1.
French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
2.
France
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France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
3.
National Police (France)
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The National Police, formerly the Sûreté nationale, is one of two national police forces and the main civil law enforcement agency of France, with primary jurisdiction in cities and large towns. The other main agency is the military Gendarmerie, with jurisdiction in smaller towns and rural. The National Police comes under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior and has about 145,699 employees, the National Police operates mostly in large cities and towns. The police is commanded by the director-general who is currently Jean-Marc Falcone, the director-general is directly in charge of the General Directorate of the National Police and the immediate subordinate of the Minister of the Interior. The main Sub-Directorates of the Judicial Police are, Sous-direction anti-terroriste SDAT, groupes dIntervention de la Police Nationale, Nine regional SWAT teams. Direction centrale de la police aux frontières, performs identity checks with La douane française, Inspection générale de la police nationale, headed by the Inspector General and responsible for internal affairs. In the Paris Area, these tasks are assigned to a dedicated service—the Inspection Générale des Services, direction centrale des compagnies républicaines de sécurité, riot police, motorway police, and mountain rescue, commonly referred to as the CRS. Service de coopération technique internationale de police, the Unité de Coordination de la Lutte Antiterroriste and its Recherche Assistance Intervention Dissuasion unit. The DCRI was placed directly under the Ministry of the Interior, the Corps de commandement corresponds approximately to the lower commissioned ranks of a military force, or to grades of inspector in a British-style civil police force. These ranks were previously known as inspecteurs if detectives or officiers de la paix if uniformed, all the ranks insignia may be worn either on the shoulders or on the chest. In the latter they are square-shaped, prior to 1995 two civilian corps existed in which plain-clothes officers were given the training and authority to conduct investigations. The closest Anglo-American equivalent is the detective, in 1951, a standardisation was performed on the RR51 pistol in 7. 65x17mm and on the MAS-38 and MAT-49 for sub-machine guns. In the 80s, a process to standardize revolvers was initiated, the 1970s also saw the introduction of assault rifles to fend off heavily armed organised crime and terrorism. In the 2000s, the police started switching to semi-automatic pistols, for some years, the standard sidearm in the National Police and the Gendarmerie Nationale was the PAMAS G1, which was French licensed and made. The weapons are planned to stay in service until the year 2022, for greater threats the police use slightly modified Ruger Mini-14s purchased in the 1970s. While the vast majority of vehicles are screen printed French brand, some vehicles are provided by Ford. Plain clothes officers or specialised branches use vehicles from a variety of builders, law enforcement in France Official site of the French National Police Official site of the French Ministry of Interior Unofficial site of the National Police
4.
Law enforcement in France
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Law enforcement in France has a long history dating back to AD570, when night watch systems were commonplace. Policing is centralized at the national level, recently, legislation has allowed local governments to hire their own police officers which are called the police municipale. There are two police forces called Police nationale and Gendarmerie nationale. The Prefecture of Police of Paris provides policing services directly to Paris as a subdivision of Frances Ministry of the Interior, within these national forces only certain designated police officers have the power to conduct criminal investigations which are supervised by investigative magistrates. France has two police forces, The Police Nationale, formerly called the Sûreté, is considered a civilian police force. Its origins date back to 1812 and was created by Eugène François Vidocq, in 1966 its name was officially changed to Police Nationale. It has primary responsibility for cities and large urban areas. The Police Nationale are under the control of the Ministry of the Interior, the Gendarmerie Nationale is part of the French armed forces. It has the responsibility for policing smaller towns and rural areas, as well as the armed forces and military installations, airport security. Being a military force, the gendarmerie has a centralized organization structure. It is under the control of both the Ministry of Defence and the Ministry of the Interior, the Gendarmeries origin dates back to 1306 C. E. when King Philippe le Bel formed the first mounted military police force called the Maréchaussée. Between 1697 and 1699, King Louis XIV asserted his authority over police in France, in February 1791 it was renamed gendarmerie nationale by the revolutionary government of France. Today there are about 105000 gendarmes in France and they have special environment law enforcement and police power that ranges from pollution, hunting, fishing, forests products to nature protection. Its strength was roughly 10,000 in 2007, only counting the National Forests Office, the municipal policemen can notice all the breaches but cannot investigate. There are also local polices in the zones, as for the rural policemen the police rurale as such does not exist. Note the heterogeneousness of local polices both in means and in equipment, Police municipale are the local police of towns and cities in France. The French municipal police are under the authority of the mayor. The Police Nationale is responsible for Paris and other urban areas whereas the gendarmerie is responsible for small towns, the existence of two national police forces with similar goals and attributions, but somewhat different zones of activity, has at times created friction or competition between the two
5.
Riot control
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Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other security forces to control, disperse, and arrest people who are involved in a riot, demonstration, or protest. If a riot is spontaneous and irrational, actions which cause people to stop, however, these methods usually fail when there is severe anger with a legitimate cause, or the riot was planned or organized. Law enforcement officers or military personnel have long used less lethal weapons such as batons and whips to disperse crowds, since the 1980s, riot control officers have also used tear gas, pepper spray, rubber bullets, and electric tasers. In some cases, riot squads may also use Long Range Acoustic Devices, water cannons, armoured fighting vehicles, officers performing riot control typically wear protective equipment such as riot helmets, face visors, body armor, gas masks and riot shields. The first squad trained in techniques of riot control was formed in 1925 in colonial Shanghai as a response to the mismanaged riot of the May Thirtieth Movement. New policing methods, including combat pistol shooting, hand to hand combat skills, under Fairbairn, the SMP developed a myriad of riot control measures. These riot control techniques led to the introduction of Shanghais Reserve Unit - the first modern SWAT team, as a reserve unit, it was used to forcibly disband riots as well as to respond to high-level criminality like kidnappings and armed robberies. The skills developed in Shanghai have been adopted and adapted by both police forces and clandestine warfare units. For protection, officers performing riot control will often wear protective helmets and these are designed to protect the wearer from those dangers that come from direct melee and hurled objects such as bottles and bricks. The gear frequently worn by riot control officers protects the body with no vulnerable spots to exploit. For example, the worn by riot control officers have an additional outward-extending part that protects the back of the neck from assault. To provide even greater protection, the protective equipment often provides ballistic protection, if tear gas or other riot control agents are to be used, gas masks may also be worn. One of many additional concerns is to prevent people in the crowd from snatching officers side arms, in a very heavy crowd, the officer may not be able to see who is responsible for snatching a weapon, and may not even notice that it has happened. For this reason, riot police may have holsters with positive locking mechanisms or other means of retention. However, this can be a trade-off that increases the amount of time needed to draw the sidearm in an emergency, alternately, riot police may not carry sidearms at all. The initial choice of tactics determines the type of equipment used. The base choice is between lethal and less-than-lethal weaponry, the decision is based on the perceived level of threat and the existing laws, in many countries it is illegal to use lethal force to control riots in all but the most extreme circumstances. Special riot hand weapons include the wooden or rubber baton, the African sjambok, a leather or plastic whip, and the Indian lathi
6.
Crowd control
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Crowd control is a public security practice where large crowds are managed to prevent the outbreak of crowd crushes, affray, fights involving drunk and disorderly people or riots. Crowd crushes in particular can cause many hundreds of fatalities, crowd control can involve privately hired security guards as well as police officers. Crowd control is used at large, public gatherings like street fairs, music festivals, stadiums. At some events, security guards and police use metal detectors and sniffer dogs to prevent weapons, materials such as stanchions, crowd control barriers, fences and decals painted on the ground can be used to direct a crowd. Keeping the crowd comfortable and relaxed is also essential, so things like awnings, cooling fans, for controlling riots and demonstrations, see riot control. Specific products that are used to implement line management and public guidance in high traffic areas include retractable belt systems, post and rope systems are also popular, especially in banks and theaters. A crowd controller is also name for a bouncer or doorman
7.
