if there is no statute. Judicial precedent is given less weight, which means that a judge deciding a given case has more freedom to interpret the text of a statute independently. For example, the Napoleonic code expressly forbade French judges to pronounce general principles of law. As a rule of thumb, common law systems trace their history to England, blacks 10th Ed. definition 4, differentiates common law from equity. This split propagated to many of the colonies, including the United States, for most purposes, most jurisdictions, including the U. S. federal system and most states, have merged the two courts. Additionally, even before the courts were merged, most courts were permitted to apply both law and equity, though under potentially different procedural law. In the United States, determining whether the Seventh Amendments right to a jury trial applies or whether the issue will be decided by a judge, the standard of review and degree of deference given by an appellate tribunal to the decision of the lower tribunal under review
3.
Criminal law
–
Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It regulates social conduct and proscribes whatever is threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety and it includes the punishment of people who violate these laws. Criminal law varies according to jurisdiction, and differs from civil law, the first civilizations generally did not distinguish between civil law and criminal law. The first written codes of law were designed by the Sumerians, another important early code was the Code Hammurabi, which formed the core of Babylonian law. Only fragments of the criminal laws of Ancient Greece have survived, e. g. those of Solon. In Roman law, Gaiuss Commentaries on the Twelve Tables also conflated the civil and criminal aspects, assault and violent robbery were analogized to trespass as to property. Breach of such laws created an obligation of law or vinculum juris discharged by payment of compensation or damages. The criminal law of imperial Rome is collected in Books 47–48 of the Digest, the first signs of the modern distinction between crimes and civil matters emerged during the Norman Invasion of England. The development of the state dispensing justice in a court clearly emerged in the century when European countries began maintaining police services. From this point, criminal law had formalized the mechanisms for enforcement, Criminal law is distinctive for the uniquely serious potential consequences or sanctions for failure to abide by its rules. Every crime is composed of criminal elements, capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. Physical or corporal punishment may be imposed such as whipping or caning, individuals may be incarcerated in prison or jail in a variety of conditions depending on the jurisdiction. Length of incarceration may vary from a day to life, government supervision may be imposed, including house arrest, and convicts may be required to conform to particularized guidelines as part of a parole or probation regimen. Fines also may be imposed, seizing money or property from a convicted of a crime. Five objectives are widely accepted for enforcement of the law by punishments, retribution, deterrence. Jurisdictions differ on the value to be placed on each, retribution – Criminals ought to Be Punished in some way. This is the most widely seen goal, Criminals have taken improper advantage, or inflicted unfair detriment, upon others and consequently, the criminal law will put criminals at some unpleasant disadvantage to balance the scales. People submit to the law to receive the right not to be murdered and if people contravene these laws, thus, one who murders may be executed himself
4.
England and Wales
–
The devolved National Assembly for Wales was created in 1999 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom under the Government of Wales Act 1998 and provides a degree of self-government in Wales. The powers of the Assembly were expanded by the Government of Wales Act 2006, which allows it to pass its own laws, there is no equivalent body for England, which is directly governed by the Parliament and the government of the United Kingdom. During the Roman occupation of Britain, the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit, at that time, most of the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages, and were all regarded as Britons, divided into numerous tribes. After the conquest, the Romans administered this region as a single unit and this aimed to replace Welsh criminal law with English law. Welsh law continued to be used for civil cases until the annexation of Wales to England in the 16th century, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 then consolidated the administration of all the Welsh territories and incorporated them fully into the legal system of the Kingdom of England. Prior to 1746 it was not clear whether a reference to England in legislation included Wales and this specified that in all prior and future laws, references to England would by default include Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act was repealed in 1967, although the definition of England it created is preserved for acts passed prior to its repeal. Since the Acts repeal what was referred to as England is now England and Wales, while references to England, England and Wales are treated as a single unit, for most purposes, because the two form the constitutional successor to the former Kingdom of England. The continuance of Scots law was guaranteed under the 1706 Treaty of Union that led to the Acts of Union 1707, thus, most laws applicable to England also applied to Wales. However, Parliament now passes laws applicable to Wales and not to England, examples are the Welsh Language Acts 1967 and 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998. Measures and Acts of the National Assembly for Wales passed since the Government of Wales Act 2006 also apply in Wales, following the Government of Wales Act, effective since May 2007, the National Assembly for Wales can legislate on matters devolved to it. Following a referendum on 3 March 2011, the Welsh Assembly gained direct law-making powers and this was the first time in almost 500 years that Wales had its own powers to legislate. Each piece of Welsh legislation is known as an Act of the Assembly, outside of the legal system the position is mixed. Some organisations combine as England and Wales, others are separate, some religious denominations organise on the basis of England and Wales, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, but also small denominations, e. g. the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. Prior to the disestablishment of the Church in Wales in 1920, the Electoral Commission maintains a register of political parties, organised according to where the party operates. The order of precedence in England and Wales is distinct from those of Northern Ireland and Scotland, the national parks of England and Wales have a distinctive legislative framework and history. Courts of England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales Cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English Geography of Wales Geography of England British Isles
5.
Commentaries on the Laws of England
–
The work is divided into four volumes, on the rights of persons, the rights of things, of private wrongs and of public wrongs. The Commentaries were long regarded as the work on the development of English law. They were in fact the first methodical treatise on the common law suitable for a lay readership since at least the Middle Ages. The common law of England has relied on precedent more than statute and codifications and has far less amenable than the civil law, developed from the Roman law. The Commentaries were influential largely because they were in fact readable, the Commentaries are often quoted as the definitive pre-Revolutionary source of common law by United States courts. Opinions of the Supreme Court of the United States quote from Blackstones work whenever they wish to engage in historical discussion that goes back that far, or farther. The Rights of Persons is by and large concerned with the relations of status in the English social structure, from the King of England, also dealt with here were common relationships such as that of husband and wife, master and servant, and guardian and ward. The Rights of Things, Blackstones longest volume, deals with property, the vast majority of the text is devoted to real property, this being the most valuable sort in the feudal law upon which the English law of land was founded. Of Private Wrongs dealt with torts as they existed in Blackstones time, the various methods of trial that existed at civil law were also dealt with in this volume, as were the jurisdictions of the several courts, from the lowest to the highest. Of Public Wrongs is Blackstones treatise on criminal law, here, Blackstone the apologist takes centre stage, he seeks to explain how the criminal laws of England were just and merciful, despite becoming later known as the Bloody Code for their severity. Blackstone frequently resorted to assuring his reader that the laws as written were not always enforced, Blackstone for the first time made the common law readable and understandable by non-lawyers. At first, his Commentaries were hotly contested, some seeing in them an evil or covert attempt to reduce or codify the law which was anathema to common law purists. For decades, a study of the Commentaries was required reading for all first year law students, lord Avonmore said of Blackstone, He it was who first gave to the law the air of a science. He found it a skeleton and clothed it with life, colour and he embraced the cold statue and by his touch, it grew into youth, health and beauty. Jeremy Bentham, who had been a critic of the Commentaries when they were first published, while there is much valuable historical information in the Commentaries, later historians have tended to be somewhat critical of the uses Blackstone made of history. But Blackstones chief contribution was to create a succinct, readable, while useful in England, Blackstones text answered an urgent need in the developing United States and Canada. The four volumes of Blackstone put the gist of that tradition in portable form and they were required reading for most lawyers in the Colonies, and for many, they were the only reading. Two decades after their publication, Blackstones Commentaries were the focus of a polemic by Jeremy Bentham
6.
