1.
Swimsuit
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Swimwear is clothing designed to be worn by people engaging in a water-based activity or water sports, such as swimming, diving and surfing, or sun-orientated activities, such as sun bathing. Different types may be worn by men, women, and children, a swimsuit can be worn as an undergarment in sports that require a wetsuit such as water skiing, scuba diving, surfing, and wakeboarding. There is a wide range of styles of modern swimsuits available. The choice of style may depend on community standards of modesty, as well as current fashions, the choice will also consider the occasion, for example whether it is to be worn for a passive occasion such as sunbathing or for an activity such as surfing or competition. Swimwear for men usually exposes the chest, while suits for women usually cover at least the breasts, rayon was used in the 1920s in the manufacture of tight-fitting swimsuits, but its durability, especially when wet, proved problematic, with jersey and silk also sometimes being used. In the 1930s, new materials were being developed and use in swimwear, particularly latex and nylon, while they go through many trends in pattern, length and cut there is not much modification to the original variety of suit. A recent innovation is the burqini, favored by some Muslim women and these are an updated version of full-body swimwear, which has been available for centuries, but conforms with Islams traditional emphasis on modest dress. In Egypt, the term Sharia swimsuit is used to describe full-body swimwear, swimsuits can be skin-tight or loose-fitting. They are often lined with another layer of fabric if the fabric becomes transparent when wet. Swimsuits range from designs that almost completely cover the body to designs that expose almost all of the body, the choice of swimsuit will depend on personal and community standards of modesty and on considerations such as how much or how little sun protection is desired, and prevailing fashions. Almost all swimsuits cover the genitals and pubic hair, while most except thongs or G-string cover much or all of the buttocks, most swimsuits in western culture leave at least the head, shoulders, arms, and lower part of the leg exposed. Womens swimsuits generally cover at least the aereola and bottom half of the breasts, in many countries, young girls and sometimes women choose not to wear a swimsuit top, and this can vary with the occasion, location, age, etc. Both men and women may sometimes wear swimsuits covering more of the body when swimming in cold water, in colder temperatures, the swimwear is needed to conserve body heat and protect the body core from hypothermia. Competitive swimwear generally refers to the swimsuit, clothing, equipment and accessories used in the sports of swimming, diving, synchronized swimming, triathlon. Some swimsuits are designed specifically for swimming competitions where they may be constructed of a low resistance fabric that reduces skin drag. For some kinds of swimming and diving, special bodysuits called diveskins are worn and these suits are made from spandex and provide little thermal protection, but they do protect the skin from stings and abrasion. Most competitive swimmers also wear special swimsuits including partial bodysuits, racerback styles, jammers, unlike regular swimsuits, which are designed mainly for the aesthetic appearances, swimsuits designed to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist the athlete in swim competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the efficiency of the forward motion
2.
1996 Summer Olympics
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A record 197 nations, all current IOC member nations, took part in the Games, comprising 10,318 athletes. The 1996 Summer Games were the first to be staged in a different year from the Winter Games, Atlanta became the fifth American city to host the Olympic Games and the third to hold a Summer Olympic Games. Atlanta was selected on September 18,1990, in Tokyo, Japan, over Athens, Belgrade, Manchester, Melbourne, and Toronto at the 96th IOC Session. Atlantas bid to host the Summer Games that began in 1987 was considered a long-shot and this would be Torontos fourth failed attempt since 1960. The Athens bid was based on the fact that 1996 marked 100 years since the first Summer Games in Greece in 1896, though Athens would eventually host the 2004 Summer Olympics. The Oxford Olympics Study 2016 estimates the outturn cost of the Atlanta 1996 Summer Olympics at USD4.1 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 151% in real terms. This includes sports-related costs only, that is, operational costs incurred by the committee for the purpose of staging the Games. The competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. The cost and cost overrun for Atlanta 1996 compares with costs of USD4.6 billion, average cost for the Summer Games since 1960 is USD5.2 billion, average cost overrun is 176%. The 1996 Olympics was predicated on the model established by the 1984 Olympic Games in Los Angeles. The cost to stage the Games was US$1.8 billion, to pay for the games, Atlanta relied on commercial sponsorship and ticket sales, resulting in a profit of $10 million. Events of the 1996 Games were held in a variety of areas, a number were held within the Olympic Ring, a 3 mi circle from the center of Atlanta. Others were held at Stone Mountain, about 20 miles outside of the city, to broaden ticket sales, other events, such as soccer, occurred in various cities in the Southeast. The opening ceremony featured Céline Dion singing The Power of the Dream, the mascot for the Olympiad was an abstract, animated character named Izzy. In contrast to the tradition of mascots of national or regional significance in the city hosting the Olympiad, Izzy was an amorphous. The 1996 Olympics were the first to have two separate opening ceremony events, Savannah, because of its geographical separation from Atlanta, had its own opening ceremonies on July 18,1996. The event featured Worldwide Connection, a composed by Savannah native Jeffrey Reed and a concert by Trisha Yearwood. Atlantas Olympic slogan Come Celebrate Our Dream was written by Jack Arogeti, the slogan was selected from more than 5,000 submitted by the public to the Atlanta Convention and Visitors Bureau
3.
Atlanta
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Atlanta is the capital of and the most populous city in the U. S. state of Georgia, with an estimated 2015 population of 463,878. Atlanta is the cultural and economic center of the Atlanta metropolitan area, home to 5,710,795 people, Atlanta is the county seat of Fulton County, and a small portion of the city extends eastward into DeKalb County. In 1837, Atlanta was founded at the intersection of two lines, and the city rose from the ashes of the American Civil War to become a national center of commerce. Atlantas economy is considered diverse, with dominant sectors that include logistics, professional and business services, media operations, Atlanta has topographic features that include rolling hills and dense tree coverage. Revitalization of Atlantas neighborhoods, initially spurred by the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, has intensified in the 21st century, altering the demographics, politics. Prior to the arrival of European settlers in north Georgia, Creek Indians inhabited the area, standing Peachtree, a Creek village located where Peachtree Creek flows into the Chattahoochee River, was the closest Indian settlement to what is now Atlanta. As part of the removal of Native Americans from northern Georgia from 1802 to 1825, the Creek ceded the area in 1821. In 1836, the Georgia General Assembly voted to build the Western, the initial route was to run southward from Chattanooga to a terminus east of the Chattahoochee River, which would then be linked to Savannah. After engineers surveyed various possible locations for the terminus, the zero milepost was driven into the ground in what is now Five Points. A year later, the area around the milepost had developed into a settlement, first known as Terminus, and later as Thrasherville after a merchant who built homes. By 1842, the town had six buildings and 30 residents and was renamed Marthasville to honor the Governors daughter, later, J. Edgar Thomson, Chief Engineer of the Georgia Railroad, suggested the town be renamed Atlantica-Pacifica, which was shortened to Atlanta. The residents approved, and the town was incorporated as Atlanta on December 29,1847, by 1860, Atlantas population had grown to 9,554. During the American Civil War, the nexus of multiple railroads in Atlanta made the city a hub for the distribution of military supplies, in 1864, the Union Army moved southward following the capture of Chattanooga and began its invasion of north Georgia. On the next day, Mayor James Calhoun surrendered Atlanta to the Union Army, on November 11,1864, Sherman prepared for the Union Armys March to the Sea by ordering Atlanta to be burned to the ground, sparing only the citys churches and hospitals. After the Civil War ended in 1865, Atlanta was gradually rebuilt, due to the citys superior rail transportation network, the state capital was moved from Milledgeville to Atlanta in 1868. In the 1880 Census, Atlanta surpassed Savannah as Georgias largest city, by 1885, the founding of the Georgia School of Technology and the citys black colleges had established Atlanta as a center for higher education. In 1895, Atlanta hosted the Cotton States and International Exposition, during the first decades of the 20th century, Atlanta experienced a period of unprecedented growth. In three decades time, Atlantas population tripled as the city expanded to include nearby streetcar suburbs
4.
Swimming (sport)
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Swimming is an individual or team sport that involves using arms and legs to move the body through water. Typically, the takes place in pools or in open-water. Competitive swimming is one of the most popular Olympic sports, with events in butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, freestyle, in addition to these individual events, swimmers also take part in relays. Swimming each stroke requires specific techniques, and in competition, there are specific regulations concerning the form for different strokes. There are also put in place to regulate what types of swimsuits are allowed at competitions. Although it is possible for competitive swimmers to incur several injuries from the sport, evidence of recreational swimming in prehistoric times has been found, with the earliest evidence dating to Stone Age paintings from around 10000 years ago. Written references date from 2000 BC, with some of the earliest references to swimming including the Iliad, the Odyssey, the Bible, Beowulf, the Quran and others. In 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, a German professor of languages, wrote the first swimming book, Swimming emerged as a competitive recreational activity in the 1830s in England. In 1828, the first indoor swimming pool, St Georges Baths was opened to the public, by 1837, the National Swimming Society was holding regular swimming competitions in six artificial swimming pools, built around London. In 1844 two Native American participants at a competition in London introduced the front crawl to a European audience. Sir John Arthur Trudgen picked up the stroke from some South American natives and successfully debuted the new stroke in 1873. His stroke is still regarded as the most powerful to use today, captain Matthew Webb was the first man to swim the English Channel, in 1875. Using the breaststroke technique, he swam the channel 21.26 miles in 21 hours and 45 minutes and his feat was not replicated or surpassed for the next 36 years, until T. W. Burgess made the crossing in 1911. Other European countries also established swimming federations, Germany in 1882, France in 1890, the first European amateur swimming competitions were in 1889 in Vienna. The worlds first womens swimming championship was held in Scotland in 1892, mens swimming became part of the first modern Olympic Games in 1896 in Athens. In 1902, the Australian Richmond Cavill introduced the front crawl to the Western world, in 1908, the world swimming association, Fédération Internationale de Natation, was formed. Womens swimming was introduced into the Olympics in 1912, the first international tournament for women outside the Olympics was the 1922 Womens Olympiad, Butterfly was developed in the 1930s and was at first a variant of breaststroke, until it was accepted as a separate style in 1952. Competitive swimming became popular in the 19th century, the goal of competitive swimming is to break personal or world records while beating competitors in any given event
5.
Diving
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Diving is the sport of jumping or falling into water from a platform or springboard, usually while performing acrobatics. Diving is a recognized sport that is part of the Olympic Games. In addition, unstructured and non-competitive diving is a recreational pastime, Diving is one of the most popular Olympic sports with spectators. Competitors possess many of the characteristics as gymnasts and dancers, including strength, flexibility, kinaesthetic judgment. Some professional divers were originally gymnasts or dancers as both the sports have similar characteristics to diving, dmitri Sautin holds the record for most Olympic diving medals won, by winning eight medals in total between 1992 and 2008. Although diving has been a popular pastime across the world since ancient times, the exact origins of the sport are unclear, though it likely derives from the act of diving at the start of swimming races. The 1904 book Swimming by Ralph Thomas notes English reports of plunging records dating back to at least 1865. The 1877 edition to British Rural Sports by John Henry Walsh makes note of a Mr. Young plunging 56 feet in 1870, and also states that 25 years prior, the English Amateur Swimming Association first started a plunging championship in 1883. The Plunging Championship was discontinued in 1937, Diving into a body of water had also been a method used by gymnasts in Germany and Sweden since the early 19th century. The soft landing allowed for more elaborate gymnastic feats in midair as the jump could be made at a greater distance and this tradition evolved into fancy diving, while diving as a preliminary to swimming became known as Plain diving. The event consisted of standing and running dives from either 15 or 30 feet and it was at this event that the Swedish tradition of fancy diving was introduced to the sport by the athletes Otto Hagborg and C F Mauritzi. Fancy diving was introduced into the championship in 1903. Plain diving was first introduced into the Olympics at the 1904 event, the 1908 Olympics in London added fancy diving and introduced elastic boards rather than fixed platforms. Women were first allowed to participate in the events for the 1912 Olympics in Stockholm. In the 1928 Olympics, plain and fancy diving was amalgamated into one event – Highboard Diving, the diving event was first held indoors in the Empire Pool for the 1934 British Empire Games and 1948 Summer Olympics in London. Most diving competitions consist of three disciplines,1 m and 3 m springboards, and the platform, competitive athletes are divided by gender, and often by age group. In platform events, competitors are allowed to perform their dives on either the five, seven, in major diving meets, including the Olympic Games and the World Championships, platform diving is from the 10 meter height. Divers have to perform a set number of dives according to established requirements, a possible score out of ten is broken down into three points for the takeoff, three for the flight, and three for the entry, with one more available to give the judges flexibility
6.