Highway patrol
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They are also referred to in many countries as traffic police, although in other countries this term is more commonly used to refer to foot officers on point duty who control traffic at junctions. Duties of highway patrols or traffic police may include the following, commercial vehicle enforcement Enforcing highway laws related to commercial transport, including weight limits and hazardous materials rules. Education Providing public information, handouts, and displays to encourage safe driving, emergency response Securing the scene of a traffic accident by using cones and flares as well as providing first aid to the injured. Law enforcement Assisting local police in rural areas, and keeping an eye out for non-traffic violations, maintenance Observing and reporting damage to the roadways, and conducting hasty road surveys after disasters or the passage of inclement weather. Traffic enforcement Enforcing laws and regulations intended to improve traffic safety, in Argentina, traffic policing is the responsibility of the Argentine National Gendarmerie. In Australia, traffic policing is the responsibility of the police forces. Each force has its own sections, often a local section in each area. Wiki page about the WPR In Brazil, traffic policing is the responsibility of state, State administered highways are policed by a branch of the Military Police forces, called State Highway Military Police. At the same time Federal highways and roads are the responsibility of the Federal Highway Police, in Canada, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, except for the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Ontario Provincial Police Sûreté du Québec There is also a police force in Newfoundland known as the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary. Although this police force no longer exists as the provincial police service. Currently, the provincial sheriffs service in Alberta maintains a patrol that shares traffic duties with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and historically, several provinces. New Brunswick, have had their own highway patrols, Quebec also operates the Contrôle routier Québec, who enforce traffic laws in relation heavy vehicles. In Colombia, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Highway Police, in Croatia, traffic police special department is the national motorway patrol, patrols the motorways in Croatia. Missions include the prevention and detection of driving offences, the car fleet is BMW 330d, Mercedes-Benz C320 CDI, Skoda Superb, VW Passat, VW Tuareg, Audi A4, Honda Accord, Ford Mondeo, Opel Vectra and Porsche Carrera 997. In the Czech Republic, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Policie CR, in the Finland, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Finnish National Police. In Germany, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Autobahnpolizei section of the Landespolizei, in India, traffic policing on highways are carried out by state police forces. The Garda Traffic Corps, a unit of the Garda Síochána is responsible for patrolling the countries motorways
8.
Mountain Rescue
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Mountain rescue refers to search and rescue activities that occur in a mountainous environment, although the term is sometimes also used to apply to search and rescue in other wilderness environments. This tends to include mountains with technical rope access issues, snow, avalanches, ice, crevasses, glaciers, alpine environments and high altitudes. The difficult and remote nature of the terrain in which mountain rescue often occurs has resulted in the development of a number of pieces of equipment. Helicopters are often used to quickly extract casualties, and search dogs may be deployed to find a casualty, Mountain rescue services may be paid professionals or volunteer professionals. Paid rescue services are likely to exist in places with a high demand such as the Alps, national parks with mountain terrain. These are frequently made up of climbers and guides. Often paid rescue services may work in co-operation with voluntary services, for instance, a paid helicopter rescue team may work with a volunteer mountain rescue team on the ground. Mountain rescue is often free, although in parts of the world rescue organizations may charge for their services. But there are exceptions, e. g. Switzerland. In more remote or less-developed parts of the world organized mountain rescue services are often negligible or non-existent, the main missions are search and rescue, avalanche response, first aid, surveillance of mountain areas, prevention of accidents, and public safety. In the five national parks of the Canadian Rockies, mountain rescue is solely the responsibility of Parks Canadas, however, parties should be self-reliant and not expect a search to begin until the next day. Search and rescue costs are paid for by park entrance fees. It is a part of the rescue system in the Czech Republic. The Gendarmerie Nationale and the Police nationale are in charge of mountain rescuing, −5 Peloton de Gendarmerie de Montagne, in the Massif central and Vosges areas. 90 per cent of interventions are made by air, the Polices Compagnie républicaine de sécurité are as well providing mountain search and rescue both in French Alps and Pyrenees alternatively with the PGHM. Switzerland have a dense network of alpine rescue and relief organisations. The Swiss Rega have two very distinctive characteristics, they can reach any place in Switzerland under 15 minutes, due to their 10 bases and this means an emergency physician will be on the flight to provide advanced treatment. The Swiss canton of Valais doesnt use the Rega, they have their own fleet, named Air Glacier
9.
Gendarmerie
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A gendarmerie or gendarmery is a military component with jurisdiction in civil law enforcement. The term gendarmerie is derived from the medieval French expression gens darmes, in France and most Francophone nations, the gendarmerie is the branch of the armed forces responsible for internal security during wartime. This concept was introduced to several other Western European countries during the Napoleonic conquests, in the mid twentieth century, a number of former French mandates or colonial possessions such as Syria and the Republic of the Congo adopted a gendarmerie after independence. A somewhat related phenomenon has been the formation of units which fall under the authority of civilian police agencies. Since these are not strictly military forces, however, they are not considered gendarmerie, some of the more prominent modern gendarmerie organizations include the French National Gendarmerie, Italian Carabinieri, and Spanish Civil Guard. The word gendarme comes from the Old French gens darmes, meaning men-at-arms, during the Late Medieval to the Early Modern period, the term referred to a heavily armoured cavalryman of noble birth, primarily serving in the French army. The word gained policing connotations only after the French Revolution when the Maréchaussée of the Ancien Régime was renamed the Gendarmerie, historically, the spelling in English was gendarmery, but now the French spelling gendarmerie is more common. The Oxford English Dictionary uses gendarmery as the spelling, Merriam-Webster uses gendarmerie as the principal spelling. Gendarmes are often deployed in situations, sometimes in their own country. A gendarmerie may come under the authority of a ministry of defence, generally there is some coordination between a ministry of defence and a ministry of the interior over the use of gendarmes. A few forces which are no longer considered military retain the title gendarmerie for reasons of tradition, since different countries may make different use of institutional terms such as gendarmerie, there are cases in which the term may become confusing. For instance, in the French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland the gendarmeries are the civil police. In Chile, the word gendarmerie refers for historic reasons to the prison service, in some cases, a police services military links are ambiguous and it can be unclear whether a force should be defined as a gendarmerie. Some historical military units, such as South-West Africas Koevoet, were defined as police for political reasons. In 2014 the Mexican Federal Police, an armed force which has many attributes of a gendarmerie. The new force would initially number 5,000 personnel and was created with the assistance of the French gendarmerie, in countries where the gendarmerie and civilian police co-exist there may be rivalries and tensions between the forces. This was one of the reasons cited for the decision to disband the Belgian Gendarmerie, since the year 2000 four European countries—Belgium, Luxembourg, Greece and Austria—have replaced long-established gendarmeries with civilian police forces having no military links or functions. The GNA often take part in UN peace keeping missions, the use of military organisations to police civilian populations is common to many time periods and cultures
10.