William Blackstone
–
Sir William Blackstone SL KC was an English jurist, judge and Tory politician of the eighteenth century. He is most noted for writing the controversial Commentaries on the Laws of England, born into a middle-class family in London, Blackstone was educated at Charterhouse School before matriculating at Pembroke College, Oxford in 1738. After switching to and completing a Bachelor of Civil Law degree, he was made a Fellow of All Souls, Oxford on 2 November 1743, admitted to Middle Temple, and called to the Bar there in 1746. Blackstone is considered responsible for completing the Codrington Library and Warton Building, on 3 July 1753 he formally gave up his practice as a barrister and instead embarked on a series of lectures on English law, the first of their kind. In November 1765 he published the first of four volumes of Commentaries on the Laws of England, considered his magnum opus and he remained in this position until his death, on 14 February 1780. Blackstones controversial legacy and main work of note is his Commentaries, designed to provide a complete overview of English law, the four-volume treatise was repeatedly republished in 1770,1773,1774,1775,1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783. Legal education in England had stalled, Blackstones work gave the law at least a veneer of scholarly respectability, williams father, Charles Blackstone, was a silk mercer from Cheapside, the son of a wealthy apothecary. He became firm friends with Thomas Bigg, a surgeon and the son of Lovelace Bigg, after Biggs sister Mary came to London, Charles eventually persuaded her to marry him in 1718. This was not seen as a match for her, but the couple lived happily and had four sons. Charles and Henry, both fellows of New College, Oxford and took holy orders. Their last son, William, was born on 10 July 1723, although Charles and Mary Blackstone were members of the middle class rather than landed gentry, they were particularly prosperous. Tax records show Charles Blackstone to have been the second most prosperous man in the parish in 1722 and this, along with Thomas Biggs assistance to the family following Charles death, helps explain the educational upbringing of the children. William Blackstone was sent to Charterhouse School in 1730, nominated by Charles Wither, William did well there, and became head of the school by age 15. However, after Charles death the family declined, and after Mary died the familys resources largely went to meet unpaid bills. William was able to remain at Charterhouse as a poor scholar, Blackstone revelled in Charterhouses academic curriculum, particularly the Latin poetry of Ovid and Virgil. He began to note as a poet at school, writing a 30-line set of rhyming couplets to celebrate the wedding of James Hotchkis. He also won a medal for his Latin verses on John Milton, gave the annual Latin oration in 1738. On 1 October 1738, taking advantage of a new scholarship available to Charterhouse students, Blackstone matriculated at Pembroke College, Blackstone was particularly good at Greek, mathematics and poetry, with his notes on William Shakespeare being included in George Steevens 1781 edition of Shakespeares plays
7.
Domesday Book
–
Domesday Book is a manuscript record of the Great Survey of much of England and parts of Wales completed in 1086 by order of King William the Conqueror. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle states, Then, at the midwinter, was the king in Glocester with his council. After this had the king a large meeting, and very deep consultation with his council, about this land, how it was occupied and it was written in Medieval Latin, was highly abbreviated, and included some vernacular native terms without Latin equivalents. The assessors reckoning of a mans holdings and their values, as recorded in Domesday Book, was dispositive, the name Domesday Book came into use in the 12th century. As Richard FitzNeal wrote in the Dialogus de Scaccario, for as the sentence of that strict and terrible last account cannot be evaded by any skilful subterfuge and its sentence cannot be quashed or set aside with impunity. That is why we have called the book the Book of Judgement, because its decisions, like those of the Last Judgement, are unalterable. The manuscript is held at The National Archives at Kew, London, in 2011, the Open Domesday site made the manuscript available online. The book is a primary source for modern historians and historical economists. Domesday Book encompasses two independent works, Little Domesday and Great Domesday, no surveys were made of the City of London, Winchester, or some other towns, probably due to their tax-exempt status. Most of Cumberland and Westmorland are missing, the omission of the other counties and towns is not fully explained, although in particular Cumberland and Westmorland had yet to be fully conquered. Little Domesday – so named because its format is smaller than its companions – is the more detailed survey. It may have represented the first attempt, resulting in a decision to avoid such level of detail in Great Domesday, some of the largest such magnates held several hundred fees, in a few cases in more than one county. For example, the chapter of the Domesday Book Devonshire section concerning Baldwin the Sheriff lists 176 holdings held in-chief by him, as a review of taxes owed, it was highly unpopular. Each countys list opened with the demesne lands. It should be borne in mind that under the system the king was the only true owner of land in England. He was thus the ultimate overlord and even the greatest magnate could do no more than hold land from him as a tenant under one of the contracts of feudal land tenure. In some counties, one or more principal towns formed the subject of a separate section and this principle applies more specially to the larger volume, in the smaller one, the system is more confused, the execution less perfect. Domesday names a total of 13,418 places and these include fragments of custumals, records of the military service due, of markets, mints, and so forth
8.
Chester
–
Chester is a walled city in Cheshire, England, on the River Dee, close to the border with Wales. With a population of 81,340 in 2014, it is the most populous settlement of Cheshire West and Chester, Chester was granted city status in 1541. Chester was founded as a castrum or Roman fort with the name Deva Victrix in the reign of the Emperor Vespasian in 79 AD, one of the main army camps in Roman Britain, Deva later became a major civilian settlement. Chester was one of the last cities in England to fall to the Normans, william the Conqueror ordered the construction of a castle, to dominate the town and the nearby Welsh border. Chester is one of the best preserved walled cities in Britain and it has a number of medieval buildings, but some of the black-and-white buildings within the city centre are Victorian restorations. Apart from a 100-metre section, the listed Grade I walls are almost complete, the Roman Legio II Adiutrix during the reign of the Emperor Vespasian founded Chester in AD79, as a castrum or Roman fort with the name Deva Victrix. The victrix part of the name was taken from the title of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix which was based at Deva, Central Chesters four main roads, Eastgate, Northgate, Watergate and Bridgegate, follow routes laid out at this time. A civilian settlement grew around the base, probably originating from trade with the fortress. The civilian amphitheatre, which was built in the 1st century and it is the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain, and is also a Scheduled Monument. The Minerva Shrine in the Roman quarry is the rock cut Roman shrine still in situ in Britain. The fortress was garrisoned by the legion until at least the late 4th century, after the Roman troops withdrew, the Romano-British established a number of petty kingdoms. Chester is thought to have part of Powys. Deverdoeu was a Welsh name for Chester as late as the 12th century, another, attested in the 9th century History of the Britons traditionally attributed to Nennius, is Cair Legion, this later developed into Caerlleon and then the modern Welsh Caer. King Arthur is said to have fought his ninth battle at the city of the legions and later St Augustine came to the city to try to unite the church, and held his synod with the Welsh Bishops. In 616, Æthelfrith of Northumbria defeated a Welsh army at the brutal and decisive Battle of Chester and her name is still remembered in St Werburghs Street which passes alongside the cathedral, and near the city walls. It was Alfreds daughter Æthelflæd, Lady of the Mercians, that built the new Saxon burh, a new Church dedicated to St Peter alone was founded in AD907 by the Lady Æthelfleda at what was to become the Cross. Taking the helm of a barge, he was rowed the short distance up the River Dee from Edgars Field to the great Minster Church of St John the Baptist by six tributary kings called reguli. In 1071 he made Hugh dAvranches, who built Chester Castle, from the 14th century to the 18th century the citys prominent position in North West England meant that it was commonly also known as Westchester
9.
Scold's bridle
–
A scolds bridle, sometimes called a witchs bridle, a branks bridle, or simply branks, was an instrument of punishment, as a form of torture and public humiliation. The device was an iron muzzle in a framework that enclosed the head. A bridle-bit, about 2 inches long and 1 inch broad, projected into the mouth, first recorded in Scotland in 1567, the branks were also used in England, where it may not have been formally legalized as a punishment. The kirk-sessions and barony courts in Scotland inflicted the contraption mostly on female transgressors and this also gives it its other name The Gossips Bridle It was also used as corporal punishment for other offences, notably on female workhouse inmates. The person to be punished was placed in a place for additional humiliation. This was intended to humiliate them into repenting their riotous actions, a spike inside the gag prevented any talking since any movement of the mouth could cause a severe piercing of the tongue. When wearing the device, it was impossible for the woman either to eat or speak, other branks included an adjustable gag with a sharp edge, causing any movement of the mouth to result in laceration of the tongue. In Scotland, branks could also be displayed in public by attaching them, for example, to the town cross. Then, the ritual humiliation would take place, with the miscreant on public show, displaying the branks in public was intended to remind the populace of the consequences of any rash action or slander. Whether the person was paraded or simply taken to the point of punishment, time spent in the bridle was normally allocated by the kirk session, in Scotland, or a local magistrate. Quaker women were punished with the branks for preaching their doctrine in public places. Jougs were similar in their purpose as a pillory, but did not restrain the sufferer from speaking and they were generally used in both England and Scotland in the 16th and 17th centuries. The scolds bridle did not see use in the New World. White men and women were placed in the stocks as an equivalent punishment. During the 1500s it spread to some other European countries, including Germany, some bridles even had a bell on top of them to draw more attention to the wearer, thus increasing their humiliation. It continued in use until the early 1800s as a punishment in German workhouses, in 1567, Bessie Tailiefeir slandered Baillie Thomas Hunter in Edinburgh, saying that he was using false measures. She was sentenced to be brankit and fixed to the cross for one hour, two bridles were purchased for use by the Walsall town authorities during the 17th century, but it is not clear what happened to them or even whether they were ever used. The story is that someone named Chester lost a fortune due to a womans gossip, as late as 1856 it was in use at Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire
10.