Synchronised swimming
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Synchronized swimming is a hybrid form of swimming, dance, and gymnastics, consisting of swimmers performing a synchronised routine of elaborate moves in the water, accompanied by music. During lifts, swimmers are required not to touch the bottom – yet pull off an outstanding lift, however, men are currently still barred from competing in the Olympics. Both USA Synchro and Synchro Canada allow men to compete with women, most European countries allow men to compete also, France even allows male only podiums, according to the number of participants. In the past decade more men are becoming involved in the sport, competitors show off their strength, flexibility, and aerobic endurance required to perform difficult routines. Swimmers perform two routines for the judges, one technical and one free, as well as age group routines and figures, synchronised swimming is both an individual and team sport. Swimmers compete individually during figures, and then as a team during the routine, figures are made up of a combination of skills and positions that often require control, strength, and flexibility. Swimmers are ranked individually for this part of the competition, the routine involves teamwork and synchronization. It is choreographed to music and often has a theme, synchronised swimming is governed internationally by FINA. At the turn of the 20th century, synchronised swimming was known as water ballet, the first recorded competition was in 1891 in Berlin, Germany. Many swim clubs were formed around that time, and the simultaneously developed in Canada. In 1907, Australian Annette Kellerman popularized the sport when she performed in a tank as an underwater ballerina in the New York Hippodrome. On May 27,1939, the first U. S. synchronized swimming competition took place at Wright Junior College between Wright and the Chicago Teachers College, in 1924, the first competition in North America was in Montreal, with Peg Seller as the first champion. Charlotte Davis coached Tracie Ruiz and Candy Costie, who won the medal in duet synchronized swimming at the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles. In 1933 and 1934, Katherine Whitney Curtis organized a show, The Kay Curtis Modern Mermaids, the announcer, Norman Ross, introduced the sport as synchronized swimming for the first time. The term eventually became standardized through the AAU, but Curtis still used the term rhythmic swimming in her book, Rhythmic Swimming, A Source Book of Synchronized Swimming and Water Pageantry. Curtis persuaded the AAU to make synchronised swimming an officially recognized sport in December 1941 and she served as the Recreation Director of the Red Cross under Generals Patton and Eisenhower, during which time she produced the first international aquacade in Caserta, Italy. She was the Director of Travel in post-war Europe until 1962, in 1959 the Helms Hall of Fame officially recognized Curtis – ascribing to her the primary development of synchronised swimming. In 1979 the International Swimming Hall of Fame inducted Curtis with similar accolades, in the 1970s and 1980s, Ft
7.
Triathlon
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A triathlon is a multiple-stage competition involving the completion of three continuous and sequential endurance disciplines. While many variations of the sport exist, triathlon, in its most popular form, involves swimming, cycling, triathletes compete for fastest overall course completion time, including timed transitions between the individual swim, cycle, and run components. The word triathlon is of Greek origin from τρεῖς or treis, a transition area is set up where the athletes change gear for different segments of the race. This is where the switches from swimming to cycling and cycling to running occur and these areas are used to store bicycles, performance apparel, and any other accessories needed for the next stage of the race. The transition from swim to bike is referred to as T1, the athletes overall time for the race includes time spent in T1 and T2. Transition areas vary in size depending on the number of participants expected, in addition, these areas provide a social headquarters before the race. The nature of the focuses on persistent and often periodized training in each of the three disciplines, as well as combination workouts and general strength conditioning. Triathlon is considered by some to have its beginnings in 1920s France and this race is held every year in France near Joinville-le-Pont, in Meulan and Poissy. An earlier tri-sport event in 1902 featured running, cycling, there are documented tri-sport events featuring running, swimming, & cycling in 1920,1921,1945, and the 1960s. In 1920, the French newspaper L´Auto reported on a competition called Les Trois Sports with a 3 km run,12 km bike, and those three parts were done without any break. Another event was held in 1921 in Marseilles with the order of events bike-run-swim, the first modern swim/bike/run event to be called a triathlon was held at Mission Bay, San Diego, California on September 25,1974. The race was conceived and directed by Jack Johnstone and Don Shanahan, members of the San Diego Track Club, and was sponsored by the track club. It was reportedly not inspired by the French events, although a race the year at Fiesta Island, San Diego. The International Triathlon Union was founded in 1989 as the governing body of the sport, with the chief goal, at that time. In addition, the ITU has a Long Distance Triathlon series, the World Triathlon Corporation is a private company that sanctions and organizes the Ironman and Ironman 70.3 races each year. These races serve as qualifying events for their own annual World Championships, the Ironman World Championship is held annually in Kailua-Kona, Hawaii in October while the Ironman 70.3 World Championship is held in September and changes location each year. The Ironman and Iron brands are property of the WTC, therefore, long-distance multi-sport events organized by groups other than the WTC may not officially be called Ironman or Iron races. For its part, the ITU does not sanction WTC races, however, USAT uses a combination of ITU, the Challenge Family brand produces long-distance events around the world, and includes events like Challenge Roth
8.
Water polo
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Water polo is a competitive team sport played in the water between two teams. The game consists of four quarters, in which the two attempt to score goals by throwing the ball into their opponents goal. The team with the most goals at the end of the game wins the match, each team made up of six field players and one goalkeeper, with typically six additional players available for substitution throughout the match. Except for the goalkeeper, players participate in offensive and defensive roles. Water polo is played in an all-deep pool seven feet deep. The game is thought to have originated in Scotland in the late 19th century as a sort of water rugby, William Wilson is thought to have developed the game during a similar period. Mens water polo was among the first team sports introduced at the modern Olympic games in 1900, Water polo is now popular in many countries around the world, notably Europe, the United States, Canada and Australia. The present-day game involves teams of seven players, with a polo ball similar in size to a soccer ball. One of the earliest recorded viewings of water polo was conducted at the 4th Open Air Fete of the London Swimming Club, held at the Crystal Palace, another antecedent of the modern game of Water Polo was a game of water ‘hand-ball’ played at Bournemouth on 13 July 1876. This was a game between 12 members of the Premier Rowing Club, with goals being marked by four flags placed in the water near to the midpoint of Bournemouth Pier. The game started at 6,00 pm in the evening and lasted for 15 minutes watched by a large crowd, the rules of water polo were originally developed in the late nineteenth century in Great Britain by William Wilson. Wilson is believed to have been the First Baths Master of the Arlington Baths Club in Glasgow, the first games of aquatic football were played at the Arlington in the late 1800s, with a ball constructed of India rubber. This water rugby came to be called water polo based on the English pronunciation of the Balti word for ball, early play allowed brute strength, wrestling and holding opposing players underwater to recover the ball. Players held underwater for lengthy periods usually surrendered possession, the goalie stood outside the playing area and defended the goal by jumping in on any opponent attempting to score by placing the ball on the deck. The rules of water cover the play, procedure, equipment. These rules are similar throughout the world, although variations to the rules do occur regionally. There are seven players in the water from each team at one time, there are six players that play out and one goalkeeper. Unlike most common sports, there is little positional play
9.
Spandex
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Spandex, Lycra or elastane is a synthetic fiber known for its exceptional elasticity. It is stronger and more durable than natural rubber and it is a polyester-polyurethane copolymer that was invented in 1958 by chemist Joseph Shivers at DuPonts Benger Laboratory in Waynesboro, Virginia. When introduced in 1962, it revolutionized many areas of the clothing industry, the name spandex is an anagram of the word expands. Brand names for spandex include Lycra, Elaspan, Acepora, Creora, INVIYA, ROICA and Dorlastan, Linel, Spandex fibers are produced in four different ways, melt extrusion, reaction spinning, solution dry spinning, and solution wet spinning. All of these include the initial step of reacting monomers to produce a prepolymer. Once the prepolymer is formed, it is reacted further in various ways, the solution dry spinning method is used to produce over 94. 5% of the worlds spandex fibers, and the process has five steps,1. The first step is to produce the prepolymer and this is done by mixing a macroglycol with a diisocyanate monomer. The two compounds are mixed in a vessel to produce a prepolymer. A typical ratio of glycol to diisocyanate is 1,2, the prepolymer is further reacted with an equal amount of diamine. This reaction is known as chain extension reaction, the resulting solution is diluted with a solvent to produce the spinning solution. The solvent helps make the solution thinner and more easily handled, the spinning solution is pumped into a cylindrical spinning cell where it is cured and converted into fibers. In this cell, the solution is forced through a metal plate called a spinneret. This causes the solution to be aligned in strands of liquid polymer, as the strands pass through the cell, they are heated in the presence of a nitrogen and solvent gas. This process causes the polymer to react chemically and form solid strands. As the fibers exit the cell, an amount of solid strands are bundled together to produce the desired thickness, each fiber of spandex is made up of many smaller individual fibers that adhere to one another due to the natural stickiness of their surface. The resulting fibers are treated with a finishing agent which can be magnesium stearate or another polymer. This treatment prevents the fibers sticking together and aids in textile manufacture, the fibers are then transferred through a series of rollers onto a spool. Because of its elasticity and strength, spandex has been incorporated into a range of garments
10.