Antiriot
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Riot control refers to the measures used by police, military, or other security forces to control, disperse, and arrest people who are involved in a riot, demonstration, or protest. If a riot is spontaneous and irrational, actions which cause people to stop, however, these methods usually fail when there is severe anger with a legitimate cause, or the riot was planned or organized. Law enforcement officers or military personnel have long used less lethal weapons such as batons and whips to disperse crowds, since the 1980s, riot control officers have also used tear gas, pepper spray, rubber bullets, and electric tasers. In some cases, riot squads may also use Long Range Acoustic Devices, water cannons, armoured fighting vehicles, officers performing riot control typically wear protective equipment such as riot helmets, face visors, body armor, gas masks and riot shields. The first squad trained in techniques of riot control was formed in 1925 in colonial Shanghai as a response to the mismanaged riot of the May Thirtieth Movement. New policing methods, including combat pistol shooting, hand to hand combat skills, under Fairbairn, the SMP developed a myriad of riot control measures. These riot control techniques led to the introduction of Shanghais Reserve Unit - the first modern SWAT team, as a reserve unit, it was used to forcibly disband riots as well as to respond to high-level criminality like kidnappings and armed robberies. The skills developed in Shanghai have been adopted and adapted by both police forces and clandestine warfare units. For protection, officers performing riot control will often wear protective helmets and these are designed to protect the wearer from those dangers that come from direct melee and hurled objects such as bottles and bricks. The gear frequently worn by riot control officers protects the body with no vulnerable spots to exploit. For example, the worn by riot control officers have an additional outward-extending part that protects the back of the neck from assault. To provide even greater protection, the protective equipment often provides ballistic protection, if tear gas or other riot control agents are to be used, gas masks may also be worn. One of many additional concerns is to prevent people in the crowd from snatching officers side arms, in a very heavy crowd, the officer may not be able to see who is responsible for snatching a weapon, and may not even notice that it has happened. For this reason, riot police may have holsters with positive locking mechanisms or other means of retention. However, this can be a trade-off that increases the amount of time needed to draw the sidearm in an emergency, alternately, riot police may not carry sidearms at all. The initial choice of tactics determines the type of equipment used. The base choice is between lethal and less-than-lethal weaponry, the decision is based on the perceived level of threat and the existing laws, in many countries it is illegal to use lethal force to control riots in all but the most extreme circumstances. Special riot hand weapons include the wooden or rubber baton, the African sjambok, a leather or plastic whip, and the Indian lathi
11.
French Resistance
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The Résistance also planned, coordinated, and executed acts of sabotage on the electrical power grid, transport facilities, and telecommunications networks. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944 and this burden amounted to approximately 20 million German reichsmarks per day, a sum that, in May 1940, was approximately equivalent to four hundred million French francs. Because of this overvaluation of German currency, the occupiers were able to make fair and honest requisitions and purchases while, in effect. Prices soared, leading to food shortages and malnutrition, particularly among children, the elderly. The labour shortage was worsened by the fact that a number of the French were also held as prisoners of war in Germany. Beyond these hardships and dislocations, the occupation became increasingly unbearable, onerous regulations, strict censorship, incessant propaganda and nightly curfews all played a role in establishing an atmosphere of fear and repression. The sight of French women consorting with German soldiers infuriated many French men, as reprisals for Résistance activities, the authorities established harsh forms of collective punishment. For example, the militancy of communist resistance in August 1941 led to the taking of thousands of hostages from the general population. A typical policy statement read, After each further incident, a number, reflecting the seriousness of the crime, during the occupation, an estimated 30,000 French civilian hostages were shot to intimidate others who were involved in acts of resistance. In early 1943, the Vichy authorities established a paramilitary group and they worked alongside German forces that, by the end of 1942, were stationed throughout France. The group collaborated closely with the Nazis, and was the Vichy equivalent of the Gestapo security forces in Germany and their actions were often brutal and included torture and execution of Résistance suspects. After the liberation of France in the summer of 1944, the French executed many of the estimated 25,000 to 35,000 miliciens for their collaboration. Many of those who escaped arrest fled to Germany, where they were incorporated into the Charlemagne Division of the Waffen SS, the experience of the Occupation was a deeply psychologically disorienting one for the French as what was once familiar and safe become strange and threatening. Many Parisians could not get over the shock experienced when they first saw the huge swastika flags hanging over the Hôtel de Ville, Many résistants often spoke of some climax when they saw some intolerable act of injustice, after which they could not longer remain passive. Barthelt recalled, I recognized him only by his hat, only by his hat, I tell you and because I was waiting on the roadside to see him pass. I saw his face all right, but there was no skin on it, both his poor eyes had been closed into two purple and yellow bruises. In the beginning, resistance was limited to such as severing phone lines, vandalizing posters. Another form of resistance was underground newspapers like Musée de lHomme which circulated clandestinely, the Musée de lHomme was founded by two professors, Paul Rivet and the Russian émigré Boris Vildé in July 1940
12.
French Communist Party
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The French Communist Party is a communist party in France. Although its electoral support has declined in recent decades, the PCF retains an influence in French politics. In 2012, the PCF claimed 138,000 members including 70,000 who have paid their membership fees and this would make it the third largest party in France in terms of membership after the Republicans and the Socialist Party. It was also once the largest French left-wing party in a number of elections, from 1945 to 1960. The PCF has lost further ground to the Socialists since that time, since 2009 the PCF has been a leading member of the Left Front, alongside Jean-Luc Mélenchons Left Party. The PCF is a member of the Party of the European Left, the new SFIC defined itself as revolutionary and democratic centralist. The 1920s saw a number of splits within the party over relations with other left-wing parties, the party entered the French parliament, but also promoted strike action and opposed colonialism. Pierre Sémard, leader from 1924 to 1928, sought party unity and alliances with other parties, with the rise of Fascism after 1934 the PCF supported the Popular Front, which came to power under Léon Blum in 1936. The party supported the Spanish Republicans, and opposed the 1938 Munich agreement with Hitler, PCFs Members of Parliament vote declaration of war against Germany in 1939. But the party was banned after German–Soviet Non-aggression Pact by the government of Édouard Daladier, the leadership, threatened with execution, fled abroad. After the German invasion of 1940 the party began to organise opposition to the occupation, at the same time the PCF began to work with de Gaulles Free France government in exile, and later took part in the National Council of the Resistance. By the time the German occupation ended in 1944, the party had become a force in many parts of France. It was among the parties in elections in 1945 and 1946, and entered into the governing Tripartite alliance. However, amid concerns within France and abroad over the extent of communist influence, under pressure from Moscow, the PCF thereafter distanced itself from other parties and focussed on agitation within its trade union base. For the rest of the Fourth Republic period the PCF, led by Thorez and Jacques Duclos, remained isolated, still taking a Stalinist line. Although the PCF opposed de Gaulles formation of the Fifth Republic in 1958, the years saw a rapprochement with other left-wing forces. With Waldeck Rochet as its new secretary-general, the party supported François Mitterrands unsuccessful presidential bid in 1965, during the student riots and strikes of May 1968, the party supported the strikes while denouncing the revolutionary student movements. Under the Common Programme, however, the PCF steadily lost ground to the PS, initially allotted a minor share in Mitterrands government, the PCF resigned in 1984 as the government turned towards fiscal orthodoxy
13.
