1.
Chemistry
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Chemistry is a branch of physical science that studies the composition, structure, properties and change of matter. Chemistry is sometimes called the science because it bridges other natural sciences, including physics. For the differences between chemistry and physics see comparison of chemistry and physics, the history of chemistry can be traced to alchemy, which had been practiced for several millennia in various parts of the world. The word chemistry comes from alchemy, which referred to a set of practices that encompassed elements of chemistry, metallurgy, philosophy, astrology, astronomy, mysticism. An alchemist was called a chemist in popular speech, and later the suffix -ry was added to this to describe the art of the chemist as chemistry, the modern word alchemy in turn is derived from the Arabic word al-kīmīā. In origin, the term is borrowed from the Greek χημία or χημεία and this may have Egyptian origins since al-kīmīā is derived from the Greek χημία, which is in turn derived from the word Chemi or Kimi, which is the ancient name of Egypt in Egyptian. Alternately, al-kīmīā may derive from χημεία, meaning cast together, in retrospect, the definition of chemistry has changed over time, as new discoveries and theories add to the functionality of the science. The term chymistry, in the view of noted scientist Robert Boyle in 1661, in 1837, Jean-Baptiste Dumas considered the word chemistry to refer to the science concerned with the laws and effects of molecular forces. More recently, in 1998, Professor Raymond Chang broadened the definition of chemistry to mean the study of matter, early civilizations, such as the Egyptians Babylonians, Indians amassed practical knowledge concerning the arts of metallurgy, pottery and dyes, but didnt develop a systematic theory. Greek atomism dates back to 440 BC, arising in works by such as Democritus and Epicurus. In 50 BC, the Roman philosopher Lucretius expanded upon the theory in his book De rerum natura, unlike modern concepts of science, Greek atomism was purely philosophical in nature, with little concern for empirical observations and no concern for chemical experiments. Work, particularly the development of distillation, continued in the early Byzantine period with the most famous practitioner being the 4th century Greek-Egyptian Zosimos of Panopolis. He formulated Boyles law, rejected the four elements and proposed a mechanistic alternative of atoms. Before his work, though, many important discoveries had been made, the Scottish chemist Joseph Black and the Dutchman J. B. English scientist John Dalton proposed the theory of atoms, that all substances are composed of indivisible atoms of matter. Davy discovered nine new elements including the alkali metals by extracting them from their oxides with electric current, british William Prout first proposed ordering all the elements by their atomic weight as all atoms had a weight that was an exact multiple of the atomic weight of hydrogen. The inert gases, later called the noble gases were discovered by William Ramsay in collaboration with Lord Rayleigh at the end of the century, thereby filling in the basic structure of the table. Organic chemistry was developed by Justus von Liebig and others, following Friedrich Wöhlers synthesis of urea which proved that organisms were, in theory
2.
Concentration
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In chemistry, concentration is the abundance of a constituent divided by the total volume of a mixture. Several types of mathematical description can be distinguished, mass concentration, molar concentration, number concentration, the term concentration can be applied to any kind of chemical mixture, but most frequently it refers to solutes and solvents in solutions. The molar concentration has variants such as concentration and osmotic concentration. To concentrate a solution, one must add more solute, or reduce the amount of solvent, by contrast, to dilute a solution, one must add more solvent, or reduce the amount of solute. Unless two substances are fully miscible there exists a concentration at which no further solute will dissolve in a solution, at this point, the solution is said to be saturated. If additional solute is added to a solution, it will not dissolve, except in certain circumstances. Instead, phase separation will occur, leading to coexisting phases, the point of saturation depends on many variables such as ambient temperature and the precise chemical nature of the solvent and solute. Concentrations are often called levels, reflecting the mental schema of levels on the axis of a graph. There are four quantities that describe concentration, The mass concentration ρ i is defined as the mass of a constituent m i divided by the volume of the mixture V, ρ i = m i V. The molar concentration c i is defined as the amount of a constituent n i divided by the volume of the mixture V, c i = n i V, however, more commonly the unit mol/L is used. The number concentration C i is defined as the number of entities of a constituent N i in a divided by the volume of the mixture V, C i = N i V. The volume concentration ϕ i is defined as the volume of a constituent V i divided by the volume of the mixture V, ϕ i = V i V. Being dimensionless, it is expressed as a number, e. g.0.18 or 18%, several other quantities can be used to describe the composition of a mixture. Note that these should not be called concentrations, normality is defined as the molar concentration c i divided by an equivalence factor f e q. Since the definition of the equivalence factor depends on context, IUPAC, the SI unit for molality is mol/kg. The mole fraction x i is defined as the amount of a constituent n i divided by the amount of all constituents in a mixture n t o t, x i = n i n t o t. However, the deprecated parts-per notation is used to describe small mole fractions. The mole ratio r i is defined as the amount of a constituent n i divided by the amount of all other constituents in a mixture
3.