Competitive swimwear
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Competitive swimwear generally refers to the swimsuit, clothing, equipment and accessories used in the aquatic sports of swimming, diving, synchronized swimming, triathlon and water polo. Some swimsuits are designed specifically for swimming competitions where they may be constructed of a low resistance fabric that reduces skin drag. For some kinds of swimming and diving, special bodysuits called diveskins are worn and these suits are made from spandex and provide little thermal protection, but they do protect the skin from stings and abrasion. Most competitive swimmers also wear special swimsuits including partial bodysuits, racerback styles, jammers, unlike regular swimsuits, which are designed mainly for the aesthetic appearances, swimsuits designed to be worn during competitions are manufactured to assist the athlete in swim competitions. They reduce friction and drag in the water, increasing the efficiency of the forward motion. The tight fits allow for movement and are said to reduce muscle vibration. This also reduces the possibility that a high forwards dive will remove a divers swimwear, starting around 2000, in an effort to improve the effectiveness of the swimsuits, engineers have taken to designing them to replicate the skin of sea based animals, sharks in particular. In July 2009, FINA voted to ban non-textile swimsuits in competitive events from 2010, the new policy was implemented to combat the issues associated with performance enhancing costumes hi, hindering the ability to accurately measure the performance of swimmers. Subsequently, the new ruling states that mens swimsuits may maximally cover the area from the navel to the knee, some swimmers use a specialized training suit called drag suits to artificially increase drag during practice. Drag suits are swimwear with a layer of looser fabric – often mesh or nylon – to increase resistance against the water. They come in a variety of styles, but most resemble a looser fitting square-cut or swim brief, the history of competitive swimwear has been dominated by concerns over public nudity in the first half of the 20th century and by efforts to reduce water drag in the second half. Those efforts initially lead swimmers to reduce the early sagging one-piece swimsuits down to briefs only. Thorpe subsequently worked with Adidas which in 2003 released the adidas JETCONCEPT bodysuit, whose design came from the V-shaped grooves currently used on the wings and fuselage of civil aircraft. The LZR Pro and LZR Elite lines were launched on 13 February 2008 and it was the focus of Speedos campaign for the 2008 Summer Olympics, spearheaded by Michael Phelps of the United States. They created a video of Phelps wearing the suit which was displayed in London, Sydney, New York. As of 24 August 2009,93 world records had been broken by swimmers wearing a LZR Racer, in 2009, FINA rules and regulations were altered, effective from 1 January 2010. Suits made with polyurethane were banned because they made athletes more buoyant, goggles were used in the crossing of the English Channel back in 1911, but only in 1970 appeared at international competitions. With the advent of technology, latex swimming caps became mass-produced in the 1920s
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FINA
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FINA or Fédération internationale de natation is the international federation recognized by the International Olympic Committee for administering international competition in water sports. It is one of several international federations which administer a given sport/discipline for the IOC and/or international community and it is based in Lausanne, Switzerland. FINA currently oversees competition in five sports, swimming, diving, synchronized swimming, water polo. Beginning in 2013, high diving emerged as a discipline within FINA, FINA also oversees Masters competition in its disciplines. On 24 July 2009, Julio Maglione of Uruguay was elected FINA President and it is not necessarily the number of members in the continental association. The FINA membership meets every four years, usually coinciding with the World Championships, there are two types of normal or ordinary congress, General and Technical. FINA’s highest authority is the General Congress, any technical issues concerning FINA’s five aquatic disciplines are decided by the Technical Congress. Each Congress has two voting members from each Member federation, plus the following non-voting members, the 22 members of the Bureau, the Honorary Life President, the Technical Congress has the following additional non-voting members, all members from the respective Technical Committees. Extraordinary Congress are also called time to time, to deal with a specific topic or area of concern. All Congress meetings are chaired by FINAs president and it is the Bureau that elects the FINA Executive Officers. Various committees and commission also help with the oversight of individual disciplines, each presidential term is four years, beginning and concluding with the year following the Summer Olympics. FINA organizes one championship involving each of the five disciplines it oversees, as well championships, the biggest FINA event is the biennial World Aquatics Championships, currently held every odd year. It features competitions in all five aquatic disciplines, prior to 2000, the event was held every 4 years, in the even year between Olympic Games. Bi-annual event, swum in 25-meter length pool, Water Polo, Water Polo World Leagues. Diving, Diving World Series Open Water, World Open Water Swimming Championships, High Diving, High Diving World Cup Masters, World Masters Championships. This championships features all 5 disciplines, grand Prix, Annual race/competition series of multiple events in open water. Junior Worlds, A world-level championships restricted to a younger age population, held in swimming, water polo, diving, and synchronized swimming
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History of competitive swimwear
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The history of competitive swimwear has been dominated by concerns over public nudity in the first half of the 20th century and by efforts to reduce water drag in the second half. Those efforts initially lead swimmers to reduce the early sagging one-piece swimsuits down to briefs only, goggles were used in the crossing of the English Channel back in 1911, but only in 1970 appeared at international competitions. With the advent of technology, latex swimming caps became mass-produced in the 1920s. Today, competitive swimwear is a business for companies like Speedo, Arena and TYR and its development involves such institutions as NASA. Olympic Games have been the most important international swimming competition, while mens events were an integral part of all Olympics, womens races were introduced only in 1912, and until 1924 were limited to a couple of freestyle events. Public nudity was a concern in designing early swimwear. It was a factor behind the non-participation of American women in the 1912 Olympics. At those Games British women wore full-body silk suits of such a volume that they could be passed through a wedding ring, the suits were complemented by bras and bikini-style briefs as they became transparent when wet. Womens coaches were rare at early Olympics, and to reduce the chances of harassment women were accompanied by chaperones. Even men wore one-piece swimsuits covering the body from hips to shoulders up to the 1940s, in 1928, Speedo introduced their racerback silk suit that was optimized to fit the body shape. It uncovered the shoulder blades, which almost resulted in disqualification of Clare Dennis at the 1932 Olympics, meanwhile, men were allowed to swim in bare-chest suits in 1936, and in briefs only at the 1948 Olympics. At the same Olympics, East German swimmers adopted suits that were following the body shape. They were initially made of cotton and became transparent when wet. The revealing shape and transparency caused outrage among US swimmers, meanwhile, at the 1973 World Aquatics Championships, East German women won 10 of 14 events and set seven world records. Those championships became the point for the world to adopt the skinsuit, modified with novel synthetic materials. In 2000, Speedo launched the Fastskin suit series that mimicked shark skin and their surface contained bumps and ridges that channeled the water over the swimmers body approximately 3% more efficiently than traditional materials. Those suits were approved for the 2000 Olympics, where they helped win 83% of the medals, by the next Olympics, similar suits had been developed by Tyr Sport, Inc. but they were not approved by the FINA. In February 2008, Speedo launched the LZR Racer swimsuit based on woven elastane-nylon, the suit was developed by Italian company Mectex, in association with the Australian Institute of Sport and NASA, which provided wind tunnel testing facilities
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Missy Franklin
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Melissa Jeanette Missy Franklin is a Canadian-American competition swimmer and five-time Olympic gold medalist. She currently holds the record in the 200-meter backstroke and American records in both the 100-meter and 200-meter backstroke. As a member of the U. S. national swim team, in her Olympic debut at the 2012 Summer Olympics at age 17, Franklin won a total of five medals, four of which were gold. She swept the womens events, winning gold in both the 100-meter and 200-meter backstroke. Franklins successes have earned her Swimming Worlds World Swimmer of the Year, Franklins eleven gold medals at the World Aquatics Championships is a record in womens swimming. Franklin holds dual American and Canadian citizenship, and chose to compete for the U. S. national swim team, Franklin was born in Pasadena, California, the only child of Dick and D. A. Franklin. When she was a baby, her mother was worried about water safety. She grew up in Centennial, Colorado and began taking classes there at the age of five. She attended Regis Jesuit High School in Aurora, Colorado and graduated in 2013, both of Franklins parents are Canadian and Franklin holds American and Canadian dual citizenship. Her father, Dick, was born in St. Catharines, a former All-Canadian football player for Saint Marys University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, he played briefly for the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League as an offensive lineman. After an injury ended his career, he returned to Halifax to pursue an MBA degree at Dalhousie University, where he met his future wife. While working for 7-Up in Ontario, Dick was transferred to the United States, ultimately the family settled in Denver, Colorado, where Dick had a senior position with Coors Brewing Company. Franklins mother suggested that her daughter consider competing for Canada to ease the pressure of qualifying for the U. S. National Team due to the depth of American swimmers. Franklin, however, chose to represent the United States, citing her patriotism for her homeland, Franklin is 6 ft 2 in tall and has womens size 13 feet, We call them built-in flippers, says her father. She has been coached by Todd Schmitz from the Colorado Stars club team since she was 5 years old, during her rise to stardom surrounding the 2012 Olympics, Franklin continued to refuse prize money and endorsements so that she could maintain her amateur status to compete in college. At Cal, Franklin is a four-time individual NCAA champion, winning the 200-yard freestyle in 2014 and 2015, after the 2015 NCAA Swimming and Diving Championships, in which Franklin won three individual NCAA titles, Franklin turned professional. She intends to continue working towards a degree in psychology and a minor in education, at the age of seven, Franklin joined the Colorado Stars travel swim team. It was not obvious to Franklins parents that Missy possessed such a natural talent, at the age of twelve, Franklin began competing against girls that were much older than she was
14.
One-piece swimsuit
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A one-piece swimsuit most commonly refers to swimwear worn by women and girls when swimming in the sea or in a swimming pool, or for any activity in the sun, such as sun bathing. Today, the swimsuit is usually a skin-tight garment that covers a females torso. Before the popularity of the swimsuit, and then the bikini, virtually all female swimwear completely covered at least the wearers torso. While the bikini has increasingly found acceptance since the 1960s. Some people consider a one-piece swimsuit to be more modest than a two-piece bikini, in some situations, the wearing of a one-piece swimsuit may be mandatory or expected, as in the case of school swimming events and international swimming events. The most common type of suit is the maillot or tank suit. There are variants of the swimsuit, including halterneck styles and plunge front swimsuits, as well as wrap-round. The pretzel suit is another style of the one-piece swimsuit, recently, athletic swimsuits have used a variety of new shoulder strap styles, including the racerback, fastback, and flyback styles, some of which have also been used on other athletic wear. Another recent innovation in one-piece swimsuits is the bodyskin, which resembles a unitard or wetsuit. Although these cover the torso, arms and legs, their function is not modesty. Their surfaces are made of textured technical fabrics which are engineered to cut through the water in the way as fish or shark skin. The modern one-piece swimsuit made its appearance in the mid-1900s, when the style was described as a maillot. The arrest prompted a public outrage which added to the acceptance of the style. Kellerman marketed these bathing suits and the came to be known as the Annette Kellerman. Harpers Bazaar praised the Kellerman swimsuit, writing in June 1920 - Annette Kellerman Bathing Attire is distinguished by an incomparable, the following year, in June 1921 it wrote that these bathing suits were famous. For their perfect fit and exquisite, plastic beauty of line, in the United States, beauty pageants of women in bathing costumes became popular from the 1880s. However, such events were not regarded as respectable, beauty contests became more respectable with the first modern Miss America contest held in 1921, though less respectable beauty contests continued to be held. Nevertheless, the Annette Kellerman continued to be considered by some as the most offensive style of swimsuit in the 1920s, even in 1943, pictures of the Kellerman swimsuit were produced as evidence of indecency in Esquire v. Walker, Postmaster General
15.
Briefs
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Briefs are a type of short, snug underwear and swimwear, as opposed to styles where looser material extends down the thighs. Briefs have various different styles and are worn by men and women. See swim briefs for the case of briefs as swimwear, Briefs were first sold on January 19,1935, by Coopers, Inc. in Chicago, Illinois, at Marshall Fields department store. They dubbed the new undergarment the Jockey because it offered a degree of support as the jockstrap. The designer of the new style was inspired by a postcard he had received from a friend visiting the French Riviera depicting a man in a very short. Thirty thousand pairs were sold within three months of their introduction, in North America, jockey shorts or jockeys became an often used generic term for mens briefs. More recently, tighty-whiteys has become a commonly used nickname for briefs there, in the UK, briefs were first sold in 1938. Soon, shops were selling 3,000 briefs per week and they were so popular that in 1948, every member of the British Olympic team was given a free pair of briefs. In Britain, the term jockeys has not caught on and briefs are referred to as Y-fronts. The term derives from the genericized trademark Y-Front, property of Jockey International and it in turn derives from the inverted Y-shape formed by the seams at the front of the underpants. The colloquialism is used even when the fly opening may differ in style, in Australia, briefs are referred to as jocks but should not be confused with jockstraps which expose the buttocks. Australians generally use the word briefs to refer to the bikini-style underwear for men, since the ending of the 20th century, a hybrid called boxer briefs has become popular. Like boxers, they have legs, but like briefs, they are made of elastic. A shorter version of boxer briefs are called trunks, overall there has been a decline in men wearing briefs, especially white ones. According to an AskMen poll in early 2016, only 22% of respondents said they wear briefs, traditional size briefs for both sexes cover the upper part of the thigh and extend upward up to the navel. This style is referred to as full rise or full cut. There are also low rise and mid rise styles whose measurements vary between manufacturers, mens briefs often feature a fly—a covered opening on the front of the garment which allows for convenience in urinating. There are several different fly designs in use, including the standard vertical fly, the horizontal fly, the y-front fly
16.