Guadeloupe
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Guadeloupe is an insular region of France located in the Leeward Islands, part of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Administratively, it is a region consisting of a single overseas department. With a land area of 1,628 square kilometres and a population of 400,132 as of January 2015. Guadeloupes two main islands are Basse-Terre to the west and Grande-Terre to the east, which are separated by a strait that is crossed with bridges. They are often referred to as a single island, the department also includes the Dependencies of Guadeloupe, which include the smaller islands of Marie-Galante and La Désirade, and the Îles des Saintes. Guadeloupe, like the other departments, is an integral part of France. As a constituent territory of the European Union and the Eurozone, as an overseas department, however, it is not part of the Schengen Area. The prefecture of Guadeloupe is the city of Basse-Terre, which lies on the island of the same name, the official language is French, and virtually the entire population except recent arrivals from metropolitan France also speak Antillean Creole. Christopher Columbus named the island Santa María de Guadalupe in 1493 after the Virgin Mary, venerated in the Spanish town of Guadalupe, the island was called Karukera by the Arawak people, who settled on there in 300 AD/CE. During the 8th century, the Caribs came and killed the population of Amerindians on the island. During his second trip to the Americas, in November 1493, Christopher Columbus became the first European to land on Guadeloupe, while seeking fresh water. He called it Santa María de Guadalupe de Extremadura, after the image of the Virgin Mary venerated at the Spanish monastery of Villuercas, in Guadalupe, the expedition set ashore just south of Capesterre, but left no settlers behind. Columbus is credited with discovering the pineapple on the island of Guadeloupe in 1493 and he called it piña de Indias, which can be correctly translated as pine cone of the Indies. During the 17th century, the Caribs fought against the Spanish settlers, after successful settlement on the island of St. Due to Martiniques inhospitable nature, the duo resolved to settle in Guadeloupe in 1635, took possession of the island and it was annexed to the kingdom of France in 1674. Over the next century, the British seized the island several times, the economy benefited from the lucrative sugar trade, which commenced during the closing decades of the 17th century. Guadeloupe produced more sugar than all the British islands combined, worth about £6 million a year, the British captured Guadeloupe in 1759. The British government decided that Canada was strategically important and kept Canada while returning Guadeloupe to France in the Treaty of Paris that ended the Seven Years War
14.
Algerian War
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An important decolonization war, it was a complex conflict characterized by guerrilla warfare, maquis fighting, and the use of torture by both sides. The conflict also became a war between loyalist Algerians supporting a French Algeria and their Algerian nationalist counterparts. A referendum took place on 8 April 1962 and the French electorate approved the Évian Accords, the planned French withdrawal led to a state crisis, to various assassination attempts on de Gaulle, and to some attempts at military coups. Upon independence, in 1962,900,000 European-Algerians fled to France, in fear of the FLNs revenge, the French government was totally unprepared for the vast number of refugees, which caused turmoil in France. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the French invaded Algiers in 1830, in 1834, Algeria became a French military colony and was subsequently declared by the constitution of 1848 to be an integral part of France and divided into three departments. Many French and other Europeans later settled in Algeria, under the Second Empire, the Code de lindigénat was implemented by the Sénatus-consulte of July 14,1865. Its first article stipulated, The indigenous Muslim is French, however and he may be admitted to serve in the army and the navy. He may be called to functions and civil employment in Algeria and he may, on his demand, be admitted to enjoy the rights of a French citizen, in this case, he is subjected to the political and civil laws of France. However, prior to 1870, fewer than 200 demands were registered by Muslims and 152 by Jewish Algerians, the 1865 decree was then modified by the 1870 Crémieux decrees, which granted French nationality to Jews living in one of the three Algerian departments. In 1881, the Code de lIndigénat made the official by creating specific penalties for indigènes. The Law of September 20,1947, granted French citizenship to all Algerian subjects, Algeria was unique to France because, unlike all other overseas possessions acquired by France during the 19th century, only Algeria was considered and legally classified an integral part of France. Both Muslim and European Algerians took part in World War I, Algerian Muslims served as tirailleurs and spahis, and French settlers as Zouaves or Chasseurs dAfrique. Within this context, a grandson of Abd el-Kadir spearheaded the resistance against the French in the first half of the 20th century and he was a member of the directing committee of the French Communist Party. The North African Star broke from the PCF in 1928, before being dissolved in 1929 at Pariss demand, the pieds-noirs violently demonstrated against it and the North African Party opposed it, leading to the projects abandonment. This new party was dissolved in 1939, under Vichy, the French state attempted to abrogate the Crémieux decree in order to suppress the Jews French citizenship, but the measure was never implemented. On the other hand, nationalist leader Ferhat Abbas founded the Algerian Popular Union in 1938, in 1943 Abbas wrote the Algerian Peoples Manifesto. In the early morning hours of November 1,1954, FLN maquisards attacked military and he declared in the National Assembly, One does not compromise when it comes to defending the internal peace of the nation, the unity and integrity of the Republic. The Algerian departments are part of the French Republic and they have been French for a long time, and they are irrevocably French
15.
May 1968 events in France
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The volatile period of civil unrest in France during May 1968 was punctuated by demonstrations and massive general strikes as well as the occupation of universities and factories across France. At the height of its fervor, it brought the economy of France to a virtual halt. May 68 had a impact on French society that would be felt for decades to come. It is considered to this day as a cultural, social and moral turning point in the history of the country, as Alain Geismar—one of the leaders of the time—later pointed out, the movement succeeded as a social revolution, not as a political one. The unrest began with a series of student occupation protests against capitalism, consumerism and traditional institutions, values and it then spread to factories with strikes involving 11 million workers, more than 22% of the total population of France at the time, for two continuous weeks. It was the largest general strike ever attempted in France, the student occupations and wildcat general strikes initiated across France were met with forceful confrontation by university administrators and police. De Gaulle went to a French military base in Germany, and after returning dissolved the National Assembly, Violence evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, and when the elections were held in June. In February 1968, the French Communists and French Socialists formed an electoral alliance, the universitys administration called the police, who surrounded the university. After the publication of their wishes, the left the building without any trouble. After this first record some leaders of what was named the Movement of 22 March were called together by the committee of the university. Following months of conflicts between students and authorities at the Paris University at Nanterre, the shut down the university on May 2,1968. Students at the Sorbonne University in Paris met on May 3 to protest against the closure and the threatened expulsion of several students at Nanterre. More than 20,000 students, teachers and supporters marched towards the Sorbonne, still sealed off by the police, who charged, wielding their batons, as soon as the marchers approached. While the crowd dispersed, some began to create out of whatever was at hand, while others threw paving stones. The police then responded with tear gas and charged the crowd again, high school student unions spoke in support of the riots on 6 May. Negotiations broke down, and students returned to their campuses after a report that the government had agreed to reopen them. The students now had a near revolutionary fervor, on Friday,10 May, another huge crowd congregated on the Rive Gauche
16.
Mobile Gendarmerie
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The Mobile Gendarmerie is a subdivision of the French National Gendarmerie whose main mission is to maintain public order and general security. Although the term mobile has been used at different times in the 19th century, the Mobile Gendarmerie is nicknamed la jaune because of its golden rank insignia, the traditional color of infantry in the French Army. The Mobile Gendarmerie is often mistaken with the National Polices CRS, as their missions are similar, still, many lawmakers were reluctant to create a force which - they thought - might become a new Praetorian guard. In 1921, it was decided to create Mobile Gendarmerie platoons in the Departmental Gendarmerie. In 1926, the formed the Garde Républicaine mobile, which became a separate branch in 1927. By 1940, the GRM was a force 21.000 strong, more than 6.000 GMR gendarmes fought in 1940 either in line Gendarmerie combat units or as detached personnel seconded to the Army. After the 1940 armistice, the Germans demanded that the GRM be disestablished, being attached to the cavalry branch of the Army, the Garde traded its companies for squadrons. After the Liberation, the Garde was disbanded and the GMR recreated under the new designation of Garde républicaine, in 1954, it acquired its present name of Gendarmerie mobile. During the post-war years, all new Gendarmes started their carrier in the Mobile Gendarmerie. In 2009, the Gendarmerie, while remaining part of the French Armed Forces, was attached to the Ministry of the interior, which already supervised the National Police, without changes to its missions. As a consequence of that change, the formal requisition process which the Ministry of the interior needed in order to use Mobile Gendarmerie forces is not used anymore. The territorial organisation of the GM is as follows,7 Zonal Gendarmerie Regions corresponding to the 7 metropolitan National Defense Zones,18 Mobile Gendarmerie Groupings including 1 armoured grouping based in Satory, near Versailles in the Paris area. 109 squadrons, each led by a major or a captain,1 National Gendarmerie Intervention Group with six metropolitan GIGN branches. Their missions include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, surveillance of national threats, protection of government officials, GIGN is able to deploy a 200 men hostage rescue team to manage a major crisis. The Gendarmerie has a training facility, the National Gendarmerie forces training center, in Saint-Astier. Every squadron takes a two-week refresher training in riot-control techniques there every second year,18 to 20 of the 109 squadrons are permanently deployed on a rotational basis in the French overseas departments and territories. Until 2015, there used to be Reserve Mobile Gendarmerie squadrons but they were disestablished, since 2016, metropolitan France has been divided into 12 administrative regions and the Departmental Gendarmerie has followed this pattern with 13 Gendarmerie Regions. The general officer in charge of a region whose capital is also the seat of a Defense Zone heads all Mobile Gendarmerie forces of that region, the number of Zonal regions, which went down from 9 to 7 in 2000, was left unchanged in the 2016 reform
17.