Solution
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In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more substances. In such a mixture, a solute is a substance dissolved in another substance, the mixing process of a solution happens at a scale where the effects of chemical polarity are involved, resulting in interactions that are specific to solvation. The solution assumes the characteristics of the solvent when the solvent is the fraction of the mixture. The concentration of a solute in a solution is the mass of that solute expressed as a percentage of the mass of the whole solution, a solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. The particles of solute in a solution cannot be seen by the naked eye, a solution does not allow beams of light to scatter. The solute from a solution cannot be separated by filtration and it is composed of only one phase. Homogeneous means that the components of the form a single phase. Heterogeneous means that the components of the mixture are of different phase, the properties of the mixture can be uniformly distributed through the volume but only in absence of diffusion phenomena or after their completion. Usually, the present in the greatest amount is considered the solvent. Solvents can be gases, liquids or solids, one or more components present in the solution other than the solvent are called solutes. The solution has the physical state as the solvent. If the solvent is a gas, only gases are dissolved under a set of conditions. An example of a solution is air. Since interactions between molecules play almost no role, dilute gases form rather trivial solutions, in part of the literature, they are not even classified as solutions, but addressed as mixtures. If the solvent is a liquid, then almost all gases, liquids, here are some examples, Gas in liquid, Oxygen in water Carbon dioxide in water – a less simple example, because the solution is accompanied by a chemical reaction. Liquid in liquid, The mixing of two or more substances of the same chemistry but different concentrations to form a constant, alcoholic beverages are basically solutions of ethanol in water. Solid in liquid, Sucrose in water Sodium chloride or any other salt in water, solutions in water are especially common. Counterexamples are provided by liquid mixtures that are not homogeneous, colloids, body fluids are examples for complex liquid solutions, containing many solutes
4.
Miscibility
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Miscibility /mɪsᵻˈbɪlᵻti/ is the property of substances to mix in all proportions, forming a homogeneous solution. The term is most often applied to liquids, but applies also to solids, water and ethanol, for example, are miscible because they mix in all proportions. By contrast, substances are said to be if a significant proportion does not form a solution. Otherwise, the substances are considered miscible, for example, butanone is significantly soluble in water, but these two solvents are not miscible because they are not soluble in all proportions. In organic compounds, the percent of hydrocarbon chain often determines the compounds miscibility with water. For example, among the alcohols, ethanol has two atoms and is miscible with water, whereas 1-octanol with eight carbons is not. Octanols immiscibility leads it to be used as a standard for partition equilibria and this is also the case with lipids, the very long carbon chains of lipids cause them almost always to be immiscible with water. Analogous situations occur for other functional groups, acetic acid is miscible with water, whereas valeric acid is not. Immiscible metals are unable to form alloys with each other, typically, a mixture will be possible in the molten state, but upon freezing the metals separate into layers. This property allows solid precipitates to be formed by freezing a molten mixture of immiscible metals. One example of immiscibility in metals is copper and cobalt, where rapid freezing to form solid precipitates has been used to create granular GMR materials, there also exist metals that are immiscible in the liquid state. One with industrial importance is that liquid zinc and liquid silver are immiscible in liquid lead and this leads to the Parkes process, an example of liquid-liquid extraction, whereby lead containing any amount of silver is melted with zinc. The silver migrates to the zinc, which is skimmed off the top of the liquid. Substances with extremely low configurational entropy, especially polymers, are likely to be immiscible in one even in the liquid state. Miscibility of two materials is often determined optically, when the two miscible liquids are combined, the resulting liquid is clear. If the mixture is cloudy the two materials are immiscible, care must be taken with this determination. If the indices of refraction of the two materials are similar, an immiscible mixture may be clear and give an incorrect determination that the two liquids are miscible, miscibility gap Emulsion Heteroazeotrope ITIES Multiphasic liquid
5.