New England
–
New England is a geographical region comprising six states of the northeast United States, Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York to the west and south, the Atlantic Ocean is to the east and southeast, and Long Island Sound is to the south. Its largest metropolitan area is Greater Boston, which also includes Worcester, Manchester, ten years later, more Puritans settled north of Plymouth Colony in Boston, thus forming Massachusetts Bay Colony. Over the next 126 years, people in the region fought in four French and Indian Wars, until the British and their Iroquois allies defeated the French and their Algonquin allies in North America. In 1692, the town of Salem, Massachusetts and surrounding areas experienced one of the most infamous cases of hysteria in the history of the Western Hemisphere. The Boston Tea Party was a protest to which Britain responded with a series of punitive laws stripping Massachusetts of self-government, the confrontation led to the first battles of the American Revolutionary War in 1775, and the expulsion of the British authorities from the region in spring 1776. Each state is subdivided into small incorporated municipalities known as towns. The only unincorporated areas in the region exist in the populated northern regions of Vermont, New Hampshire. The region is one of the U. S. Census Bureaus nine regional divisions, the earliest known inhabitants of New England were American Indians who spoke a variety of the Eastern Algonquian languages. Prominent tribes included the Abenaki, Mikmaq, Penobscot, Pequot, Mohegans, Narragansett Indians, Pocumtuck, prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Western Abenakis inhabited New Hampshire, New York, and Vermont, as well as parts of Quebec and western Maine. Their principal town was Norridgewock in present-day Maine, the Penobscot lived along the Penobscot River in Maine. The Narragansett and smaller tribes under Narragansett sovereignty lived in most of modern-day Rhode Island, west of Narragansett Bay, the Wampanoag occupied southeastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and the islands of Marthas Vineyard and Nantucket. The Pocumtucks lived in Western Massachusetts, and the Mohegan and Pequot tribes in the Connecticut region, the Connecticut River Valley includes parts of Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut, and linked different indigenous communities culturally, linguistically, and politically. As early as 1600, French, Dutch, and English traders began exploring the New World, trading metal, glass, on April 10,1606, King James I of England issued a charter for each of the Virginia Companies, London and Plymouth. These were privately funded ventures, intended to land for England, conduct trade. In 1620, Plymouth in present-day Massachusetts was settled by Pilgrims from the Mayflower, in 1616, English explorer John Smith named the region New England. As the first colonists arrived in Plymouth, they wrote and signed the Mayflower Compact, the Massachusetts Bay Colony came to dominate the area and was established by royal charter in 1629 with its major town and port of Boston established in 1630. Massachusetts Puritans began to settle in Connecticut as early as 1633, roger Williams was banished from Massachusetts for heresy, led a group south, and founded Providence Plantation in the area that became the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations in 1636
11.
Long Island
–
Long Island is an island located just off the northeast coast of the United States and a region within the U. S. state of New York. Stretching east-northeast from New York Harbor into the Atlantic Ocean, the island comprises four counties, Kings and Queens to the west, then Nassau, more generally, Long Island may also refer collectively both to the main Island as well as its nearby, surrounding outer barrier islands. North of the island is the Long Island Sound, across from which lie the states of Connecticut, across the Sound, to the northwest, lies Westchester County on mainland New York. To the west, Long Island is separated from the Bronx and the island of Manhattan by the East River. To the extreme southwest, it is separated from the New York City borough of Staten Island and the U. S. state of New Jersey by Upper New York Bay, the Narrows, to the east lie Block Island and numerous smaller islands. Its population density is 5,595.1 inhabitants per square mile, Long Island is culturally and ethnically diverse. Some of the wealthiest and most expensive neighborhoods in the Western Hemisphere are located on Long Island, nine bridges and 13 tunnels connect Brooklyn and Queens to the three other boroughs of New York City. Ferries connect Suffolk County northward across Long Island Sound to the state of Connecticut, the Long Island Rail Road is the busiest commuter railroad in North America and operates 24/7. At the time of European contact, the Lenape people inhabited the western end of Long Island, giovanni da Verrazzano was the first European to record an encounter with the Lenapes, after entering what is now New York Bay in 1524. In 1609, the English navigator Henry Hudson explored the harbor, adriaen Block followed in 1615 and is credited as the first European to determine that both Manhattan and Long Island are islands. Native American land deeds recorded by the Dutch from 1636 state that the Indians referred to Long Island as Sewanhaka, sewan was one of the terms for wampum, and is also translated as loose or scattered, which may refer either to the wampum or to Long Island. The name t Lange Eylandt alias Matouwacs appears in Dutch maps from the 1650s, later, the English referred to the land as Nassau Island, after the Dutch Prince William of Nassau, Prince of Orange. It is unclear when the name Nassau Island was discontinued, the very first settlements on Long Island were by settlers from England and its colonies in present-day New England. Lion Gardiner settled nearby Gardiners Island, the first settlement on the geographic Long Island itself was on October 21,1640, when Southold was established by the Rev. John Youngs and settlers from New Haven, Connecticut. Peter Hallock, one of the settlers, drew the long straw and was granted the honor to step ashore first and he is considered the first New World settler on Long Island. Southampton was settled in the same year, Hempstead followed in 1644, East Hampton in 1648, Huntington in 1653, and Brookhaven in 1655. While the eastern region of Long Island was first settled by the English, until 1664, the jurisdiction of Long Island was split, roughly at the present border between Nassau County and Suffolk County. The Dutch founded six towns in present-day Brooklyn beginning in 1645 and these included, Brooklyn, Gravesend, Flatlands, Flatbush, New Utrecht, and Bushwick
12.
Woodcut
–
Woodcut is a relief printing technique in printmaking. An artist carves an image into the surface of a block of wood—typically with gouges—leaving the printing parts level with the surface while removing the non-printing parts. Areas that the artist cuts away carry no ink, while characters or images at surface level carry the ink to produce the print, the block is cut along the wood grain. The surface is covered with ink by rolling over the surface with a roller, leaving ink upon the flat surface. Multiple colors can be printed by keying the paper to a frame around the woodblocks, single-leaf woodcut is a term for a woodcut presented as a single image or print, as opposed to a book illustration. Among these the best known are the 16th century Hieronymus Andreae, Hans Lützelburger and Jost de Negker, all of whom ran workshops, the formschneider in turn handed the block on to specialist printers. There were further specialists who made the blank blocks and this is why woodcuts are sometimes described by museums or books as designed by rather than by an artist, but most authorities do not use this distinction. The division of labour had the advantage that a trained artist could adapt to the medium relatively easily, there were various methods of transferring the artists drawn design onto the block for the cutter to follow. Either the drawing would be made directly onto the block, or a drawing on paper was glued to the block, either way, the artists drawing was destroyed during the cutting process. Other methods were used, including tracing, in both Europe and the Far East in the early 20th century, some artists began to do the whole process themselves. In Japan, this movement was called sōsaku-hanga, as opposed to shin-hanga, in the West, many artists used the easier technique of linocut instead. Compared to intaglio techniques like etching and engraving, only low pressure is required to print, as a relief method, it is only necessary to ink the block and bring it into firm and even contact with the paper or cloth to achieve an acceptable print. In Europe a variety of woods including boxwood and several nut and fruit woods like pear or cherry were commonly used, in Japan, there are three methods of printing to consider, Stamping, Used for many fabrics and most early European woodcuts. Used for European woodcuts and block-books later in the fifteenth century, also used for many Western woodcuts from about 1910 to the present. The block goes face up on a table, with the paper or fabric on top, the back is rubbed with a hard pad, a flat piece of wood, a burnisher, or a leather frotton. A traditional Japanese tool used for this is called a baren, later in Japan, complex wooden mechanisms were used to help hold the woodblock perfectly still and to apply proper pressure in the printing process. This was especially helpful once multiple colors were introduced and had to be applied with precision atop previous ink layers, printing in a press, presses only seem to have been used in Asia in relatively recent times. Printing-presses were used from about 1480 for European prints and block-books, simple weighted presses may have been used in Europe before the print-press, but firm evidence is lacking
13.