Director-general
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It is commonly used in many countries worldwide, but often with different meanings. In most Australian states, the director-general is the most senior civil servant in any government department, in Victoria and the Australian Government, the equivalent position is the secretary of the department. A director general in the government is typically not the most senior civil servant in a department. Directors general typically report to a senior civil servant, such as an assistant deputy minister or associate deputy minister. Deputy ministers are the highest level bureaucrat within the Canadian civil service at the federal, provincial and territorial levels, deputy Ministers are not politicians but professional bureaucrats. Outside the federal, provincial and territorial civil services, some public sector such as school boards in Quebec use the title the director general. In the European Commission and the Council of the European Union and this is roughly equivalent to a British permanent secretary. In France, the similar word président-directeur général means the highest person in a company, from 2001 the two charges may be disjointed. The directeur général délégué has a similar to a chief operating officer. French ministries are divided in general directorates, sometimes named central directorates or simply directorates, headed respectively by a directeur général, a directeur central, or a directeur. In Germany, Generaldirektor may be used for the CEO of a large and established concern, corporation, company or enterprise, the title is, however, unofficial and by now largely out of use. Officially a GmbH has a Geschäftsführer and an Aktiengesellschaft a board of directors with a chairman. The term is used by German Institute Taipei, Germanys informal representative mission to the Republic of China. In India, there is a Director General of Police and Director General of Income Tax in each state, Indian Coast Guard is headed by Director General of Indian Coast Guard. In Italian provinces and greatest communes direttore generale is an administrative officer nominated by president of province or by mayor. The title of direttore generale is also given to the executive of an azienda sanitaria. The word Director-General was used in the Philippines as a Highest Rank Law Enforcer which means the head of law enforcement agency, the position exists for all Commonwealth of Independent States legal forms except for sole proprietorships. The general director is the executive body of a company
18.
Autoroutes of France
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The Autoroute system in France consists largely of toll roads, except around large cities and in parts of the north. It is a network of 11,882 km worth of motorways in 2014, Autoroute destinations are shown in blue, while destinations reached through a combination of autoroutes are shown with an added autoroute logo. Toll autoroutes are signalled with the word péage, unlike other motorway systems, there is no systematic numbering system, but there is a clustering of Autoroute numbers based on region. A1, A3, A4, A5, A6, A10, A13, A14, A15, A16 radiate from Paris with A2, A11, and A12 branching from A1, A10, A7 begins in Lyon, where A6 ends. A8 and A9 begin respectively near Aix-en-Provence and Avignon, the 20s are found in northern France. The 30s are found in eastern France, the 40s are found near the Alps. The 50s are near the French Riviera, the 60s are found in southern France. The 70s are found in the centre of the country, the 80s are found west of Paris. Some of the autoroutes have their own name in addition to a number, A4 is the autoroute de lEst. A6 and A7 are autoroutes du Soleil, for lead from northern to southern France. A8 is named La provençale as it cross Provence, A9 is named La Languedocienne as it crosses the Languedoc A10 is named LAquitaine because it leads to Bordeaux, which is situated in the part of France named Aquitaine. The A13 is named the autoroute de Normandie as it traverses Normandy, a20 is named Loccitane as it leads to the south-west of France, this part of France was historically called Occitanie. The A26 is the autoroute des Anglais as it leads from Calais and it continues to Troyes, and just happens to pass straight through the Champagne region, whose wines are so loved by the British. It also passes sites of earlier UK interest such as Crecy, the A29 is part of the route des Estuaires, a chain of motorways crossing the estuaries of the English Channel. The A40 is named the autoroute blanche because it is the road goes to Chamonix. The A62 and A61 are named autoroute des deux mers because these roads connect the Atlantic Ocean, a68 is called autoroute du Pastel because it leads to Albi and to the Lauragais where woad was cultivated to produce pastel. The N104, one of Pariss beltways, is known as La Francilienne because it circles the region of Ile-de-France. The status of motorways in France has been the subject of debate through years, originally, the autoroutes were built by private companies mandated by the French government, and followed strict construction rules as described below
19.
Highway Patrol
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They are also referred to in many countries as traffic police, although in other countries this term is more commonly used to refer to foot officers on point duty who control traffic at junctions. Duties of highway patrols or traffic police may include the following, commercial vehicle enforcement Enforcing highway laws related to commercial transport, including weight limits and hazardous materials rules. Education Providing public information, handouts, and displays to encourage safe driving, emergency response Securing the scene of a traffic accident by using cones and flares as well as providing first aid to the injured. Law enforcement Assisting local police in rural areas, and keeping an eye out for non-traffic violations, maintenance Observing and reporting damage to the roadways, and conducting hasty road surveys after disasters or the passage of inclement weather. Traffic enforcement Enforcing laws and regulations intended to improve traffic safety, in Argentina, traffic policing is the responsibility of the Argentine National Gendarmerie. In Australia, traffic policing is the responsibility of the police forces. Each force has its own sections, often a local section in each area. Wiki page about the WPR In Brazil, traffic policing is the responsibility of state, State administered highways are policed by a branch of the Military Police forces, called State Highway Military Police. At the same time Federal highways and roads are the responsibility of the Federal Highway Police, in Canada, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, except for the provinces of Ontario and Quebec. Ontario Provincial Police Sûreté du Québec There is also a police force in Newfoundland known as the Royal Newfoundland Constabulary. Although this police force no longer exists as the provincial police service. Currently, the provincial sheriffs service in Alberta maintains a patrol that shares traffic duties with the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and historically, several provinces. New Brunswick, have had their own highway patrols, Quebec also operates the Contrôle routier Québec, who enforce traffic laws in relation heavy vehicles. In Colombia, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Highway Police, in Croatia, traffic police special department is the national motorway patrol, patrols the motorways in Croatia. Missions include the prevention and detection of driving offences, the car fleet is BMW 330d, Mercedes-Benz C320 CDI, Skoda Superb, VW Passat, VW Tuareg, Audi A4, Honda Accord, Ford Mondeo, Opel Vectra and Porsche Carrera 997. In the Czech Republic, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Policie CR, in the Finland, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Finnish National Police. In Germany, traffic policing on highways is the responsibility of the Autobahnpolizei section of the Landespolizei, in India, traffic policing on highways are carried out by state police forces. The Garda Traffic Corps, a unit of the Garda Síochána is responsible for patrolling the countries motorways
20.