Ian Thorpe
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Ian James Thorpe, OAM is an Australian swimmer who specialises in freestyle, but also competes in backstroke and the individual medley. He has won five Olympic gold medals, the most won by any Australian, at the 2001 World Aquatics Championships, he became the first person to win six gold medals in one World Championship. In total, Thorpe has won eleven World Championship golds, the third-highest number of any swimmer, Thorpe was the first person to have been named Swimming World Swimmer of the Year four times, and was the Australian Swimmer of the Year from 1999 to 2003. His athletic achievements made him one of Australias most popular athletes, after that victory, Thorpe dominated the 400 m freestyle, winning the event at every Olympic, World, Commonwealth and Pan Pacific Swimming Championships until his break after the 2004 Olympics. His wins in the 200 m and 400 m and his bronze in the 100 m freestyle in Athens have made him the male to have won medals in the 100–200–400 combination. During this, he picked up the nickname Thorpedo because of his speed in swimming, after the Athens Olympics, Thorpe took a year away from swimming, scheduling a return for the 2006 Commonwealth Games. However, he was forced to withdraw due to illness, subsequent training camps were interrupted, and he announced his retirement in November 2006, citing waning motivation. From early 2011, there was speculation about Thorpes return to swimming, the speculations were substantiated when Thorpe spoke at a February 2011 press conference of his return to swimming after four years away, with the aim of competing in the 2012 London Olympic Games. Thorpe competed at Australias Olympic Trials in 2012, but failed to make the team, in 2014, he was presented with a Doctor of Letters from Macquarie University in recognition of his contribution for the sport, philanthropy and Indigenous rights. Born in Sydney, Thorpe grew up in the suburb of Milperra and his father Ken was a promising cricketer at junior level, representing Bankstown District Cricket Club in Sydneys district competition. A talented batsman, he topped the seasons batting averages ahead of former Australian captain Bob Simpson. However, paternal pressure detracted from Kens enjoyment of cricket, Thorpes mother Margaret played A-grade netball, but he did not inherit his parents ball skills. His elder sister Christina was advised to take up swimming to strengthen a broken wrist, so by chance, due to his unhappy experiences, Ken Thorpe regarded enjoyment as the most critical aspect of his childrens participation in sport. A large baby, Thorpe weighed 4.1 kg and measured 59 cm in length at birth, as a young child, Thorpe was sidelined by an allergy to chlorine. As a result, he did not swim in his first race until a school carnival at the age of seven. The allergy forced Thorpe to swim with his out of the water, despite this ungainly technique, he won the race. Thorpe gradually overcame the ailment and progressed to the captaincy of New South Wales for the Australian Primary Schools Championships in 1994 and he subsequently won nine individual gold medals at the New South Wales Short Course Age Championships in September of the same year. In 1995, Thorpe started his education at East Hills Boys Technology High School
17.
Adidas
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Adidas AG is a German multinational corporation, headquartered in Herzogenaurach, Germany, that designs and manufactures shoes, clothing and accessories. It is the largest sportswear manufacturer in Europe, and the second biggest in the world, Adidas revenue for 2016 was listed at €19.29 billion. Adidas was registered on 18 August 1949 by Adolf Dassler, following a feud at the Gebrüder Dassler Schuhfabrik company between him and his older brother Rudolf. Rudolf had earlier established Puma, which became the business rival of Adidas. The companys clothing and shoe designs typically feature three parallel bars, and the motif is incorporated into Adidass current official logo. The brand name is uncapitalized and is stylized with a case a. Christoph Von Wilhelm Dassler was a worker in a shoe factory, after leaving school, their son, Rudolf Rudi Dassler, joined his father at the shoe factory. When he returned from fighting in World War I, Rudolf received a management position at a porcelain factory, Adolf Adi Dassler started to produce his own sports shoes in his mothers wash kitchen in Herzogenaurach after his return from World War I. In July 1924, his brother Rudolf returned to Herzogenaurach to join his brothers business. Following Owens haul of four medals, his success cemented the good reputation of Dassler shoes among the worlds most famous sportsmen. Letters from around the world landed on the desks. Business boomed and the Dasslers were selling 200,000 pairs of every year before World War II. After Rudolf was later picked up by American soldiers and accused of being a member of the Waffen SS, American occupying forces subsequently became major buyers of the Dassler brothers shoes. Although it is a urban myth that the name is an acronym for All Day I Dream About Sports. Puma and Adidas entered into a fierce and bitter rivalry after the split. Indeed, the town of Herzogenaurach was divided on the issue, even the towns two football clubs were divided, ASV Herzogenaurach club was supported by Adidas, while 1 FC Herzogenaurach endorsed Rudolfs footwear. When handymen were called to Rudolfs home, they would deliberately wear Adidas shoes, Rudolf would tell them to go to the basement and pick out a pair of free Pumas. The two brothers were never reconciled and although both are now buried in the cemetery, they are spaced as far apart as possible
18.
Speedo
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Speedo International Ltd. is an Australian manufacturer and distributor of swimwear and swim-related accessories based in Nottingham, England. Founded in Sydney, Australia, in 1914, the company is now a subsidiary of the British Pentland Group. Today, the Speedo brand can be found on products ranging from swimsuits, the Speedo brand is manufactured for and marketed in North America as Speedo USA by PVH under an exclusive perpetual licence, who acquired prior licencee Warnaco Group in 2013. In accordance with its Australian roots, Speedo uses a boomerang as their symbol, due to their success in the swimwear industry, the word Speedo has become synonymous with racing bathing suits. Company founder Alexander MacRae emigrated from Loch Kishorn in the western Highlands of Scotland to Sydney, originally working as a milkman, he founded MacRae and Company Hosiery four years later, manufacturing underwear under the brand name Fortitude. The Australian Armys need for socks during the First World War provided MacRae with enough business to expand and in 1927 his first line of swimwear, the following year, a naming contest held among the MacRae staff yielded the slogan Speed on in your Speedos. The contest winner, Captain Parsonson, was awarded £5 for his slogan, in 1932, Speedo made its Olympic debut when 16-year old Australian Clare Dennis won the Womens 200 Meter Breaststroke at the Los Angeles Olympic Games. After nearly being disqualified for showing too much shoulder in her regulation silk Speedo brand swimsuit, the 1936 Berlin Summer Games also saw some controversy as the mens Australian swim team featured shirtless swim trunks for the first time. Also in 1936, Alexander MacRae became involved in the Surf Life Saving Association, to this day, Speedo continues to support the Australian volunteer organisation. Two years later, company founder Alexander MacRae died at the age of 50, after devoting most of its resources to the War effort during World War II, Speedo enjoyed a great post-war demand for swimsuits, specifically the recently invented bikini style. The company quickly reestablished itself as a leader in swimwear manufacturing, in 1951, Speedo Knitting Mills Ltd. incorporated and went public, selling its stock on the Sydney Stock Exchange. By 1957, Speedo had the licence to manufacture and distribute Jockey brand mens underwear in Australia. The company finished off the 1950s by exporting to the United States and exploring potential opportunities in South America, Europe, New Zealand, the end of the 1950s also saw the beginning of a long-lasting business partnership which continues to this day. In 1958, Speedo began the manufacture of American Warnacos White Stag ski-wear line, in exchange, in 1961, White Stag became the exclusive US distributor of Speedo swimwear. Through White Stag, Speedos product line expanded to include mens and womens sportswear, by the middle of the 1960s, Speedo had acquired 30% of Nottingham, UK textile manufacturer Robert Shaw and Company Ltd. and had established a European subsidiary. Licences were also granted to Japanese and South American corporations, the 1968 Mexico City Summer Olympics saw 27 of the 29 gold medalists—22 of which set world records—wearing Speedo brand swimsuits. Speedo began the decade by completing its acquisition of Robert Shaw. On Australia Day,26 January 1981 the Australian Institute of Sport opened in Canberra, also early in the decade, Speedo provided equipment and training to China to aid the communist countrys return to the Olympics for first time since 1958
19.
2000 Summer Olympics
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It was the second time that the Summer Olympics were held in Australia, and also the Southern Hemisphere, the first being in Melbourne, Victoria, in 1956. Sydney was selected as the host city for the 2000 games in 1993, the United States won the most medals with 93, while Australia came in 4th with 58. The games cost was estimated to be A$6.6 billion, the Games received universal acclaim, with the organisation, volunteers, sportsmanship and Australian public being lauded in the international media. Bill Bryson from The Times called the Sydney Games one of the most successful events on the world stage, admit there can never be a better Olympic Games, and be done with it, as Sydney was both exceptional and the best. These were the final Olympic Games under the IOC presidency of Juan Antonio Samaranch and these were also the second Olympic Games to be held in spring. The final medal tally was led by the United States, followed by Russia, several World and Olympic records were broken during the games. With little or no controversies, the games were deemed successful with the rising standard of competition amongst nations across the world. The Australian city of Melbourne had lost out to Atlanta for the 1996 Summer Olympics four years earlier, the Oxford Olympics Study 2016 estimates the outturn cost of the Sydney 2000 Summer Olympics at USD5 billion in 2015-dollars and cost overrun at 90% in real terms. This includes sports-related costs only, that is, operational costs incurred by the committee for the purpose of staging the Games. The competition venues, the Olympic village, international broadcast center, and media and press center, which are required to host the Games. The cost and cost overrun for Sydney 2000 compares with a cost of USD4.6 billion, average cost for the Summer Games since 1960 is USD5.2 billion, average cost overrun is 176%. In 2000, the Auditor-General of New South Wales reported that the Sydney Games cost A$6.6 billion, many venues were constructed in the Sydney Olympic Park, which failed in the years immediately following the Olympics to meet the expected bookings to meet upkeep expenses. In the years leading up to the games, funds were shifted from education and it has been estimated that the economic impact of the 2000 Olympics was that A$2.1 billion has been shaved from public consumption. Economic growth was not stimulated to a net benefit and in the years after 2000, in the years after the games, infrastructure issues have been of growing concern to citizens, especially those in the western suburbs of Sydney. Proposed rail links to Sydneys west have been estimated to cost in the order of magnitude as the public expenditure on the games. Although the Olympic Games Opening Ceremony was not scheduled until 15 September, among the pre-ceremony fixtures, host nation Australia lost 1–0 to Italy at the Melbourne Cricket Ground, which was the main stadium for the 1956 Melbourne Olympics. The opening ceremony began with a tribute to the Australian pastoral heritage of the Australian stockmen and it was produced and filmed by Sydney Olympic Broadcasting Organisation and the home nation broadcaster, Channel 7. This was introduced by a rider, Steve Jefferys
20.
Mizuno Corporation
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Mizuno Corporation is a Japanese sports equipment and sportswear company, founded in Osaka in 1906 by Rihachi Mizuno. Mizuno was founded in 1906 as Mizuno Brothers Ltd by Rihachi Mizuno and his younger brother Rizo, the shop sold western sundries, including baseballs, and then in 1907 began to sell order-made athletic wear. In 1910 the shop moved to Umeda Shinmichi and its name was changed to Mizuno Shop, in 1913 the firm began to manufacture baseballs and gloves. In 1933 Mizuno presented Star Line, the first Japanese made golf clubs, by 1935 its golf club showroom was the worlds largest. In 1941 the company name was changed to Mizuno Co, Ltd, and has remained the same since. The first American factory was established in Los Angeles, under the denomination American Mizuno in 1961, the company also expanded its operation centres opening new factories in Germany, France, China PR, Scotland and Hong Kong. Mizuno is a manufacturer of golf clubs and accessories, their Grain Flow Forged irons are used by professional golfers, tiger Woods used Mizuno golf clubs until he turned professional in 1996, including for his first Masters Tournament victory in 1997, having left Mizuno and moved to Titleist. Other players have played using Mizuno equipment during their careers, official website Mizuno USA Mizuno Europe Mizuno Asia Mizuno Philippines
21.