Norwich
–
Norwich is a city on the River Wensum in East Anglia and lies about 100 miles north-east of London. It is the administrative centre for East Anglia and county town of Norfolk. During the 11th century, Norwich was the largest city in England after London and it remained the capital of the most populous English county until the Industrial Revolution. The urban area of Norwich had a population of 213,166 according to the 2011 Census, the parliamentary seats cross over into adjacent local-government districts. A total of 132,512 people live in the City of Norwich, Norwich is the fourth most densely populated local-government district in the East of England, with 3,480 people per square kilometre. In May 2012, Norwich was designated Englands first UNESCO City of Literature, the capital of the Iceni tribe was a settlement located near to the village of Caistor St. Edmund on the River Tas approximately 8 kilometres to the south of modern-day Norwich. Following an uprising led by Boudica around AD60 the Caistor area became the Roman capital of East Anglia named Venta Icenorum, literally the market place of the Iceni. According to a rhyme, the demise of Venta Icenorum led to the development of Norwich, Caistor was a city when Norwich was none. There are two suggested models of development for Norwich, the ancient city was a thriving centre for trade and commerce in East Anglia in 1004 AD when it was raided and burnt by Swein Forkbeard the Viking king of Denmark. Mercian coins and shards of pottery from the Rhineland dating from the 8th century suggest that trade was happening long before this. Between 924 and 939, Norwich became fully established as a town, the word Norvic appears on coins across Europe minted during this period, in the reign of King Athelstan. The Vikings were a cultural influence in Norwich for 40–50 years at the end of the 9th century. At the time of the Norman Conquest the city was one of the largest in England, the Domesday Book states that it had approximately 25 churches and a population of between 5, 000–10,000. It also records the site of an Anglo-Saxon church in Tombland, the site of the Saxon market place and the later Norman cathedral. Norwich continued to be a centre for trade, the River Wensum being a convenient export route to the River Yare and Great Yarmouth. Quern stones and other artefacts from Scandinavia and the Rhineland have been found during excavations in Norwich city centre and these date from the 11th century onwards. Norwich Castle was founded soon after the Norman Conquest, the Domesday Book records that 98 Saxon homes were demolished to make way for the castle. In 1096, Herbert de Losinga, Bishop of Thetford, began construction of Norwich Cathedral, the chief building material for the Cathedral was limestone, imported from Caen in Normandy
14.
Strumpet
–
Prostitution is the business or practice of engaging in sexual activity in exchange for payment or some other benefit. Prostitution is sometimes described as sex or hooking. Depending on the jurisdiction, prostitution can be legal or illegal, a person who works in this field is called a prostitute, and is a kind of sex worker. Prostitution is one of the branches of the sex industry, other branches include pornography, stripping, the legal status of prostitution varies from country to country, ranging from being permissible but unregulated, to an enforced or unenforced crime, or a regulated profession. It is sometimes referred to euphemistically as the worlds oldest profession in the English-speaking world, estimates place the annual revenue generated by prostitution worldwide to be over $100 billion. Prostitution occurs in a variety of forms, brothels are establishments specifically dedicated to prostitution. In escort prostitution, the act may take place at the residence or hotel room. Although the majority of prostitutes are female and have clients, a prostitute can be. There are about 42 million prostitutes in the world, living all over the world, Sex tourism refers to the practice of traveling to engage in sexual relations with prostitutes in other countries. Some rich clients may pay for long-term contracts that may last for years, some view prostitution as a form of exploitation of or violence against women, and children, that helps to create a supply of victims for human trafficking. Some critics of prostitution as an institution are supporters of the Swedish approach, which has also adopted by Canada, Iceland, Northern Ireland, Norway. Prostitute is derived from the Latin prostituta, some sources cite the verb as a composition of pro meaning up front or forward and situere, defined as to offer up for sale. Another explanation is that prostituta is a composition of pro and statuere, a literal translation therefore is, to put up front for sale or to place forward. The Online Etymology Dictionary states, The notion of sex for hire is not inherent in the etymology, the word prostitute was then carried down through various languages to the present-day Western society. Most sex worker activists groups reject the word prostitute and since the late 1970s have used the sex worker instead. However, sex worker can also mean anyone who works within the sex industry or whose work is of a nature and is not limited solely to prostitutes. A variety of terms are used for those who engage in prostitution, common alternatives for prostitute include escort and whore, however, not all professional escorts are prostitutes. Use of the whore is widely considered pejorative, especially in its modern slang form of ho
15.
Joseph Clinton Robertson
–
Joseph Clinton Robertson, pseudonym Sholto Percy, was a Scottish patent agent, writer and periodical editor. He was a political radical prominent in the days of the working-class press in London. He was born about 1787, the son of Colin Robertson of Perth, Scotland, a doctor who was required to leave Scotland, reacting against his background he went to Edinburgh and became involved with radicals there. By 1811 he had written for the Spy of James Hogg and he went to London in 1819, and did hack work for the publisher Thomas Boys. Robertson founded The Mechanics Magazine in 1823, and edited and largely wrote it until the year of his death and it was a low-priced scientific weekly, and the first publication of its kind. To begin with he was in alliance with Thomas Hodgskin. It took advantage of a tax exemption for technical weeklies not dealing in news. Robertson also devised a way of generating cheap content by an early crowdsourcing technique, in the Mechanics Magazine Robertson first proposed the London Mechanics Institution. The idea was taken out of his hands and those of Hodgskin. Robertson became a long term critic of the Institution, Knight & Lacey became bankrupt that year, and in a complex series of events the Mechanics Magazine was published dually for a period, two versions of the same title being produced weekly. Lacey left for the USA, and Henry Kelly was brought in by Knight as a new partner, the Bankruptcy Court dealt with the matter by requiring Robertson to work on as editor, but upheld his claim to the title. By 1829, with just one more issue, the legal dust had settled. Drawn into the world, Robertson conducted the defence for John Braithwaite and John Ericsson in their patent case, on boilers, brought by Lord Cochrane. Buoyed by the experience, he took up patents as a further profession, in the 1830s Robertson was a railway company promoter, initially working in 1833–4 for the London & Greenwich Railway with George Landmann and George Walter. They also employed John Herapath, a contributor to the Mechanics Magazine, the subscription list was padded, and, Herapath later alleged, Robertson was responsible. Walter founded the Railway Magazine, having seen the potential in the Mechanics Magazine and its railway promotion, from 1834 Robertson was working with Braithwaite promoting the Eastern Counties Railway. He had married Sophia Brooman, related to the Cobbold family of Ipswich, charles Blacker Vignoles as consultant engineer gave the project credibility. Matters went downhill, however, after Robertson wrote a prospectus in 1834
16.
Penology
–
The Oxford English Dictionary defines penology as the study of the punishment of crime and prison management, and in this sense it is equivalent with corrections. Penology is concerned with the effectiveness of social processes devised and adopted for the prevention of crime. The study of penology therefore deals with the treatment of prisoners and it also encompasses aspects of probation as well as penitentiary science relating to the secure detention and retraining of offenders committed to secure institutions. Penology concerns many topics and theories, including those concerning prisons, contemporary penology concerns itself mainly with criminal rehabilitation and prison management. The word seldom applies to theories and practices of punishment in less formal environments such as parenting, school, historical theories put based on the notion that fearful consequences would discourage potential offenders. Similarly, certain hudud offenses under Sharia hadith tradition may incur fearful penalties and they center on the concept of proportionality. Subsequent development of the ideas of Beccaria made non-lethal punishment more socially acceptable, consequently, convicted prisoners had to be re-integrated into society when their punishment was complete. Auburn System Zebulon Brockway Jeremy Bentham Elmira System Incapacitation Panopticon Diiulio, John J. Governing Prisons, A Comparative Study of Correctional Management, Simon, ISBN 0-02-907883-0 The Florida State University College of Criminology and Criminal Justice CrimLinks UK based site
17.