Barracks
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A barrack or barracks is a building or group of buildings built to house soldiers. The word may apply to separate housing blocks or to complete complexes, the main object of barracks is to separate soldiers from the civilian population and reinforce discipline, training, and esprit de corps. They have been called discipline factories for soldiers, Early barracks such as those of the Roman Praetorian Guard were built to maintain elite forces. There are a number of remains of Roman army barracks in frontier forts such as Vercovicium, from these and from contemporary Roman sources we can see that the basics of life in a military camp have remained constant for thousands of years. Large, permanent barracks were developed in the 18th century by the two dominant states of the period, France the caserne and Spain the cuartel. The English term ‘barrack’, on the hand, derives from the Spanish word for a temporary shelter erected by soldiers on campaign. Early barracks were multi-story blocks, often grouped in a quadrangle around a courtyard or parade ground, a good example is Berwick Barracks, which was among the first in England to be purpose-built and begun in 1717 to the design of the distinguished architect Nicholas Hawksmoor. The pavilion plan concept of design was influential in barrack planning after the Crimean War. The first large-scale training camps were built in the Kingdom of France, the British Army built Aldershot camps from 1854. By the First World War, infantry, artillery, and cavalry regiments had separate barracks and these were inadequate for the enormous armies mobilized after 1914. Hut camps were developed using variations of the eponymous Nissen hut, in many military forces, NCOs and enlisted personnel will frequently be housed in barracks for service or training. Junior enlisted and sometimes junior NCOs will often receive less space and may be housed in bays, while senior NCOs, the term Garrison town is a common expression for any town that has military barracks, i. e. a permanent military presence nearby. Barracks blockhouses were used to house troops in forts in Upper Canada, the Stone Frigate, completed in 1820, served as barracks briefly in 1837–38, and was refitted as a dormitory and classrooms to house the Royal Military College of Canada by 1876. The Stone frigate is a stone building originally designed to hold gear. The majority of the Portuguese Army bases is referred as a quartel, in a barracks, each of the dormitory buildings is referred as a caserna. Most of them are regimental barracks, constituting the fixed component of the Army system of forces and being responsible for the training, sustenance, in addition to the regimental administrative, logistic and training bodies, each barracks can lodge one or more operational units. Many of the Portuguese regimental barracks are of the CANIFA model, the CANIFA barracks were designed to lodge 1,000 or more soldiers. Nevertheless, some soldiers lodgings were built in Britain at this time, the first recorded use of the word barracks in this context was for the Irish Barracks, built in the precinct of the Tower of London in 1669
21.
National Gendarmerie
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The National Gendarmerie is one of two national police forces of France. It is a branch of the French Armed Forces placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the Interior—with additional duties to the Ministry of Defense and its area of responsibility includes smaller towns and rural areas, while the Police Nationale—a civilian force—is in charge of cities and large towns. Due to its status, the Gendarmerie also fulfills a range of military. The Gendarmes also have a cybercrime division and it has a strength of more than 100,000 personnel as of 2014. The Gendarmerie is heir to the Maréchaussée, the oldest police force in France and it has influenced the culture and traditions of gendarmerie forces all around the world—and especially in the former French colonial empire. The Gendarmerie is the descendant of the Marshalcy of the ancien regime, more commonly known by its French title. During the Middle Ages, there were two Grand Officers of the Kingdom of France with police responsibilities, The Marshal of France, the marshalcy dates back to the Hundred Years War, and some historians trace it back to the early twelfth century. Another organisation, the Constabulary, was under the command of the Constable of France, the constabulary was regularised as a military body in 1337. In 1415 the Maréchaussée fought in the Battle of Agincourt and their commander and his existence was rediscovered in 1934. Gallois de Fougières was then recorded as the first known gendarme to have died in the line of duty. Under King Francis I, the Maréchaussée was merged with the Constabulary, the resulting force was also known as the Maréchaussée, or, formally, the Constabulary and Marshalcy of France. Unlike the former constabulary the new Maréchaussée was not a fully militarized force, in 1720, the Maréchaussée was officially attached to the Household of the King, together with the gendarmerie of the time, which was not a police force at all, but a royal bodyguard. English visitors to France saw their armed and uniformed patrols as royal soldiers with an oppressive role, despite their connection with the king, they were therefore perceived as a force favouring the reforms of the French National Assembly. As a result, the Maréchaussée Royale was not disbanded but simply renamed as the gendarmerie nationale and its personnel remained unchanged, and the functions of the force remained much as before. However, from this point, the gendarmerie, unlike the Maréchaussée became a military force. During the revolutionary period, the force responsible for policing was the National Guard. Although the Maréchaussée had been the police force of the ancien regime. In 1791 the newly named gendarmerie nationale was grouped into 28 divisions, in turn, two companies of gendarmes under the command of captains were based in each department
22.
Air Transport Gendarmerie
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The Air Transport Gendarmerie is a branch of the French Gendarmerie placed under the dual supervision of the Gendarmerie and the Direction of Civilian Aviation of the Transportation Ministry. It has a strength of about 1,100 and is commanded by a general officer and its missions are centered on airport security. It also carries out judicial inquiries pertaining to civilian aviation accidents, the GTA was created in 1953 out of existing airport gendarmerie specialist units created from 1946. The Air Transport Gendarmerie should not be confused with the smaller Air Gendarmerie, all personnel follow an initial aviation-related course called Formation Aéronautique de Base. Most personnel receive more specialised training at the École nationale de laviation civile, the GTA headquarters are in Paris. The GTA is divided into two metropolitan groupings and the overseas units, the metropolitan groupings are divided into companies, and both also maintain a Brigade de recherche. The different companies cover more airports than just the airport in their name, the Northern Grouping is headquartered at Paris-Charles-de-Gaulle airport. It contains the Paris-Charles-de-Gaulle company, the Paris-Orly Company, the Brest Company, the Southern Grouping is headquartered in Aix-en-Provence. It contains the Lyons Company, the Bordeaux Company, the Marseilles Company, the Nice Company, seven small brigades cover overseas installations
23.
Departmental Gendarmerie
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The Departmental Gendarmerie is the territorial police branch of the French Gendarmerie. The departmental gendarmerie has regular contact with the population and conducts local policing functions throughout the French territory, the Departmental Gendarmerie is sometimes called La Blanche after the colour of the silver/white unit and rank insignia they wear in contrast to the golden insignia of the Mobile Gendarmerie. In France white or silver insignia traditionally indicates a mounted arm and its territorial divisions are based on the administrative divisions of France, particularly the departments from which the Departmental Gendarmerie derives its name. These are divided into Legions, one for each of the 12 metropolitan administrative Regions of France, the Legions are divided into groupements. The groupements are divided into compagnies, the basic organization is the gendarmerie squad sized brigade, which includes from 6 to 40 people, and are generally located at the level of the canton. The brigades can be organized in groups of brigades with a unit of chief town, each brigade is in charge of the monitoring one or several communes day and night as well as reception with the public. The gendarmes there receive the complaints, carry out the administrative and legal. Brigades of a form a company. The companies of a department form a grouping and the groupings of an area form an area since the territorial reorganization of July 1,2005. Previously the areas took the name of “legions”, one counts 22 areas of departmental gendarmerie today. Thus, each level of the departmental gendarmerie corresponds to a level of the administration of the territory. Each hierarchical level is ordered by an officer, person in charge for the units of the departmental gendarmerie placed under its spring and it is the corresponding one in load of the public safety of the administrative authority. These units either increase the number of patrols in the streets, one finds a PSIG by district in general. Motorized units, gendarmes motorcyclists in charge of the monitoring of the network, they do not depend on the company. The Motorized Motorway Brigades, Groups and the Rapid Intervention Brigades are also in the EDSR, the Research Brigades and Sections, are made up only of legal senior police officers. They are exclusively in charge of the missions of the Criminal Investigation Department, the reservists of the departmental Gendarmerie takes part in the daily newspaper with the reinforcement of the units of departmental Gendarmerie. Initially one found a PRGD by departmental squad of Gendarmes and this organization is in the course of modification with the recasting of the PRGD in PRSIG in order to better adapt to the needs of and the reinforcement of the commune units. The PRSIG are more and more frequently associated a company and either limited to 1 by grouping
24.