LZR Racer
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The LZR Racer is a line of competition swimsuits manufactured by Speedo using a high-technology swimwear fabric composed of woven elastane-nylon and polyurethane. The LZR Pro and LZR Elite were launched on 13 February 2008, the LZR X, the most recent addition to Speedos competition suit lineup, was launched in early 2015. The technology is patented in Italy, and protected worldwide, the LZR Pro and LZR Elite were developed by Mectex, an Italian company, in association with the Australian Institute of Sport, with the help of Speedos sponsored athletes. NASAs wind tunnel testing facilities and NASA fluid flow analysis software supported the design, both lines cosmetics were designed in collaboration with the fashion brand Comme des Garçons. The LZR Pro features vertically-stitched seams to minimize fluid resistance, while the seams of the LZR Elite, LZR Elite 2, the suits are manufactured at Petratex, a textile factory in Paços de Ferreira, Portugal, the technology is patented in that country. The LZR Elite and LZR Elite 2 include patented Core Stabilizer, Speedo also partnered with ANSYS, one of the worlds leading engineering simulation software providers, in creating this suit. Although all body-length swimwear has since banned from FINA competitions, swimmers are still permitted to compete in LZR Racer jammers. The LZR Pro and LZR Elite lines were launched on 13 February 2008 and it was the focus of Speedos campaign for the 2008 Summer Olympics, spearheaded by Michael Phelps of the United States. They created a video of Michael Phelps wearing the suit which was displayed in London, Sydney, New York. The Beijing Olympics were successful for those wearing the LZR Racer, 98% of all medals won at the Beijing Olympics were won by swimmers wearing the suit. However, the Japanese Swimming Federation subsequently decided to allow its athletes to choose their own suits freely, following the December 2008 European Short Course Championships in Croatia, where 17 world records fell, it was felt there was a need to modify the rules surrounding swimsuits. The combined effects of the LZR both compressing the body and trapping air for buoyancy led to many competitors who used the LZR wearing two or more suits for an increased effect and this led to some claiming that the LZR was in effect technological doping. At its meeting in Dubai in March 2009, FINA stipulated that swimsuits should not cover the neck, must not extend past the shoulders and ankles, and also limit the suits thickness and buoyancy. In a statement, FINA stated that by avoiding all questions of fabrics, impermeability, the LZR Racer and all other Speedo FastSkin Competition Suits were approved. However other suits like the BlueSeventy Nero Comp were banned first, in an abrupt reversal of opinion, the FINA Congress voted almost unanimously to revert its previous policy and ban all body-length swimsuits. The decision was taken in Rome on 24 July 2009, during the 2009 World Aquatics Championships, the new policy states that mens swimsuits may maximally cover the area from the waist to the knee, and womens counterparts from the shoulder to the knee. They also ruled that the fabric used must be a textile or a woven material, FINA did not specify what they meant by textile. The new regulations took effect on 1 January 2010, media related to LZR Racer at Wikimedia Commons
22.
2008 Summer Olympics
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A total of 10,942 athletes from 204 National Olympic Committees competed in 28 sports and 302 events. China became the 22nd nation to host the Olympic Games and the 18th to hold a Summer Olympic Games. It was the time that the Summer Olympic Games were held in East Asia and Asia, after Tokyo, Japan, in 1964 and Seoul, South Korea. Beijing was awarded the Games over four competitors on 13 July 2001, the Government of the Peoples Republic of China promoted the Games and invested heavily in new facilities and transportation systems. A total of 37 venues were used to host the events, the official logo of these Olympic Games, titled Dancing Beijing, refers to the host city by featuring a stylized calligraphic character jīng. The Games were the second most watched Olympics in history, attracting 4.7 billion viewers worldwide, there were 43 world records and 132 Olympic records set at the 2008 Summer Olympics. An unprecedented 86 countries won at least one medal during the Games, Chinese athletes won the most gold medals with 51, and with 100 medals in total became only the 7th different Olympic team to top an overall medal tally. The United States won the most total medals with 110, the games were deemed highly successful with the rising standard of competition among nations across the world. Beijing was elected as the host city for the 2008 Summer Olympics on 13 July 2001, during the 112th IOC Session in Moscow, defeating bids from Toronto, Paris, Istanbul, and Osaka. Prior to the session, five other cities had submitted bids to the IOC, after the first round of voting, Beijing held a significant lead over the other four candidates. Osaka received only six votes and was eliminated, in the second round, Beijing was supported by a majority of voters, eliminating the need for subsequent rounds. Torontos bid was their 5th failure since 1960, the size of China, its increased enforcement of doping controls, and sympathy concerning its loss of the 2000 Summer Olympics to Sydney were all factors in the decision. Eight years earlier, Beijing had led every round of voting for the 2000 Summer Olympics before losing to Sydney by two votes in the final round. Human rights concerns expressed by Amnesty International and politicians in both Europe and the United States were considered by the delegates, according to IOC Executive Director François Carrard, Carrard and others suggested that the selection might lead to improvements in human rights in China. In addition, a number of IOC delegates who had formerly been athletes expressed concern about heat and air quality during the Games, China outlined plans to address these environmental concerns in its bid application. The Oxford Olympics Study 2016 estimates the outturn cost of the Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics at USD6.8 billion in 2015-dollars and this includes sports-related costs only, that is, operational costs incurred by the organizing committee for the purpose of staging the Games, e. g. The Beijing Olympics cost of USD6.8 billion compares with costs of USD4.6 billion for Rio 2016, average cost for the Summer Games since 1960 is USD5.2 billion. They went on to claim that revenues from the Games would exceed the original target of $16 million
23.
Michael Phelps
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Michael Fred Phelps II is an American former competitive swimmer and the most decorated Olympian of all time, with a total of 28 medals. Phelps also holds the records for Olympic gold medals, Olympic gold medals in individual events. In winning eight medals at the 2008 Beijing Games, Phelps broke fellow American swimmer Mark Spitzs 1972 record of seven first-place finishes at any single Olympic Games. At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Phelps won four gold and two medals, and at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, he won five gold medals. This made him the most successful athlete of the Games for the fourth Olympics in a row. He has won 83 medals in international long course competition, of which 66 were gold,14 silver, and 3 bronze, spanning the Olympics, the World. His unprecedented Olympic success in 2008 earned Phelps Sports Illustrated magazines Sportsman of the Year award, after the 2008 Summer Olympics, Phelps started the Michael Phelps Foundation, which focuses on growing the sport of swimming and promoting healthier lifestyles. Phelps retired following the 2012 Olympics, but in April 2014 he made a comeback, at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, his fifth Olympics, he won five golds and one silver. Phelps was chosen to be a captain of the 2016 US Olympic team, Phelps was born in Baltimore, Maryland, and raised in the Rodgers Forge neighborhood of nearby Towson. He attended Rodgers Forge Elementary, Dumbarton Middle School, and Towson High School, Phelps is the youngest of three children. His mother, Deborah Sue Debbie Phelps, is a school principal. His father, Michael Fred Phelps, is a retired Maryland State Trooper who played football in school and college. Phelps is of English, German, Irish, Scottish, and his parents divorced in 1994, when he was nine years old, and his father remarried in 2000. He graduated from Towson High School in 2003, Phelps began swimming at the age of seven, partly because of the influence of his sisters and partly to provide him with an outlet for his energy. After retirement in 2016, he stated The only reason I ever got in the water was my mom wanted me to just learn how to swim and my sisters and myself fell in love with the sport, and we decided to swim. When Phelps was in the grade, he was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. By the age of 10, he held a record for his age group. More age group records followed, and as of 2016 Phelps still holds 12 age group records
24.
English Channel
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The English Channel, also called simply the Channel, is the body of water that separates southern England from northern France, and links the southern part of the North Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 560 km long and varies in width from 240 km at its widest to 33.3 km in the Strait of Dover and it is the smallest of the shallow seas around the continental shelf of Europe, covering an area of some 75,000 km2. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the English Channel as follows, a line joining Isle Vierge to Lands End. The southwestern limit of the North Sea, the IHO defines the southwestern limit of the North Sea as a line joining the Walde Lighthouse and Leathercoat Point. The Walde Lighthouse is 6 km east of Calais, and Leathercoat Point is at the end of St Margarets Bay. The Strait of Dover, at the Channels eastern end, is its narrowest point and it is relatively shallow, with an average depth of about 120 m at its widest part, reducing to a depth of about 45 m between Dover and Calais. Eastwards from there the adjoining North Sea reduces to about 26 m in the Broad Fourteens where it lies over the watershed of the land bridge between East Anglia and the Low Countries. It reaches a depth of 180 m in the submerged valley of Hurds Deep,48 km west-northwest of Guernsey. The eastern region along the French coast between Cherbourg and the mouth of the Seine river at Le Havre is frequently referred to as the Bay of the Seine. There are several islands in the Channel, the most notable being the Isle of Wight off the English coast. The coastline, particularly on the French shore, is indented, several small islands close to the coastline, including Chausey. The Cotentin Peninsula in France juts out into the Channel, whilst on the English side there is a parallel channel known as the Solent between the Isle of Wight and the mainland. The Celtic Sea is to the west of the Channel, the time difference of about six hours between high water at the eastern and western limits of the Channel is indicative of the tidal range being amplified further by resonance. It was never defined as a border and the names were more or less descriptive. It was not considered as the property of a nation, strangely, before the development of the modern nations, British scholars very often referred to it as Gaulish and the French one as British or English. The name English Channel has been used since the early 18th century. In modern Dutch, however, it is known as Het Kanaal, later, it has also been known as the British Channel or the British Sea having been called the Oceanus Britannicus by the 2nd-century geographer Ptolemy. The same name is used on an Italian map of about 1450, the Anglo-Saxon texts often call it Sūð-sǣ as opposed to Norð-sǣ
25.
Arena X-Glide
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Arena X-Glide is a swimsuit from the Arena brand, made of pure polyurethane that causes a swimmer to slide through water faster when swimming. One notable example of the efficacy of this design is that of Paul Biedermann of Germany who wore the suit in the 2009 World Championships. This significantly reduces the drag a swimmer experiences as he or she moves through the water. According to Rick Sharp, an exercise physiologist at Iowa State University, another part is the suit design, You dont want a suit that traps water as it flows around the swimmer. Yet another innovation is to use material that squeezes and slims down swimmers so the skin doesnt wobble around as they go through the water, pieces of fabric were put through wind-tunnel tests to check for drag. Programmers used computational fluid dynamics to model the suits aerodynamic qualities, then, swimmers put the designs to real-world tests in tanks and pools. There was a deal of controversy in the swimming world surrounding polyurethane swimsuits. After Biedermanns wins in the 2009 World Championships, Michael Phelps trainer suggested that Phelps boycott international swimming competitions until the suit is banned. Biedermanns breaking of both Ian Thorpes 400m world record as well as Phelpss 200m record have been attributed to the superiority in the design of his swimsuit. The LZR Racer went on to be offered to all competing in the Beijing Olympics. Following the December 2008 European Short Course Championships in Croatia, where 17 world records fell, the combined effects of the LZR both compressing the body and trapping air for buoyancy led to many competitors who used the LZR wearing two or more suits for an increased effect. This led to some claiming that the LZR was in effect technological doping, at their meeting in Dubai in March 2009, FINA stipulated that swimsuits should not cover the neck, must not extend past the shoulders and ankles, and also limit the suits thickness and buoyancy. In a statement FINA stated that, The LZR Racer and all other Speedo Fast Skin Competition Suits were approved, however other suits like the BlueSeventy Nero Comp were banned first and afterwards released, too. In an abrupt reversal of opinion, the FINA Congress voted almost unanimously to revert its previous policy, the decision was taken in Rome on July 24,2009, during the 2009 World Aquatics Championships. The new policy states that mens swimsuits may maximally cover the area from the waist to the knee and they also ruled that the fabric used must be a textile. The new regulations took effect in January 2010, USA Swimming, the United States governing body, made the date where all these suits will be illegal October 1,2009. FINA has already released an outline of the suits to wear. Among the suits on this list there is the Nike Swift, the Speedo FS PRO, LZR Racer 2008 Summer Olympics FINA2009 World Aquatics Championships
26.