Queen's Bench
–
The Queens Bench is the superior court in a number of jurisdictions within some of the Commonwealth realms. The original Kings Bench, founded in 1215 in England, was one of the ancient courts of the land and is now a division of the High Court of Justice of England and Wales. The Court of Queens Bench is the court in several Canadian provinces, including, Alberta, Manitoba, New Brunswick. There was formerly a Court of Kings Bench created in the British colony of Quebec in 1764 and it was then abolished and re-established in 1777, following the Quebec Act. Following the separation of Upper and Lower Canada in 1791, the court was replaced by several courts of Kings bench of each region of the two new provinces. In 1849, the districts in were reunited once again, in England and Wales, the Court of Kings Bench was the name of two courts. Each was a court of common law, with civil and criminal jurisdiction. The English Court of Queens Bench was abolished in 1875 by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, the Courts jurisdiction passed in each case to a new High Court of Justice and specifically to the Queens Bench Division of that court. The Irish Court of Queens Bench was abolished by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1877, the Queens Bench jurisdiction is now vested in the Queens Bench Division of the High Court in Northern Ireland. There is a Queens Bench Division as a division of the High Court of England and Wales, in England and Wales, the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice. It was created by the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873, in 1880 the former Common Pleas and Exchequer Divisions were merged into the Queens Bench Division. Since 1882 the High Court has sat in the Royal Courts of Justice in the Strand, in Northern Ireland the Queens Bench Division is part of the High Court of Justice in Northern Ireland, first created by Section 40 of the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Division has similar jurisdiction to its counterpart in England and Wales and it sits in the Royal Courts of Justice, Belfast. Other sub-divisions include the Commercial Court, the Admiralty Court and the Administrative Court, the abbreviation QB in legal citation is used in the Law Reports to denote cases heard in the Queens Bench Division. There are masters in the Queens Bench Division, unlike the masters in the Chancery Division, the Queens Bench masters have original jurisdiction and they hear applications in chambers, act as taxing masters and occasionally as referees to conduct inquiries, take accounts, and assess damages. The Court of Queens Bench grew out of the Kings Court, or Curia Regis, at an unknown point, another court, independent of the Kings personal presence, grew out of the Curia Regis, and consisted of a number of royal judges who would hear cases themselves. In practice pleas of the Crown were heard only in the Kings Bench, the Lord Chief Justice of the Kings Bench was also styled Lord Chief Justice of England, being the highest permanent judge of the Crown. The Kings Bench became a court sitting in Westminster Hall
18.
Mark (currency)
–
The mark was a currency or unit of account in many nations. It is named for the unit of weight. The word mark comes from a merging of three Teutonic/Germanic words, Latinised in 9th century post-classical Latin as marca, marcha, marha or marcus and it was a measure of weight mainly for gold and silver, commonly used throughout Western Europe and often equivalent to eight ounces. Considerable variations, however, occurred throughout the Middle Ages, as of 2017, the only circulating currency named mark is the Bosnia and Herzegovina convertible mark. In England the mark never appeared as a coin but was only a unit of account and it was apparently introduced in the 10th century by the Danes. According to 19th-century sources, it was equivalent to 100 pence. In Scotland, the merk Scots was a coin of that value, issued first in 1570. In northern Germany and Scandinavia, the mark was a unit of account, in an attempt to prevent debasement of the currency, the Bank of Hamburg was founded in 1619, after the example of the Bank of Amsterdam. Both these banks established a money of account. The Hamburg unit of account was the mark banco and it was credited in exchange for the sale of bullion or by way of credit against collateral. No coins or banknotes were issued, but accounts were opened showing a credit balance, the account holders could use their credit balances by remittances to other accounts or by drawing bills of exchange against them. These bills circulated and could be transferred by endorsement, and were accepted as payment and this currency proved to be very stable. Following German unification in 1871, the country adopted the German gold mark as its currency in 1873, the name was taken from the mark banco. Coins denominated in gold marks were first issued in 1871, the mark banco was converted into the new gold mark at par. The Bank of Hamburg was incorporated as the Hamburg subsidiary into the newly founded Reichsbank, in 1914, the Reichsbank stopped demanding first-class collateral when providing credit to borrowers. The gold mark became a currency, colloquially referred to as the paper mark. In 1918, the sound money policy was not re-established, and the continuing loose money policy resulted in inflation. In late 1923, when the mark had become virtually worthless, it was replaced by a new currency
19.
John Gay
–
John Gay was an English poet and dramatist and member of the Scriblerus Club. He is best remembered for The Beggars Opera, a ballad opera, the characters, including Captain Macheath and Polly Peachum, became household names. Gay was born in Barnstaple, England, and was educated at the grammar school. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the town, the dedication of his Rural Sports to Alexander Pope was the beginning of a lasting friendship. In 1714, Gay wrote The Shepherds Week, a series of six pastorals drawn from English rustic life, Gays pastorals achieved this goal and his ludicrous pictures of the English country lads and their loves were found to be entertaining on their own account. In 1715, probably with help from Pope, he produced What dye call it. A dramatic skit on contemporary tragedy, with reference to Thomas Otways Venice Preservd. It left the public so ignorant of its meaning that Lewis Theobald. In 1716 appeared his Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London and it contains graphic and humorous descriptions of the London of that period. In taking a form, Gays poem was able to poke fun at the notion of complete reformation of street civility. In January 1717 he produced the comedy, Three Hours After Marriage, which was thought to be grossly indecent and he had assistance from Pope and John Arbuthnot, but they allowed it to be assumed that Gay was the sole author. Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published Poems on Several Occasions by subscription, in that year James Craggs, the secretary of state, presented him with some South Sea stock. Gay, disregarding the advice of Pope and others of his friends, invested all his money in South Sea stock, the shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. His friends did not fail him at this juncture and he had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards Earl of Bath, in the third Earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him at Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third Duke of Queensberry. He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received unvarying kindness from William Congreve and he was offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa, who was also still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends seem to have regarded as an indignity and he had never rendered any special services to the court. This famous piece, which was said to have made Rich gay and Gay rich, was an innovation in many respects, the satire of the play has a double allegory. Gays decision to launch the work was also influenced by the huge interest that the Jack Sheppard
20.
Benjamin West
–
Benjamin West PRA was an Anglo-American painter of historical scenes around and after the time of the American War of Independence and the Seven Years War. He was the president of the Royal Academy in London. He was offered a knighthood by the British Crown, but declined it and he said that Art is the representation of human beauty, ideally perfect in design, graceful and noble in attitude. West was born in Springfield, Pennsylvania, in a house that is now in the borough of Swarthmore on the campus of Swarthmore College, as the child of an innkeeper. The family later moved to Newtown Square, Pennsylvania, where his father was the proprietor of the Square Tavern, Benjamin West was an autodidact, while excelling at the arts, he had little education and, even when president of the Royal Academy, could scarcely spell. From 1746 to 1759, West worked in Pennsylvania, mostly painting portraits, while West was in Lancaster in 1756, his patron, a gunsmith named William Henry, encouraged him to paint a Death of Socrates based on an engraving in Charles Rollins Ancient History. His resulting composition, which differs from the source, has been called the most ambitious. During this time West met John Wollaston, a painter who had immigrated from London. West was a friend of Benjamin Franklin, whose portrait he painted. Franklin was the godfather of Wests second son, Benjamin, in common with many artists architects and lovers of the fine arts at that time he conducted a Grand Tour. West expanded his repertoire by copying works of Italian painters such as Titian, in Rome he met a number of international neo-classical artists including German-born Anton Rafael Mengs, Scottish Gavin Hamilton, and Austrian Angelica Kauffman. In August 1763, West arrived in England, on what he intended as a visit on his way back to America. In fact, he never returned to America and he stayed for a month at Bath with William Allen, who was also in the country, and visited his half-brother Thomas West at Reading at the urging of his father. In London he was introduced to Richard Wilson and his student Joshua Reynolds and he moved into a house in Bedford Street, Covent Garden. In 1765 he married Elizabeth Shewell, an American to whom he engaged in Philadelphia. All three prelates commissioned work from him, in 1766 West proposed a scheme to decorate St Pauls Cathedral with paintings. It was rejected by the Bishop of London, but his idea of painting an altarpiece for St Stephen Walbrook was accepted, at around this time he also received acclaim for his classical subjects, such as Orestes and Pylades and The Continence of Scipio. Benjamin West was known in England as the American Raphael and his Raphaelesque painting of Archangel Michael Binding the Devil is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge
21.