Maritime Gendarmerie
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The Maritime Gendarmerie is a component of the French National Gendarmerie under operational control of the chief of staff of the French Navy. It employs 1,100 personnel and operates around thirty patrol boats, like their land-based colleagues the Gendarmes Maritime are military personnel carry out policing operations in addition to their primary role as a coast guard service. They also carry out provost duties within the French Navy, the uniforms and insignia of the Gendarmerie Maritime are very similar to those of the French Navy, but the ranks used are those of the rest of the Gendarmerie. The mission of the Maritime Gendarmerie is as follows, Maritime safety and of police force duties in the territorial waters and EEZ. Criminal Investigation Department under the authority of public prosecutor, protection of the naval shore establishments. The Maritime Gendarmerie is commanded by a colonel who is assisted by a staff located in Paris
25.
Republican Guard (France)
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The Republican Guard is part of the French Gendarmerie. It is responsible for providing guards of honor for the State, honor and security services for the highest national personalities and important foreign guests, Military ceremonies and guards of honour for fallen soldiers. The Guard however provides counter-sniper teams and SWAT teams, the Republican Guard also represents France at international events at home or abroad. The Republican Guard is twinned with the Red Guard of Senegal and its name derives from the Municipal Guard of Paris, established on 12 Vendémiaire XI by Napoleon Bonaparte. It distinguished itself in battles of historical significance, including Danzig and Friedland in 1807, Alcolea in 1808, in 1830, it was recreated, and again removed after the Revolution of 1848 in favor of the Civic Guard. June 1848 saw the creation of the Republican Guard of Paris, including an infantry regiment and it received its insignia July 14,1880. It took part in the First World War and saw its flag, during the Second World War, it reported to the police headquarters and took the name of Guard of Paris. Part of its staff rallied to General de Gaulle and the Guard was involved in the fightings alongside the FFI during the liberation of Paris. In 1952, the guard was renamed the Legion of the Republican Guard of Paris and took part in the Indochina War, in 1978, the guard took its current name of Republican Guard. President Giscard dEstaing gave it, on 11 November 1979, its new insignia, michele Alliot-Marie, Minister of Defence, said in October 2002, The Republican Guard has a popularity that transcends borders, it contributes to the splendour of the French military and France. These ceremonial functions are performed mainly by the first infantry regiment, detachments from the cavalry regiment reinforce the two infantry regiments in carrying out ceremonial and security duties in and around state buildings. These include the lining of both sides of the stairs of the Elysée or Matignon Palaces by dismounted cavalry on special occasions. These Republican Guards belong to the Cavalry Regiment and not to the units whose mission is to ensure the security of these palaces. Certain ceremonial duties in the form of guards are performed when state visits are made to the Paris museums or the Opera. Security missions Some guards are assigned to specific missions, Security of diplomatic bags entering and leaving the Ministry for Foreign Affairs. Safety of the Tour de France by the motorcycle squadron, the Republican Guard belongs to the French National Gendarmerie. As a historically Parisian organization, the guards wear the armorial bearings of the city on their uniforms and it consists of two infantry regiments and a horse cavalry regiment. It also has four musical formations, as well as display teams demonstrating prowess in horseback or motorcycle maneuvers, the Guard is commanded by a general de division
26.
National Gendarmerie Intervention Group
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Groupe dintervention de la Gendarmerie nationale, commonly abbreviated GIGN, is the elite law enforcement and special operations unit of the French National Gendarmerie. Its missions include counter-terrorism, hostage rescue, surveillance of national threats, protection of government officials, GIGN was established in 1974 following the Munich massacre. GIGN shares jurisdiction of French territory with the National Police special-response units, GIGN is headquartered in Versailles-Satory near Paris. Although most of its operations take place in France, the unit, as a component of the French Armed Forces, many of its missions are secret, and members are not allowed to be publicly photographed. Since its formation, GIGN has been involved in over 1,800 missions and rescued more than 600 hostages, the unit came into prominence following its successful assault on a hijacked Air France flight at Marseille Marignane airport in December 1994. GIGN was formed in 1973 in the wake of the Munich massacre and it became operational in March 1974, under the command of then-lieutenant Christian Prouteau and performed its first mission ten days later. Another unit was created simultaneously within the Gendarmerie parachute squadron in Mont-de-Marsan in southwest France, gIGNs initial complement was 15, later increased to 32 in 1976,78 by 1986, and 120 by 2005. On 1 September 2007, a reorganization took place. In effect, GSIGN was renamed GIGN and its former components became forces of the new GIGN which now reached a total complement of 380 operators. More than a simple name swap, the new organization aimed at, reinforcing command and control functions providing better integration through common selection, common training, improving the units capability to handle complex situations such as mass hostage-takings similar to the Beslan crisis. In 2009, the Gendarmerie, while remaining part of the French Armed Forces, was attached to the Ministry of the interior, under the new command structure, GIGN gendarmes can still be engaged in military operations outside of France due to their military status. Coordination between GIGN and RAID, the police elite team, is handled by a joint organization called Ucofi. A leader/follower protocol has been established for use when both units need to be engaged jointly, leadership belonging to the operating in its primary areas of responsibility. Since its creation, the group has taken part in over 1800 operations, liberated over 600 hostages and arrested over 1500 suspects, the two fatalities in action were sustained when dealing with armed deranged persons. Arrest of dangerous or deranged armed persons, surveillance and observation of criminals and terrorists. GIGN is currently organized in six forces, under two headquarters, Intervention force, Approx,100 men, serving as the main assault unit of the GIGN. It is divided into four platoons (French, sections, two of which are on permanent alert and these platoons are further divided into individual teams of operators. Two of the sections are specialized in high altitude jumps
27.
Central Directorate of Public Security
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The DCSP consists of over 78,000 mainly uniformed police personnel known as Gardiens de la Paix deployed in 102 Départemental directorates with 462 Urban Offices. They provide general police services, including prevention, patrol. The DGSP maintains a small plainclothes corps who investigates local crimes, the DCSP also deploys 9 Groupes dIntervention de la Police Nationale, intervention units similar to the Recherche Assistance Intervention Dissuasion team. There are also dog units, boat units, and an air wing, Police in France Department of Public Safety French ministry of the Interior
28.