Drag (physics)
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In fluid dynamics, drag is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two layers or a fluid and a solid surface. Unlike other resistive forces, such as dry friction, which are independent of velocity. Drag force is proportional to the velocity for a laminar flow, even though the ultimate cause of a drag is viscous friction, the turbulent drag is independent of viscosity. Drag forces always decrease fluid velocity relative to the object in the fluids path. In the case of viscous drag of fluid in a pipe, in physics of sports, the drag force is necessary to explain the performance of runners, particularly of sprinters. Types of drag are generally divided into the categories, parasitic drag, consisting of form drag, skin friction, interference drag, lift-induced drag. The phrase parasitic drag is used in aerodynamics, since for lifting wings drag it is in general small compared to lift. For flow around bluff bodies, form and interference drags often dominate, further, lift-induced drag is only relevant when wings or a lifting body are present, and is therefore usually discussed either in aviation or in the design of semi-planing or planing hulls. Wave drag occurs either when an object is moving through a fluid at or near the speed of sound or when a solid object is moving along a fluid boundary. Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, at low R e, C D is asymptotically proportional to R e −1, which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed. At high R e, C D is more or less constant, the graph to the right shows how C D varies with R e for the case of a sphere. As mentioned, the equation with a constant drag coefficient gives the force experienced by an object moving through a fluid at relatively large velocity. This is also called quadratic drag, the equation is attributed to Lord Rayleigh, who originally used L2 in place of A. Sometimes a body is a composite of different parts, each with a different reference areas, in the case of a wing the reference areas are the same and the drag force is in the same ratio to the lift force as the ratio of drag coefficient to lift coefficient. Therefore, the reference for a wing is often the area rather than the frontal area. For an object with a surface, and non-fixed separation points—like a sphere or circular cylinder—the drag coefficient may vary with Reynolds number Re. For an object with well-defined fixed separation points, like a disk with its plane normal to the flow direction
27.
Diving suit
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A diving suit is a garment or device designed to protect a diver from the underwater environment. A diving suit may also incorporate a gas supply. But in most cases only to the environmental protective covering worn by the diver. The breathing gas supply is usually referred to separately, there is no generic term for the combination of suit and breathing apparatus alone. It is generally referred to as diving equipment or dive gear along with any other equipment necessary for the dive, the first diving suit designs appeared in the early 18th century. Two English inventors developed the first pressure-proof diving suits in the 1710s, john Lethbridge built a completely enclosed suit to aid in salvage work. It consisted of a pressure-proof air-filled barrel with a viewing hole. This suit gave the diver more maneouverability to accomplish useful underwater salvage work, after testing this machine in his garden pond Lethbridge dived on a number of wrecks, four English men-of-war, one East Indiaman, two Spanish galleons and a number of galleys. He became very wealthy as a result of his salvages, one of his better-known recoveries was on the Dutch Slot ter Hooge, which had sunk off Madeira with over three tons of silver on board. At the same time, Andrew Becker created a leather-covered diving suit with a featuring a window. Becker used a system of tubes for inhaling and exhaling, and demonstrated his suit in the River Thames, London, german-born British engineer Augustus Siebe developed the standard diving dress in the 1830s. Expanding on improvements made by another engineer, George Edwards. Later suits were made from waterproofed canvas invented by Charles Mackintosh, from the late 1800s and throughout most of the 20th century, most standard dress was made from a sheet of solid rubber laminated between layers of tan twill. Dry suits made of rubber were used in World War II by Italian frogmen who found them indispensable. They were made by Pirelli and patented in 1951, ambient pressure suits are a form of exposure protection protecting the wearer from the cold. They also provide some defence from abrasive and sharp objects as well as potentially harmful underwater life and they do not protect divers from the pressure of the surrounding water or resulting barotrauma and decompression sickness. There are five types of ambient pressure diving suits, dive skins, wetsuits and their derivative semi-dry suit and hot-water suits. Added buoyancy due to the volume of the suit is an effect of most diving suits
28.
Scuba diving
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Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving in which the scuba diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater. They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas, closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open circuit, therefore, scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers. A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, the closed-circuit rebreathers were first developed for escape and rescue purposes, and were modified for military use, due to their stealth advantages, as they produce very few bubbles. The first commercially successful closed-circuit scuba was designed and built by English diving engineer, Henry Fleuss in 1878, while working for Siebe Gorman in London. Sir Robert Davis, head of Siebe Gorman, improved the oxygen rebreather in 1910 with his invention of the Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus, rebreathers have been increasingly used by civilians for recreation, especially since the end of the Cold War. This reduced the risk of attack by Communist Bloc forces. After that, the armed forces had less reason to requisition civilian rebreather patents. The single hose two stage scuba regulators trace their origins to Australia, where Ted Eldred developed the first example of type of regulator. This was developed because patents protected the Aqualungs twin hose design, the single hose regulator separates the demand valve from the cylinder, giving the diver air at the ambient pressure at the mouth, rather than ambient pressure at the cylinder valve. The term SCUBA originally referred to United States combat frogmens oxygen rebreathers, SCUBA was originally an acronym, but is now generally used as a common noun or adjective, scuba. It has become acceptable to refer to equipment or scuba apparatus—examples of the linguistic RAS syndrome. Scuba diving may be performed for a number of reasons, both personal and professional, recreational diving is done purely for enjoyment and has a number of technical disciplines to increase interest underwater, such as cave diving, wreck diving, ice diving and deep diving. Divers may be employed professionally to perform tasks underwater, some of these tasks are suitable for scuba. There are divers who work, full or part-time, in the diving community as instructors, assistant instructors, divemasters. Other specialist areas of diving include military diving, with a long history of military frogmen in various roles. Their roles include direct combat, infiltration behind enemy lines, placing mines or using a manned torpedo, in some cases diver rescue teams may also be part of a fire department, paramedical service or lifeguard unit, and may be classed as public service diving
29.
Backstroke
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Backstroke is one of the four swimming styles used in competitive events regulated by FINA, and the only one of these styles swum on the back. This swimming style has the advantage of easy breathing, but the disadvantage of not being able to see where they are going. It is also the only competition swimming style that has a different start, the swimming style is similar to an upside down front crawl. Both backstroke and front crawl are long-axis strokes, in individual medley backstroke is the second style swum, in the medley relay it is the first style swum. Backstroke is an ancient style of swimming, popularized by Harry Hebner and it was the second stroke to be swum in competitions after the front crawl. The first Olympic backstroke competition was the 1900 Paris Olympics mens 200 meter, in the initial position, the swimmer performing backstroke lies flat on the back, arms stretched with extended fingertips, and legs extended backwards. In backstroke, the arms contribute most of the forward movement, the arm stroke consists of two main parts, the power phase and the recovery. The arms alternate so that one arm is underwater while the other arm is recovering. One complete arm turn is considered one cycle, from the initial position, one arm sinks slightly under water and turns the palm outward to start the catch phase. The hand enters downward then pulling out at a 45 degree angle, during the power phase the hand follows a semi-circular path from the catch to the side of the hip. The palm is facing away from the swimming direction, while remaining straight as an extension of the arm. This is done so that both the arms and the elbow can push the maximum amount of back in order to push the body forward. At the height of the shoulders, the upper and lower arms should have their maximum angle of about 90 degrees and this is called the Mid-Pull of the power phase. The Mid-Pull phase consists of pushing the palm of the hand as far down as possible with the fingers pointing upward, again, the goal is to push the body forward against the water. At the very end of the Mid-Pull, the flaps down for a last push forward down to a depth of 45 cm. Besides pushing the body forward, this helps with the rolling back to the other side as part of the body movement. During the power phase, the fingers of the hand can be slightly apart, to prepare for the recovery phase, the hand is rotated so that the palms point towards the legs and the thumb side points upwards. At the beginning of the phase of the one arm
30.
Nike, Inc.
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The company is headquartered near Beaverton, Oregon, in the Portland metropolitan area. It is one of the worlds largest suppliers of athletic shoes and apparel, as of 2012, it employed more than 44,000 people worldwide. In 2014 the brand alone was valued at $19 billion, making it the most valuable brand among sports businesses. The company was founded on January 25,1964, as Blue Ribbon Sports, by Bill Bowerman and Phil Knight, the company takes its name from Nike, the Greek goddess of victory. Nike also owned Bauer Hockey between 1995 and 2008, and previously owned Cole Haan and Umbro, in addition to manufacturing sportswear and equipment, the company operates retail stores under the Niketown name. Nike sponsors many high-profile athletes and sports teams around the world, with the highly recognized trademarks of Just Do It, Nike, originally known as Blue Ribbon Sports, was founded by University of Oregon track athlete Phil Knight and his coach Bill Bowerman in January 1964. The company initially operated as a distributor for Japanese shoe maker Onitsuka Tiger, says Davis, I told Tom Brokaw that I was the first. I dont care all the billionaires say. Bill Bowerman made the first pair of shoes for me, in fact, I didnt like the way they felt on my feet. There was no support and they were too tight, but I saw Bowerman make them from the waffle iron, and they were mine. In 1964, in its first year in business, BRS sold 1,300 pairs of Japanese running shoes grossing $8,000, by 1965 the fledgling company had acquired a full-time employee, and sales had reached $20,000. In 1967, due to increasing sales, BRS expanded retail and distribution operations on the East Coast, in Wellesley. By 1971, the relationship between BRS and Onitsuka Tiger was nearing an end, BRS prepared to launch its own line of footwear, which would bear the Swoosh newly designed by Carolyn Davidson. The Swoosh was first used by Nike on June 18,1971, patent and Trademark Office on January 22,1974. In 1976, the company hired John Brown and Partners, based in Seattle, the following year, the agency created the first brand ad for Nike, called There is no finish line, in which no Nike product was shown. By 1980, Nike had attained a 50% market share in the U. S. athletic shoe market, together, Nike and Wieden+Kennedy have created many print and television advertisements, and Wieden+Kennedy remains Nikes primary ad agency. Walt Stack was featured in Nikes first Just Do It advertisement, wieden credits the inspiration for the slogan to Lets do it, the last words spoken by Gary Gilmore before he was executed. Throughout the 1980s, Nike expanded its line to encompass many sports
31.
United States dollar
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The United States dollar is the official currency of the United States and its insular territories per the United States Constitution. It is divided into 100 smaller cent units, the circulating paper money consists of Federal Reserve Notes that are denominated in United States dollars. The U. S. dollar was originally commodity money of silver as enacted by the Coinage Act of 1792 which determined the dollar to be 371 4/16 grain pure or 416 grain standard silver, the currency most used in international transactions, it is the worlds primary reserve currency. Several countries use it as their currency, and in many others it is the de facto currency. Besides the United States, it is used as the sole currency in two British Overseas Territories in the Caribbean, the British Virgin Islands and Turks and Caicos Islands. A few countries use the Federal Reserve Notes for paper money, while the country mints its own coins, or also accepts U. S. coins that can be used as payment in U. S. dollars. After Nixon shock of 1971, USD became fiat currency, Article I, Section 8 of the U. S. Constitution provides that the Congress has the power To coin money, laws implementing this power are currently codified at 31 U. S. C. Section 5112 prescribes the forms in which the United States dollars should be issued and these coins are both designated in Section 5112 as legal tender in payment of debts. The Sacagawea dollar is one example of the copper alloy dollar, the pure silver dollar is known as the American Silver Eagle. Section 5112 also provides for the minting and issuance of other coins and these other coins are more fully described in Coins of the United States dollar. The Constitution provides that a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and that provision of the Constitution is made specific by Section 331 of Title 31 of the United States Code. The sums of money reported in the Statements are currently being expressed in U. S. dollars, the U. S. dollar may therefore be described as the unit of account of the United States. The word dollar is one of the words in the first paragraph of Section 9 of Article I of the Constitution, there, dollars is a reference to the Spanish milled dollar, a coin that had a monetary value of 8 Spanish units of currency, or reales. In 1792 the U. S. Congress passed a Coinage Act, Section 20 of the act provided, That the money of account of the United States shall be expressed in dollars, or units. And that all accounts in the offices and all proceedings in the courts of the United States shall be kept and had in conformity to this regulation. In other words, this act designated the United States dollar as the unit of currency of the United States, unlike the Spanish milled dollar the U. S. dollar is based upon a decimal system of values. Both one-dollar coins and notes are produced today, although the form is significantly more common
32.