John Holt (Lord Chief Justice)
–
Sir John Holt was an English lawyer and served as Lord Chief Justice of England from 17 April 1689 to his death. He is frequently credited with playing a role in ending the prosecution of witches in English law. Holt was born in Abingdon in Berkshire, the son of Sir Thomas Holt, MP for that town, and his wife, Susan and he was educated at Abingdon School, Grays Inn and Oriel College, Oxford. He purchased Redgrave Manor in Suffolk, which had been the seat of the Bacon family in 1702, a letter in the Bodleian Library reads, The celebrated Dr Radcliffe, the physician. Took special pains to preserve the life of LCJ Holts wife, whom he attended out of spite to her husband, Sir John Holts sister Susan was married to Francis Levett, Esq. tobacco merchant and brother of Sir Richard Levett, Lord Mayor of London. Sir Thomas Holts father was Rowland Holt, who was identical to the merchant Rowland Holt who was murdered by muggers in Clerkenwell Fields in January 1635. The crime was particularly notorious in the ballads and broadsheets of the time, after attending for some years the free school of the town of Abingdon, of which his father was recorder, young Holt in his sixteenth year entered Oriel College, Oxford. He was called to the bar in 1663, a supporter of civil and religious liberty, he distinguished himself in state trials by the manner in which he supported the pleas of the defendants. In 1685–1686 Holt was appointed recorder of London, and about the time he was made kings serjeant. He is best known for the firmness with which he upheld his own prerogatives in opposition to the authority of the Houses of Parliament, while in sympathy with the Whig party, Holt maintained on the bench political impartiality, and held himself aloof from political intrigue. On the retirement of Somers from the chancellorship in 1700 Holt was offered the Great Seal and his death took place in London on 5 March 1710. He was buried in the chancel of Redgrave church,210, again on affirmations and warranties. Coggs v Bernard 2 Ld Raym 909 Ashby v White 2 Ld Raym 938 Cole v Turner 87 ER907 Walden v Holman 6 Mod 115, see Burnets Own Times, Tatter, No. xiv. A Life, published in 1764, Welsby, Lives of Eminent English Judges of the 17th and 18th Centuries, Campbells Lives of the Lord Chief Justices, and Foss, Lives of the Judges. Will of Sir John Holt, The Life of the Right Honourable Sir John Holt, Knight, Lord Chief justice of the Court of Kings-Bench, J. R. Printed for the Author and Sold by J. Worrall,1764 Sir John Holt, Lives of eminent English judges of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
22.
Trinity Sunday
–
Trinity Sunday is the first Sunday after Pentecost in the Western Christian liturgical calendar, and the Sunday of Pentecost in Eastern Christianity. Trinity Sunday celebrates the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, the three Persons of God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Trinity Sunday is celebrated in all the Western liturgical churches, Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran, Presbyterian, United Church of Christ, the Sundays following Pentecost, until Advent, are numbered from this day. In traditional Catholic usage, the First Sunday After Pentecost is on the day as Trinity Sunday. In the revised Roman rite, Ordinary Time resumes one week earlier, on the Monday after Pentecost, with the Sundays that would fall on Pentecost. The liturgical colour used on Trinity Sunday is white, in the Catholic Church it is officially known as the Solemnity of the Most Holy Trinity. Prior to the reforms of the Second Vatican Council, it marked the end of a period when church weddings were forbidden. The period began on Rogation Sunday, the fifth Sunday after Easter, Trinity Sunday was established as a Double of the Second Class by Pope John XXII to celebrate the Trinity. It was raised to the dignity of a Double of the First Class by Pope Pius X on 24 July 1911, during the Middle Ages, especially during the Carolingian period, devotion to the Blessed Trinity was a highly important feature of private devotion and inspired several liturgical expressions. The currently prescribed liturgical color is white, in the traditional Divine Office, the Athanasian Creed is said on this day at Prime. The 1960 reforms reduced it to once a year, on this Sunday, in the 1962 Missal, the Mass for the First Sunday After Pentecost is not said or commemorated on Sunday, but is used during the week if the ferial Mass is being said. The Thursday after Trinity Sunday is observed as the Feast of Corpus Christi. In some countries, including the United States, Canada, and Spain, it may be celebrated on the following Sunday, the Athanasian Creed, although not often used, is recited in certain Anglican churches, particularly those of High Church tendency. It may be found in the Historical Documents section of the 1979 Book of Common Prayer, Trinity Sunday has the status of a Principal Feast in the Church of England and is one of seven principal feast days in the Episcopal Church. This observance spread from Canterbury throughout the whole of western Christendom, Anglican parishes with an Anglo-Catholic churchmanship observe Corpus Christi on the following Thursday, or in some cases the following Sunday. The latest possible date is 20 June, as in 1943 and 2038, in the early Church, no special Office or day was assigned for the Holy Trinity. When the Arian heresy was spreading, the Fathers prepared an Office with canticles, responses, a Preface, in the Sacramentary of St. Gregory the Great there are prayers and the Preface of the Trinity. By others the Office was said on the Sunday before Advent, John XXII ordered the feast for the entire Church on the first Sunday after Pentecost
23.
Michaelmas
–
Michaelmas is a minor Christian festival observed in some Western liturgical calendars on the 29th of September. Michaelmas has been one of the four days of the financial year. The Serbian Orthodox Church observes the feast, whereas most Eastern Orthodox Churches do not, the Greek and Romanian Orthodox honor the archangels on 8 November instead. In Christian angelology, the Archangel Michael is the greatest of all the Archangels and is honored for defeating Satan in the war in heaven and he is one of the principal angelic warriors, seen as a protector against the dark of night, and the administrator of cosmic intelligence. Michaelmas has also delineated time and seasons for secular purposes, as well, particularly in Britain, the name Michaelmas comes from a shortening of Michaels Mass, in the same style as Christmas and Candlemas. During the Middle Ages, Michaelmas, or the Feast of St. Michael, was celebrated as a Holy Day of Obligation, in medieval England, Michaelmas marked the ending and beginning of the husbandmans year, George C. Homans observes, at that time harvest was over, and the bailiff or reeve of the manor would be making out the accounts for the year. Because it falls near the equinox, it is associated in the northern hemisphere with the beginning of autumn and it was also one of the English, Welsh and Irish quarter days when accounts had to be settled. On manors, it was the day when a reeve was elected from the peasants, Michaelmas hiring fairs were held at the end of September or beginning of October. On the Isle of Skye, Scotland, a procession was held, many of the activities that had been done at Lughnasadh – sports, games and horse races – migrated to this day. One of the few flowers left around at this time of year is the Michaelmas daisy, hence the rhyme, The Michaelmas daisies, among dead weeds, Bloom for St Michaels valorous deeds. Traditional meal for the day includes goose, the bread was made from equal parts of barley, oats, and rye without using any metal implements. In remembrance of absent friends or those who had died, special Struans, nuts were traditionally cracked on Michaelmas Eve. Folklore in the British Isles suggests that Michaelmas day is the last day that blackberries can be picked and it is said that when St. Michael expelled Lucifer, the devil, from heaven, he fell from the skies and landed in a prickly blackberry bush. Satan cursed the fruit, scorched them with his fiery breath, as it is considered ill-advised to eat them after 29 September, a Michaelmas pie is made from the last of the season. In Anglican and Episcopal tradition, there are three or four archangels in its calendar for 29 September feast for St. Michael and All Angels, namely Michael, Gabriel and Raphael, and often, Uriel. The Bible itself identifies only Michael as an archangel, although in I Thessalonians 4,16, there is the implication that there is more than one archangel. It is used in the sense of autumn, as the name of the first term of the academic year
24.