Research and Intervention Brigades
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A Research and Intervention Brigade, commonly abbreviated BRI, often called Anti-Gang Brigade, is a unit of the French National Police. BRIs specialise in serious cases such as armed robbery and kidnappings. They typically attempt to catch offenders in the act after monitoring their activities and they use a mix of traditional techniques and modern technology to collect and archive data about banditry. There are now more than 15 BRI units, located in Frances major cities, the first of them, the Paris BRI, was created in 1964. In 1972, in the wake of the Munich massacre, it was decided that BRI-PP would, as an additional task, BRI-BAC, when activated, is reinforced by other specialised units of the Préfecture de police. In the last two cases, BRI-BAC and the National Polices RAID operated together as part of the National Police Intervention Force, the first BRI, BRI-PP was created in Paris in 1964. Initially set up as a new section in one of the PPs Directorate of Judiciary Police brigades, BRI became a brigade in 1967. The BRI method was innovative enough so that it was copied all around France. All BRI units - including Paris BRI-PP, Judiciary police work with an emphasis on flagrante delicto cases, all BRIs can set up special response teams in case of a terrorist attack. Paris BRI when activated as BRI-BAC, crisis response in hostage, the BRIs are primarily judiciary police units and, contrary to RAID, their members operate in plain clothes for most missions. Hoods are used to ensure anonymity during some of these missions, besides the Paris BRI, there are a dozen regional BRI units and two National unit, BRI-N based in Nanterre and in charge of assisting when inquiries are conducted at the national level
29.
Paris Police Prefecture
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It is headed by the Prefect of Police. It is also in charge of emergency services, such as the Paris Fire Brigade, the Prefecture of Police also has limited security duties in the wider Île-de-France région. The prefecture is a building located in the Place Louis Lépine on the Île de la Cité. This building was built as a barracks for the Garde républicaine from 1863 to 1867 and was occupied by the Prefecture in 1871, as it is the capital of France, with government assemblies and offices and foreign embassies, Paris poses special issues of security and public order. Consequently, the government has been responsible for providing law enforcement. Disbanded at the start of the French Revolution in 1789, it was replaced by the current Prefecture of Police created by Napoléon I on February 17,1800. This means that Paris does not have its own police municipale, in Parisian slang, the police are sometimes known as the archers, a very old slang term in reference to the archers of the long-defunct Royal Watch. The jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police was initially the Seine département and its jurisdiction also included the communes of Saint-Cloud, Sèvres, Meudon, and Enghien-les-Bains, which were located in the Seine-et-Oise département. These four communes were added in the 19th century to the jurisdiction of the Prefecture of Police in order to ensure protection of the imperial/royal residences located there. This territory made up of four départements is larger than the pre-1968 Seine département, the Prefecture of Police also has limited jurisdiction over the whole Île-de-France région for the coordination of law enforcement. As such, he coordinates the work of the departmental préfets of Île-de-France, the Prefect of Police can issue arrêtés defining rules pertaining to his field of competency. For instance, the rules of operation and security of Paris public parks are issued as joint arrêtés from the Mayor of Paris, the current Prefect of Police is Bernard Boucault. Until 1977, Paris had indeed no mayor and the police was essentially in the hands of the préfet de police. However, the powers of the mayor of Paris were increased at the expense of those of the Préfet de Police in 2002, notably for traffic and parking decisions. There is also a prefect of Paris, prefect for the region, whose services handle some tasks not devoted to the Police Prefect. Place Louis Lépine,1 rue de Lutèce,75004 Paris Tel,0154735373,0153715371,0140797979, the Prefecture of Police is divided into three sub-prefectures headed by prefects due to their importance. With four Administrative Directorates, General Police-Administrative police duties Medico-Legal Institute Traffic, Transport, veterinary Service Human Resources - Personnel, budget, equipment and police labor disputes. The office vanished at the start of the French Revolution and police was vested in the hands of the Paris Commune, reorganized by Napoléon Bonaparte in 1800, the Paris Police has been headed by the préfet de police since that time
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Directorate-General of Customs and Indirect Taxes
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The agency acts as a coast guard, border guard, sea rescue organisation and a customs service. In addition, since 1995, the agency has replaced the Border Police in carrying out immigration control at border checkpoints, in particular at maritime borders. The Directorate-general is controlled by the Minister for the Budget, Public Accounts and it is normally known simply as la douane, individual officers being referred to as douaniers. The first French customs service was called the General Firm and operated under the monarchy, during the revolutionary period, a military customs service was formed, which provided a customs service but also fought in major wars such as the Franco-Prussian War and the First World War. Throughout the 19th Century armed units of douaniers served as frontier guards, customs personnel were divided into those employed in bureaux and those employed in brigades. The douaniers of the latter units wore blue uniforms with distinctive red trouser stripes and were former soldiers. The military customs service fought in the part of the Second World War but was disbanded in 1940 after the French defeat and was never reconstituted as a military service. Nonetheless small units of men from customs posts in French Indochina fought against the Japanese as guerilla units until the end of the war. The Musée national des douanes located in Bordeaux, France, presents the history of French customs, Service commun des laboratoires, providing scientific support in laboratories France is divided into 39 customs regions, which are grouped into 12 customs inter-regions. In 2010 the aircraft consisted of Reims-Cessna F406 maritime patrol aircraft. Two Reims-Cessna F406s operated out of Martinique and the rest were based in metropolitan France, from 2012 onwards eight Beechcraft King Air 350s replaced the F406s. In 2010 the customs had 3 offshore patrol boats,18 coastal patrol boats,18 surveillance patrol boats and 5 speed boats. Customs Agents are now armed with the 9mm SIG Sauer SP2022 pistols as the issued sidearm. The pistol was ordered to replace the PAMAS-G1 and several other pistols in service
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Municipal Police (France)
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The Municipal Police are the local police of towns and cities in France outside the capital. There are 18,000 municipal police officers in 3,500 communities, the Municipal Police are one of the three components of French policing, alongside the National Police and the National Gendarmerie, with about 145,000 police and 98,000 soldiers respectively. Municipal policing in departments of Paris, Hauts-de-Seine, Seine-Saint-Denis, and Val-de-Marne is the responsibility of Paris Police Prefecture, part of the National Police. Under Article 212 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, the duties of the police include, safety, security, safety. Monitoring and regulation of traffic and the recording of traffic violations. Maintenance of law 78-6 of the Code of Criminal Procedure, assistance to citizens of the town. Reporting of crimes over which they have no jurisdiction, the municipal police may carry out arrests as part of the act and are required to deliver any perpetrator to an officer of the national police or the national gendarmerie. Approximately 18,000 municipal police officers provide about 13% of the total French law enforcement community, the municipal police may also incorporate the duties of the forest rangers and game wardens in rural areas. The French municipal police are under the authority of the Mayor. Although the word refers to the maintenance of order, the function mainly comprises the protection of citizens from disasters. To do so, municipalities are required to establish municipal police services and they are also vested with powers to oversee infringements of Article L. 126-3 of the Code of Construction and Housing. During the course of their duties they act under the authority of the mayor of the municipality, overall supervision and regulation of the municipal police is under the jurisdiction the Ministry of the Interior, which is empowered to carry out inspections by agencies such as the IGPN. Articles L 2212-5 and the L CGCT 2212-9, provide for inter-municipal police collaboration between municipalities or groups of municipalities, the police officers recruited through the municipal council are considered primarily available to every mayor in his hometown for local policing. They may also be required to be sworn in by the judge to provide services to the national police of neighbouring districts or to the gendarmerie in rural areas. The municipal police do not generally carry firearms, in some cities, all municipal police officers are permanently armed. French Municipal officers are armed each Municipal Police agency has different weapons meaning some Municipal Police may have revolvers while others have more modern handguns, Municipal Police also have rifles and shotguns as well for patrol needs. ↑ Note, Section 21 of the Criminal Procedure Code confers municipal police officers with the status of deputy judicial police officers, L 412-49 of the Code of Commons. L 412-51 of the Code of Commons 10, 412-53 of the Code of Commons Franck Denion, Police municipale, missions et moyens, Editions Territoriales, municipal police missions and means Territoriales Editions, June 2006
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Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
France