Rebecca Adlington
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Rebecca Adlington, OBE is an English former competitive swimmer who specialised in freestyle events in international competition. She won two medals at the 2008 Summer Olympics in the 400-metre freestyle and 800-metre freestyle, breaking the 19-year-old world record of Janet Evans in the 800-metre final. Adlington was Britains first Olympic swimming champion since 1988, and the first British swimmer to win two Olympic gold medals since 1908 and she won bronze medals in both the womens 400-metre and 800-metre freestyle events in the 2012 Summer Olympics in London. On 5 February 2013, Adlington retired from all competitive swimming, Adlington was born in Mansfield, Nottinghamshire, where she attended The Brunts School. She started swimming with Sherwood Colliery Swimming Club, and was selected for the Nottinghamshire County Elite Squad and she swam in local swimming leagues for Nottingham Leander Swimming Club, having taken part in the National Speedo B Final in May 2010. Adlingtons great-uncle was former Derby County goalkeeper Terry Adlington, and she is a keen Derby supporter, in 2005, Adlingtons sister, Laura, was affected by encephalitis, an inflammation of the brain. Her sister recovered over time, but its impact inspired Adlington to say in 2012, Adlington became an Ambassador of the Encephalitis Society in 2009, to help raise awareness of the illness. In 2014, Adlington married former swimmer Harry Needs, the couple have a daughter together, Summer. In March 2016, Adlington announced her separation from Needs, Adlington represented Great Britain in the 2008 Summer Olympics, competing in the 400-metre freestyle and 800-metre freestyle events. She was also scheduled to swim in the 4×200-metre freestyle relay but was rested in the heat, in the heats of the 400-metre freestyle, she broke the Commonwealth record with a time of 4,02.24. On 11 August 2008, she won an Olympic gold medal in the event, with a time of 4,03.22. She was the first woman to win swimming gold for Great Britain since Anita Lonsbrough in 1960 and she was the first British swimmer to win more than one gold medal at a single Olympic Games since Henry Taylor won three in 1908. She added a bronze in the 4×200-metre freestyle. In her favourite event, the 800-metre freestyle she missed out on a chance for a medal, in 2010, Adlington won the 400-metre freestyle at the European Swimming Championships in Budapest but again failed to win a medal in her favoured 800-metre freestyle as she faded to seventh. She won bronze as part of the 4×200-metre freestyle relay team, at the Commonwealth Games in New Delhi, she won a bonus bronze medal in the 200-metre freestyle, and was part of the English record setting 4×200-metre freestyle relay team that also won bronze. In the 800-metre freestyle, Adlington led from start to finish to win her first Commonwealth Games gold medal, in the 400-metre freestyle, Adlington won comfortably to earn a second gold medal and repeat her Olympic double. She ended the season ranked No.2 in the 400-metre freestyle and No.1 in the 800-metre freestyle. At the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, Adlington won bronze in the 400-metre freestyle in a time of 4,03.01. after the Games, Adlington said that she was done with the 800-metre race, and would not compete in Rio
33.
Swim briefs
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A swim brief or racing brief is any briefs-style male swimsuit such as those worn in competitive swimming and diving. The popularity of the Australian Speedo brand racing brief has led to the use of its name in countries around the world to refer to any racing brief. Occasionally, the Speedo genericized trademark also applies to square cut swimsuit, swim briefs are also referred to as competition briefs, swimming trunks, bathers, racer bathers, posing briefs, racing briefs, and colloquially in Australia as budgie smugglers. Like underwear briefs, swim briefs feature a V-shape front and a solid back providing form-fitting coverage and they typically are worn below the lower waist. They are generally secured by thin banding at the upper thighs, swim briefs are most often made of a nylon and spandex composite, while some longer-lasting suits are made from polyester and still others from other materials. Most swim briefs have a beige or white front lining made of a similar fabric, swim briefs are worn by professional and recreational athletes in many water sports. They are the standard for diving and water polo. They are preferred in competitive swimming for the reduction of the drag on the swimmer, although jammers. Participants in sports that require a wetsuit such as waterskiing, scuba diving, surfing, while swim briefs are used worldwide by athletes for water sports, the popularity of swim briefs as casual beachwear and swim wear varies throughout the world. In mainland Europe and Brazil, briefs are relatively common among male casual swimmers, in the United States and the United Kingdom, the roomier and less revealing trunks or board shorts are the suits preferred for recreation, although swim briefs are always seen to some extent. In some countries like France, men are permitted to wear swimming trunks and not shorts. Swim briefs are chosen for recreation include style, ease of movement in the water, sunshine exposure, quick drying time, former Australian prime minister Tony Abbott was a fitness fanatic noted for wearing speedos or budgie smugglers. Swim briefs are worn under board shorts for modesty purposes. Briefs worn for competitive and recreational swimming are manufactured in standard sizes and they are available in a wide variety of solid colors and patterned designs. The most common racing suit styles are 1.5 inch to 3 inch paneled briefs, the racing suits main function is to reduce the drag of an athlete in water, thus improving his time. For this reason racing suits are made of materials that hug the body, minimize friction, spandex suits generally produce less drag, but are also more vulnerable to prolonged exposure to chlorine than nylon. Therefore, nylon suits are preferred for training and practice, where the increased durability is required for the periods of usage. Lycra suits are preferred for actual racing, in water polo and sometimes in diving, suits may have panels greater than 3 inches
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Generic trademark
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A trademark is said to become genericized when it begins as a distinctive product identifier but changes in meaning to become generic. Thermos, Kleenex, Dumpster and Realtor are examples of trademarks that have become genericized in the US, genericization or loss of secondary meaning may be either among the general population or among just a subpopulation, for example, people who work in a particular industry. Most often, genericization occurs because of advertising that fails to provide an alternative generic name or that uses the trademark in similar fashion to generic terms. The pharmaceutical industry affords some protection from genericization of trade due to the modern practice of assigning a nonproprietary name for a drug based upon chemical structure. For example, even when Lipitor was new, its nonproprietary name, examples of genericization before the modern system of generic drugs include aspirin, introduced to the market in 1897, and heroin, introduced in 1898, both were originally trademarks of Bayer AG. U. S. court rulings in 1918 and 1921 found the term to be genericized, stating the companys failure to reinforce the brands connection with their product as the reason. Bayers involvement in the Great Phenol Plot during World War I, a different sense of the word genericized in the pharmaceutical industry refers to products whose patent protection has expired. For example, Lipitor was genericized in the U. S. when the first competing generic version was approved by the FDA in November 2011, in this same context, the term genericization refers to the process of a brand drug losing market exclusivity to generics. Trademark erosion, or genericide, is a case of antonomasia related to trademarks. It happens when a trademark becomes so common that it starts being used as a common name, nintendo is an example of a brand that successfully fought trademark erosion, having managed to replace excessive use of its name by the then-neologism game console. A more contemporary example is the use of the word iPad to describe all personal computers in tablet form. If the mark does not perform this function and it is no longer possible to legally enforce rights in relation to the mark. In many legal systems a generic mark forms part of the public domain, nevertheless, there exists the possibility of a trademark becoming a revocable generic term in German trademark law. The process by which trademark rights are diminished or lost as a result of use in the marketplace is known as genericization. One risk factor that may lead to genericization is the use of a trademark as a verb, plural or possessive, however, in highly inflected languages, a tradename may have to carry case endings in usage, for example in Finnish Microsoftin and Facebookista. Generic use of a trademark presents an inherent risk to the enforcement of trademark rights. Such a term is called a generic descriptor, and is used immediately after the trademark to provide a description of the product or service. For example, Kleenex tissues or Velcro brand fasteners for Velcro brand name hook-and-loop fasteners, another common practice among trademark owners is to follow their trademark with the word brand to help define the word as a trademark
35.
Undergarment
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Undergarments are items of clothing worn beneath outer clothes, usually in direct contact with the skin, although they may comprise more than a single layer. In cold weather, long underwear is sometimes worn to provide additional warmth, special types of undergarments have religious significance. Some items of clothing are designed as undergarments, while others, such as T-shirts, if made of suitable material or textile, some undergarments can serve as nightwear or swimsuits, and some are intended for sexual attraction or visual appeal. Undergarments are generally of two types, those that are worn to cover the torso and those that are worn to cover the waist and legs, different styles of undergarments are generally worn by females and males. Undergarments commonly worn by females today include bras and panties, while males often wear briefs, items commonly worn by both sexes include T-shirts, sleeveless shirts, bikini underwear, thongs, and G-strings. Undergarments are known by a number of terms, in the United States, womens underwear may be known as delicates due to the recommended washing machine cycle or because they are, simply put, delicate. Womens undergarments collectively are called lingerie and they also are called intimate clothing and intimates. An undershirt is a piece of underwear covering the torso, while underpants, drawers, terms for specific undergarments are shown in the table below. Not wearing underpants under outer clothing is known in American slang as freeballing for men, the act of a woman not wearing a bra is sometimes referred to as freeboobing. Underwear is worn for a variety of reasons and they keep outer garments from being soiled by perspiration, urine, semen, menstrual blood and feces. Womens brassieres provide support for the breasts, and mens briefs serve the function for the male genitalia. A corset may be worn as a garment to alter a womans body shape. For additional support and protection when playing sports, men often wear more tightly fitting underwear, including jockstraps and jockstraps with cup pocket and protective cup. Women may wear sports bras which provide support, thus increasing comfort. In cold climates, underwear may constitute an additional layer of clothing helping to keep the wearer warm, Underwear may also be used to preserve the wearers modesty – for instance, some women wear camisoles and slips under clothes that are sheer. Conversely, some types of underwear can be worn for sexual titillation, such as underwear, crotchless panties. Some items of clothing are designed exclusively as underwear, while others such as T-shirts, the suitability of underwear as outer clothing is, apart from the indoor or outdoor climate, largely dependent on societal norms, fashion and the requirements of the law. If made of material, some underwear can serve as nightwear or swimsuits
36.
Drawstring
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A drawstring is a string, cord, lace, or rope used to draw fabric or other material. The ends of the drawstring may be tied to hold it in place, alternately, the drawstring may be kept drawn using a cordlock. Typically, the drawstring is loose when not being used, a drawstring may be threaded through a hem or casing or laced through holes, which may be lined with eyelets. It may also be laced through loops attached to the material, a very wide, flat drawstring becomes a belt. Drawstrings on children’s clothing are a hazard that can lead to deaths and injuries when they catch on such items as playground equipment, bus doors. From 1985-1999, the CPSC received reports of 22 deaths and 48 non-fatal incidents involving the entanglement of children’s clothing drawstrings, several product recalls due to possible strangulation hazards have occurred in recent years. In biology, a type of protein in the Rho family of GTPases heals wounds by contraction, ojime, a marking on a kohaku, is named after the Japanese word for the drawstring of a pouch or purse
37.