Plymouth
–
Plymouths early history extends to the Bronze Age, when a first settlement emerged at Mount Batten. This settlement continued as a trading post for the Roman Empire, until it was surpassed by the prosperous village of Sutton founded in the ninth century. In 1620, the Pilgrim Fathers departed Plymouth for the New World, during the English Civil War the town was held by the Parliamentarians and was besieged between 1642 and 1646. The combined town took the name of Plymouth which, in 1928, the citys naval importance later led to its targeting and partial destruction during World War II, an act known as the Plymouth Blitz. After the war the city centre was rebuilt and subsequent expansion led to the incorporation of Plympton. The city is home to 262,700 people, making it the 30th most populous area in the United Kingdom. It is governed locally by Plymouth City Council and is represented nationally by three MPs, Plymouths economy remains strongly influenced by shipbuilding and seafaring including ferry links to Brittany and Spain, but has tended toward a service-based economy since the 1990s. It has the largest operational base in Western Europe – HMNB Devonport and is home to Plymouth University. An unidentified settlement named TAMARI OSTIA is listed in Ptolemys Geographia and is presumed to be located in the area of the modern city, at the time this village was called Sutton, meaning south town in Old English. The name Plym Mouth, meaning mouth of the River Plym was first mentioned in a Pipe Roll of 1211, the name Plymouth first officially replaced Sutton in a charter of King Henry VI in 1440. See Plympton for the derivation of the name Plym, during the Hundred Years War a French attack burned a manor house and took some prisoners, but failed to get into the town. In 1403 the town was burned by Breton raiders, on 12 November,1439, the English Parliament made Plymouth the first town incorporated. The castle served to protect Sutton Pool, which is where the fleet was based in Plymouth prior to the establishment of Plymouth Dockyard. In 1512 an Act of Parliament was passed for further fortifying Plymouth, defences on St Nicholas Island also date from this time, and a string of six artillery blockhouses were built, including one on Fishers Nose at the south-eastern corner of the Hoe. This location was further strengthened by the building of a fort in 1596, during the 16th century locally produced wool was the major export commodity. According to legend, Drake insisted on completing his game of bowls on the Hoe before engaging the Spanish Armada in 1588. In 1620 the Pilgrim Fathers set sail for the New World from Plymouth, during the English Civil War Plymouth sided with the Parliamentarians and was besieged for almost four years by the Royalists. The last major attack by the Royalist was by Sir Richard Grenville leading thousands of soldiers towards Plymouth, the civil war ended as a Parliamentary win, but monarchy was restored by King Charles II in 1660, who imprisoned many of the Parliamentary heroes on Drakes Island
25.
Leominster
–
With a population of approximately 11,700 people, Leominster is the largest of the five towns in the county surrounding the City of Hereford. From 1974 to 1996, Leominster served as the centre for the former local government district of Leominster District. The town takes its name from a minster, that is a community of clergy in the district of Lene or Leon, contrary to certain reports, the name has nothing to do with Leofric, an 11th-century Earl of Mercia. The Welsh name for Leominster, still used today by a few on the Welsh side of the border, is Llanllieni. During the Early Middle Ages, Leominster was home to Æthelmod of Leominster and he is reputedly buried in Leominster. Henry II bestowed the minster and its estates on Reading Abbey and its Priory Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, which now serves as the parish church, is the remaining part of this 12th-century Benedictine monastery. Quatrefoil piers were inserted between 1872–79 by Sir George Gilbert Scott, the priory was ransacked by the Welsh forces of Owain Glyndŵr after their victory at the Battle of Bryn Glas near Pilleth in 1402, along with several local manor houses. Investigations to the north of the priory in 2005 located the position of the cloister, discarded animal bones found on the site when submitted to carbon dating showed that the area was occupied in the 7th century. This agrees with the date of 660 CE associated with the founding myth, Leominster is also the historical home of Ryeland sheep, a breed once famed for its Lemster wool, known as Lemster ore. This wool was prized above all other English wool in trade with the continent of Europe in the Middle Ages and it was the income and prosperity from this wool trade that established the town and the minster and attracted the envy of the Welsh and other regions. The mill was financed by Lancashire native Daniel Bourn, and was owned by other men from Lancashire. One of the last ordeals by ducking stool took place in Leominster in 1809, the ducking stool is on public display in Leominster Priory, a mechanised depiction of it is featured on the town clock. As with all towns in the United Kingdom, Leominster has a maritime climate, the data below is from a weather station in Preston Wynne, a village about 10 miles South East of Leominster. The 4-mile A49 £9 million bypass opened in November 1988, the town also has a bus station linking it to Hereford and a number of nearby towns and villages. Earl Mortimer college, is a comprehensive school providing secondary education for about 650 pupils. The town has two schools, Leominster Primary School and Westfields School. Saint Cuthfleda was the abbess of the nunnery at Leominster and the patroness of the region, known for her holiness and chaste life. It is widely regarded as one of Abels finest works, john Scarlett Davis, artist, was born at 2 High Street
26.
Anne Royall
–
Anne Royall was a travel writer, newspaper editor, and, by some accounts, the first professional woman journalist in the United States. She was born Anne Newport in Baltimore, Maryland, Anne grew up in the western frontier of Pennsylvania before her impoverished and fatherless family migrated south to the mountains of western Virginia. Anne and William Royall were wed in 1797, the couple lived comfortably together for fifteen years until his death in 1812. His death touched off litigation between Anne and Royalls relatives, who claimed that they were never married and that his will leaving her most of his property was a forgery. After seven years, the will was nullified and she was left virtually penniless and she also penned a novel called The Tennessean before setting off for Washington D. C. She arrived in Washington in 1824 to petition for a pension as the widow of a veteran, under the pension law at the time. She remained unsatisfied until Congress passed a new law in 1848. Even then, her husbands family claimed most of her pension money, while in Washington attempting to secure a pension, Anne caught President John Quincy Adams during one of his usual early morning baths in the Potomac River. Adams afterward supported Annes petition for a pension and he also invited her to visit his wife, Louisa Adams, at their home in Washington, which she did. Mrs. Adams gave her a white shawl when she journeyed north to obtain proof of her husbands military service, afterward Anne toured New England, Pennsylvania, New York and Massachusetts, all the while taking copious notes and using her Masonic connections to help fund her travels. In Boston, she stopped in on former President John Adams to give him an update on his son, then in 1826, at age 57, she published her notes in a book titled Sketches of History, Life and Manners in the United States. Her previous manuscript The Tennessean would follow a year later, the caustic observations in her books and public stances on issues caused a stir and earned her some powerful enemies. She was derided as an eccentric scold, a virago, in 1829, Anne Royall returned to Washington, D. C. and began living on Capitol Hill, near a fire house. The firehouse, which had built with federal money, had been allowing a small Presbyterian congregation to use its facilities for their services. Royall, who had long made Presbyterians a particular object of scorn in her writing and she also claimed that some of the congregations children began throwing stones at her windows. One member of the congregation began praying silently beneath her window and others visited her in an attempt to convert her, Royall responded to their taunts with cursing and was arrested. She was tried and convicted of being a nuisance, a common brawler. Although a ducking stool had been constructed nearby, the court ruled that the common law punishment of ducking for a scold was obsolete
27.
Criminal Law Act 1967
–
The Criminal Law Act 1967 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. However, with minor exceptions, it generally applies to only England. It made some changes to English criminal law. Most of it is still in force, several of the Acts provisions were adopted, word for word, for Northern Ireland by the Criminal Law Act 1967 and the Criminal Justice Act 1968. They were adopted for the Republic of Ireland by the Criminal Law Act 1997, Part I abolished the distinction between felony and misdemeanour and makes consequential provisions. Part II abolished a number of obsolete crimes and this Part implements the recommendations made by the Criminal Law Revision Committee in their seventh report. Section 1 abolished the distinction between felonies and misdemeanours, originally, all crimes in English law were categorised in a hierarchy of treason, felony, and misdemeanour, each with their own rules of procedure and evidence. This also had the effect of abolishing the offences of misprision of felony, although all offences were now misdemeanours, the maximum penalties were not affected. Section 2 created a new category of offences, since powers of arrest had depended on whether an offence was a felony or a misdemeanour. Arrestable offences were defined as crimes for which the sentence for an adult was five years or more. The section set out the circumstances in which a citizen or a constable could arrest somebody without a court warrant. Section 2 was repealed and replaced with section 24 of the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984, Section 24 was supplemented by a section 25 which created new powers to arrest those suspected of non-arrestable offences in certain circumstances. Citizens arrest was confined to indictable offences and this change took effect from 1 January 2006. Section 3 replaces the common law rules on self-defence, such as the duty to retreat and it simply requires that any force used must be reasonable in the circumstances. It is still in force today and states,3, subsection above shall replace the rules of the common law on the question when force used for a purpose mentioned in the subsection is justified by that purpose. Section 4 created a new offence of assisting anyone who had committed an arrestable offence and this replaced the rules on accessories after the fact in felony cases. The penalty for this offence is linked to the penalty for whatever offence the original offender has committed, Section 5 created a new offence which replaced misprision and compounding of felony. This significantly reduced the scope of these offences from the wider 1984 definition, a person may not be prosecuted for these offences without the permission of the Director of Public Prosecutions or a Crown prosecutor
28.
Constitution of New Jersey
–
The Constitution of the State of New Jersey is the basic governing document of the State of New Jersey. In addition to three British Royal Charters issued for East Jersey, West Jersey and united New Jersey while they were still colonies, the state has been governed by three constitutions. The first was issued on July 2,1776, shortly before New Jersey ratified the United States Declaration of Independence, the current document was issued in 1947 and has been amended several times. The state constitution reinforces the basic rights found in the United States Constitution, at 26,159 words, the document is slightly shorter than the average American state constitution. Three fundamental documents had governed the now known as New Jersey. The first was the Concession and Agreement, which was written in 1665 by the colonys proprietors Lord John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, after Berkeley and Carteret sold New Jersey to the Quakers, the colony was split into West and East Jersey. Each had its own constitution, the West Jersey Constitution and the East Jersey Constitution, the two were reunited in 1702 by Queen Anne. New Jerseys first state constitution was adopted on July 2,1776, the American Revolutionary War was underway and George Washington had recently been defeated in New York, putting New Jersey in imminent danger of invasion. With Patriot and Tory factions plotting and battling each other, New Jersey was a state at war and was nearly a state at civil war and its primary objective was to provide a basic governmental framework that would preempt New Jerseys fall into anarchy. And yet this Constitution served as the document for the States government for the next 68 years. Among other provisions, it granted unmarried women and blacks who met property requirements the right to vote and it did not specify an amendment procedure and had to be replaced entirely in a constitutional convention. The succeeding constitution, adopted on June 29,1844, restricted suffrage to white males and it separated the governments powers into judicial, legislative, and executive branches and granted the people the ability to elect a governor. It also formally limited state debt, a predecessor of many contemporary debt ceiling clauses, the constitution was amended in 1875, mainly to conform to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments. Additionally, the amendments required that the legislature provide for a free public school system. Article I, as is usual for constitutions, establishes the rights and freedoms inherent people, the rights discussed in this Article largely mirror the Constitution of the United States. Such rights include freedom of speech, a speedy and public trial, Article I also contains a Victims Bill of Rights. The article is a de facto enumeration of the rights of the man, Article I, Section I, Paragraph 21 deliberately states. Similar to the U. S. Bill of Rights, the document also still has holdover rights and these passages still do guarantee important rights to New Jerseyans, but violations are not necessarily common
29.
Profanity
–
Profanity is socially offensive language, which may also be called bad language, strong language, coarse language, foul language, bad words, vulgar language, lewd language, choice words or expletives. The use of language is swearing, cursing or cussing. Used in this sense, profanity is a subset of a languages lexicon that is considered to be strongly impolite. It can show a debasement of someone or something, or show intense emotion, linguistically, profanity takes the form of words or verbal expressions that fall into the category of formulaic language. The term profane originates from classical Latin profanus, literally before the temple and it carried the meaning of either desecrating what is holy or with a secular purpose as early as the 1450s CE. Moreover, many Bible verses speak against swearing, profanities, in the original meaning of blasphemous profanity, are part of the ancient tradition of the comic cults, which laughed and scoffed at the deity or deities. An example from Gargantua and Pantagruel is Christ, look ye, in English, swear words and curse words tend to have Germanic, rather than Latin etymology. Shit has a Germanic root, as, probably, does fuck, the more technical alternatives are often Latin in origin, such as defecate or excrete, and fornicate or copulate respectively. Strong language is by no means a recent phenomenon, the Bible records instances, such as mention of men who eat their own dung, and drink their own piss in the Authorized King James Version of the 1611 translation of Hebrew text of 2 Kings 18,27. Analyses of recorded conversations reveal that an average of roughly 80–90 words that a person each day –0. 5% to 0. 7% of all words – are swear words. In comparison, first-person plural pronouns make up 1% of spoken words, Swearing performs certain psychological functions, and uses particular linguistic and neurological mechanisms, all these are avenues of research. Functionally similar behavior can be observed in chimpanzees, and may contribute to our understanding, Keele University researchers Stephens, Atkins, and Kingston found that swearing relieves the effects of physical pain. Stephens said I would advise people, if they hurt themselves, however, the overuse of swear words tends to diminish this effect. The Keele team won the Ig Nobel Peace Prize in 2010 for their research, a team of neurologists and psychologists at the UCLA Easton Center for Alzheimers Disease Research suggested that swearing may help differentiate Alzheimers disease from frontotemporal dementia. Neurologist Antonio Damasio noted that loss of language due to damage to the language areas of the brain. A group of researchers from Wright State University studied why people swear in the world by collecting tweets posted on Twitter. An interdisciplinary team of researchers from the University of Warsaw investigated bilingual swearing and it listed the profanities in order of decreasing severity. A similar survey was carried out in 2009 by New Zealands Broadcasting Standards Authority, the results were published in March 2010, in a report called What Not to Swear
30.
Noise pollution
–
Noise pollution or noise disturbance is the disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of human or animal life. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is caused by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles, aircraft. Outdoor noise is summarized by the environmental noise. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas, documented problems associated with urban noise go back as far as Ancient Rome. Outdoor noise can be caused by machines, construction activities, and music performances, noise-induced hearing loss can be caused by outside or inside noise. High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an incidence of coronary artery disease. In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, Noise pollution affects both health and behavior. Unwanted sound can damage psychological health, Noise pollution can cause hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects. Sound becomes unwanted when it interferes with normal activities such as sleeping, conversation. Chronic exposure to noise may cause noise-induced hearing loss, less addressed is how humans adapt to noise subjectively. Indeed, tolerance for noise is frequently independent of decibel levels, however, Murray Schafers soundscape research was groundbreaking in this regard. In his eponymous work, he makes compelling arguments about how humans relate to noise on a subjective level, other key research in this area can be seen in Fongs comparative analysis of soundscape differences between Bangkok, Thailand and Los Angeles, California, US. Acoustic overexposure can lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing, an impact of noise on wild animal life is the reduction of usable habitat that noisy areas may cause, which in the case of endangered species may be part of the path to extinction. Noise pollution may have caused the death of species of whales that beached themselves after being exposed to the loud sound of military sonar. Noise also makes species communicate more loudly, which is called Lombard vocal response, scientists and researchers have conducted experiments that show whales song length is longer when submarine-detectors are on. If creatures do not speak loudly enough, their voice will be masked by anthropogenic sounds and these unheard voices might be warnings, finding of prey, or preparations of net-bubbling. When one species begins speaking more loudly, it will mask other species voice, marine invertebrates, such as crabs, have also been shown to be negatively affected by ship noise. Larger crabs were noted to be affected more by the sounds than smaller crabs
31.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
32.
OCLC
–
The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
33.
Pennsylvania
–
Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America
_-_02.jpg)
.jpg)