Waistline (clothing)
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The waistline of a garment is often used to accentuate different features. The waistline is also important as a boundary at which shaping darts can be ended, similar to necklines, waistlines may be grouped by their shape, depth, and location of the body. None, The princess seams style of dress needs no waistline at all, since it does its shaping without darts, the resulting princess seams typically run vertically from the shoulder over the bust point and down to the lower hem. This creates a long, slimming look, often seen in dresses with an A-line silhouette, diagonal, An asymmetrical waistline that runs across the body diagonally. Usually the highest point is below the natural waistline, drop waist, A low, horizontal waistline that usually falls near the level of the upper hips. Balances the upper and lower bodies, and adds to the impression of height by lengthening the torso. Empire, A high waistline that cuts horizontally across the body and this waistline gives a long, slender look and excellent fabric drape in the skirt and allows for short, inconspicuous shaping darts. This waistline was popular in Jane Austens time, see Empire silhouette, raised, A horizontal waistline that falls significantly above the natural waist. Natural, A horizontal waistline that falls at the natural waist, V-shaped, A generally flattering waistline, especially for figures with notable curvature. Also known as the Basque waistline or the Antebellum waistline, U-shaped, A softer, less pronounced version of the Basque waistline. Inverted V-shaped, Starts high in the center and drops at the sides and can fall as high as the bustline, inverted U-shaped, A softer, less pronounced version of the inverted-V waistline, usually a gentle downwards curve. Waistlines can be secured with a variety of methods, Button Clasp Drawstring Elastic Knot Zipper Neckline Hemline
38.
Nylon
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Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers, more specifically aliphatic or semi-aromatic polyamides. They can be melt-processed into fibers, films or shapes, the first example of nylon was produced on February 28,1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPonts research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. Nylon polymers have significant commercial applications in fibers, in shapes. Nylon is made of repeating units linked by bonds and is a type of polyamide and is frequently referred to as such. Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic thermoplastic polymer, commercially, nylon polymer is made by reacting monomers which are either lactams, acid/amines or stoichiometric mixtures of diamines and diacids. Mixtures of these can be polymerized together to make copolymers, Nylon polymers can be mixed with a wide variety of additives to achieve many different property variations. Nylon was invented accidentally by Julian W. Hill, a chemist for DuPont under Wallace Carotherss supervision and it was only given this name at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. The patents were owned by DuPont, Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, after initial commercialization of nylon as a fiber, applications in the form of shapes and films were also developed. The main market for nylon shapes now is in auto components, in 1940, John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters nyl were arbitrary and the on was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and rayon. A later publication by DuPont explained that the name was intended to be No-Run. Since the products were not really run-proof, the vowels were swapped to produce nuron, for clarity in pronunciation, the i was changed to y. Most nylons are made from the reaction of an acid with a diamine or a lactam or amino acid with itself. In the first case, the structure is so-called ABAB similar to polyesters and polyurethanes, in the second case, the repeating unit corresponds to the single monomer. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons. To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid nylon salt can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1,1 ratio of the acid, the salt is crystallized to purify it and obtain the desired precise stoichiometry. Heated to 285 °C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer with the production of water, Wallace Carothers at DuPont patented nylon 66, but overlooked the possibility to use lactams. That synthetic route was developed by Paul Schlack at IG Farben, leading to nylon 6, the peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone
39.
Polyester
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Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate, polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not and this material is used very widely in clothing. Depending on the structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners, however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics, industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant— in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyester fibers are spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking, synthetic fibers in polyester also create materials with water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. Disadvantages of cotton and polyester blends include being less breathable than cotton and they are also less fire resistant and can melt when ignited. Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire, polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers and they are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat, while combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and they are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as parts of cars
40.
Wetsuit
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The insulation properties depend on bubbles of gas enclosed within the material, which reduce its ability to conduct heat. The bubbles also give the wetsuit a low density, providing buoyancy in water, hugh Bradner, a University of California, Berkeley physicist invented the modern wetsuit in 1952. Further improvements in the seals at the neck, wrists, ankles, different types of wetsuit are made for different uses and for different temperatures. Suits range from a thin shortie, covering just the torso, to a full 8 mm semi-dry, usually complemented by neoprene boots, gloves and hood. Activities include underwater diving, sailing, sea rescue operations, surfing, river rafting, whitewater kayaking and in some circumstances, endurance swimming. In open water swimming events the use of wetsuits is controversial, as some claim that wetsuits are being worn for competitive advantage. This varies by locales and times of the year, where temperatures are substantially below comfortable. Still water conducts heat away from the body by pure thermal diffusion, Wetsuits are made of closed-cell, foam neoprene, a synthetic rubber that contains small bubbles of nitrogen gas when made for use as wetsuit material. Uncompressed foam neoprene has a thermal conductivity in the region of 0.054 Wm−1K−1. However at a depth of 15 metres of water, the thickness of the neoprene will be halved and its conductivity will be increased by 50%, allowing heat to be lost at three times the rate at the surface. A wetsuit must have a fit to work efficiently when immersed, too loose a fit. Flexible seals at the suit cuffs aid in preventing heat loss in this fashion, foamed neoprene is very buoyant, helping swimmers to stay afloat, and for this reason divers need to carry extra weight based on the volume of their suit to achieve neutral buoyancy near the surface. However, the suit loses buoyancy and thermal protection as the bubbles in the neoprene are compressed at depth, semi-dry suits are effectively a wetsuit with reasonably effective seals at wrist, neck, ankles and zipper. The seals limit the amount of entering and leaving the suit. The wearer gets wet in a suit but the water that enters is soon warmed up and does not leave the suit readily. The trapped layer of water does not add significantly to the insulating ability. Any residual water circulation past the seals still causes heat loss, semi-dry suits are cheap and simple compared to dry suits. They are usually made from thick Neoprene, which provides thermal protection at shallow depth
41.
Neoprene
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Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene exhibits good chemical stability and maintains flexibility over a temperature range. Neoprene is produced by polymerization of chloroprene. In commercial production, this polymer is prepared by free radical emulsion polymerization, polymerization is initiated using potassium persulfate. Bifunctional nucleophiles, metal oxides, and thioureas are used to crosslink individual polymer strands, outside of Russia and China, about 300,000 tons of neoprene are produced annually. After DuPont purchased the patent rights from the university, Wallace Carothers of DuPont took over development of Nieuwlands discovery in collaboration with Nieuwland himself. Arnold Collins at DuPont focused on monovinyl acetylene and allowed it to react with hydrogen chloride gas, DuPont first marketed the compound in 1931 under the trade name DuPrene, but its commercial possibilities were limited by the original manufacturing process, which left the product with a foul odor. A new process was developed, which eliminated the odor-causing byproducts and halved production costs, to prevent shoddy manufacturers from harming the products reputation, the trademark DuPrene was restricted to apply only to the material sold by DuPont. By 1939, sales of neoprene were generating profits over $300,000 for the company, Neoprene resists degradation more than natural or synthetic rubber. This relative inertness makes it suited for demanding applications such as gaskets, hoses. It can be used as a base for adhesives, noise isolation in power transformer installations and it resists burning better than exclusively hydrocarbon based rubbers, resulting in its appearance in weather stripping for fire doors and in combat related attire such as gloves and face masks. Because of its tolerance of extreme conditions, neoprene is used to line landfills, neoprenes burn point is around 260°C. Neoprene foam is used in many applications. Neoprene foam can be produced in either closed-cell or open-cell form, the closed-cell form is waterproof, less compressible and more expensive. The open-cell form can be breathable, Neoprene is used as a load bearing base, usually between two prefabricated reinforced concrete elements or steel plates as well to evenly guide force from one element to another. Neoprene is commonly used as a material for fly fishing waders, Neoprene waders are usually about 5 mm thick, and in the medium price range as compared to cheaper materials such as nylon and rubber. However, neoprene is less expensive than breathable fabrics, a foamed neoprene containing gas cells is used as an insulation material, most notably in wetsuits. Foamed neoprene is used in other insulation and shock-protection applications
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Cycling shorts
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Cycling shorts are short, skin-tight legwear designed to improve comfort and efficiency while cycling. On some cycling shorts different materials are placed on different parts of the shorts to take advantage of each materials benefit providing a very efficicent cycling short. For example, the used for the chamois on womens cycling shorts tend to be quite different from those used for mens. The hem of each leg is usually lined with elastic and/or silicone that clings to the skin and these shorts made from several panels fit better and are more beneficial, especially for racers, but cost more. Bib shorts are cycling shorts that are held up by a bib instead of an elastic waistband, pro and serious riders tend to prefer bib shorts over non-bib shorts, due to the discomfort that often occurs with an elastic waistband, such as tightness and chafing. The bib part of the short is made of spandex. Bib shorts are well-suited to tall riders and riders with protruding stomachs because regular shorts can tend to fall down in the back while riding and these shorts typically are more loose than bib shorts but still not baggy. This is because they are focused more on protecting the rider during falls and are not as focused on aerodynamic efficiency, the position of the padding is a little different because mountain bikers have a more upright stance when riding. These shorts are different from baggy shorts as they are used by hardcore cyclists who still need the protection with a good padding, baggy shorts are cycling shorts that look like regular shorts on the outside, but that are designed for cycling. Some have a thin chamois lining on the inside and this lining ranges from polyester fabric to full eight-panel, form-fitting cycling shorts beneath the baggier outside shorts. Others are designed to be worn with a separate liner short underneath and these shorts provide a more casual look when riding around town and off dedicated bike paths. Bloomers Knickerbockers Trouser clips Swim jammer
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Leggings
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Leggings are a type of skin-tight garment that covers the legs and may be worn by both men and women. Originally, leggings were two separate garments, one for each leg, in contemporary usage, leggings refers to tight, form-fitting trousers that extend from the waist to the ankles, although some are shorter, some leggings are stirrupped. Leggings are worn to keep a persons legs warm, as protection from chafing during an activity such as exercise, Leggings are worn by both men and women during exercise but usually only by women at other times. Modern leggings are typically made from a blend of lycra, with cotton, polyester, or nylon, but can also be made from wool, silk, Leggings are available in a multitude of colors and decorative designs. Leggings are traditionally worn partially covered by a garment such as a skirt, wearing leggings as outerwear without additional covering is debated, and is not considered proper attire by some. Leggings in various forms and under various names have been worn for warmth, the separate hose worn by men in Europe from the 13th to 16th centuries were a form of leggings, as are the trews of the Scottish Highlands. Separate leggings of buckskin leather were worn by some Native Americans and these were adopted by some Long Hunters, French fur trappers, and later by mountain men. They are the leatherstockings of James Fenimore Coopers Leatherstocking Tales, the Buckskins were mostly a dull grey brain-tan, not the bright, glossy vegetable tanned leather commonly used today. Cowboys wore leggings of buckskin to protect from chapping caused by riding, wear and tear to their pants, and bites from animals, such as snakes or insects in the scrub, such as ticks. In many places, especially in countries such as Russia or Korea, men and women continued to wear wool leggings into modern times. The linen pantalettes worn by girls and women under crinolines in the century were also a form of leggings. Leggings became a part of fashion in the 1960s, as similar to capri pants. At first, these were usually puttees—strips of thick woolen cloth resembling a large bandage—were wrapped around the leg to support the ankle and they were usually held in place by a strap attached to the cloth. The soldier placed the leggings around his calf with the side facing out and adjusted them. Leggings typically extended to mid-calf and had a strap to hold them up and were secured with a tie just below the knee. Military leggings extended to the bottom of the knee and buttoned to the button on the knee-breeches. They are sometimes confused with gaiters, which extend to the ankle and are worn with full leg trousers. During World War II, United States Army foot soldiers were referred to as legs by paratroopers, late in World War II, after experimenting with general issue of high-top combat boots and jump boots for their soldiers, leggings began to disappear from military service
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