Saturation (chemistry)
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In chemistry, saturation has diverse meanings, all based on the idea of reaching a maximum capacity. In organic chemistry, a compound is a hydrocarbon which has no double or triple bonds. For example, consider three similar organic compounds that are less saturated, ethane, ethylene, and ethyne. Ethane, a saturated compound, has only single bonds between its hydrogen and carbon atoms. Ethylene, a compound of ethane, has a carbon double bond. Finally ethyne, the completely unsaturated compound of ethane, has a triple bond. The concept of saturation can be described using various naming systems, formulas, for instance, IUPAC nomenclature is a system of naming conventions used to describe the type and location of unsaturation within organic compounds. The degree of unsaturation is a used to summarize and diagram the amount of hydrogen that a compound can bind. Unsaturation can be determined by NMR, mass spectrometry and IR spectroscopy, tallow consists mainly of triglycerides, whose major constituents are derived from the saturated stearic and monounsaturated oleic acids. Many vegetable oils contain fatty acids with one or more double bonds in them, in organometallic chemistry, an unsaturated complex has fewer than 18 valence electrons and thus is susceptible to oxidative addition or coordination of an additional ligand. Unsaturation is characteristic of many catalysts because it is usually a requirement for substrate activation, in contrast, a coordinatively saturated complex resists undergoing substitution and oxidative addition reactions. In physical chemistry, saturation is the point at which the solute of a substance can dissolve no more of that substance and additional amounts of it will appear as a separate phase. This point of concentration, the saturation point, depends on the temperature and pressure of the solution as well as the chemical nature of the substances involved. Impurities, being present in lower concentration, do not saturate the solvent. If a change in conditions means that the concentration is higher than the saturation point. In physical chemistry, when referring to processes, saturation denotes the degree at which a binding site is fully occupied. For example, base refers to the fraction of exchangeable cations that are base cations. In biochemistry, the saturation refers to the fraction of total protein binding sites that are occupied at any given time
6.
Supersaturation
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Supersaturation is a state of a solution that contains more of the dissolved material than could be dissolved by the solvent under normal circumstances. It can also refer to a vapor of a compound that has a higher pressure than the pressure of that compound. Special conditions need to be met in order to generate a supersaturated solution, one of the easiest ways to do this relies on the temperature dependence of solubility. As a general rule, the heat is added to a system. Therefore, at high temperatures, more solute can be dissolved than at room temperature, the precipitation or crystallization of the solute takes longer than the actual cooling time because the molecules need to meet up and form the precipitate without being knocked apart by water. Thus, the larger the molecule, the longer it will take to crystallize due to the principles of Brownian motion, the condition of supersaturation does not necessarily have to be reached through the manipulation of heat. The ideal gas law suggests that pressure and volume can also be changed to force a system into a supersaturated state, if the volume of solvent is decreased, the concentration of the solute can be above the saturation point and thus create a supersaturated solution. The decrease in volume is most commonly generated through evaporation, similarly, an increase in pressure can drive a solution to a supersaturated state. All three of these rely on the fact that the conditions of the solution can be changed quicker than the solute can precipitate or crystallize out. Supersaturated solutions will also undergo crystallization under specific conditions, in a normal solution, once the maximum amount of solute is dissolved, adding more solute would either cause the dissolved solute to precipitate out and/or for the solute to not dissolve at all. Similarly, there are cases wherein solubility of a solution is decreased by manipulating temperature, pressure, or volume. In these cases, the solute will simply precipitate out and this is due to the fact that a supersaturated solution is in a higher energy state than a saturated solution. Crystallization will occur to allow the solution to reach an energy state. The activation energy comes in the form of a crystal being added to the liquid solution. This nuclei can be added from another source, which is known as seeding, or can spontaneously form within the solution due partly to ion. This process is known as primary nucleation and it is necessary for the nuclei to be identical to the solute that is crystallizing. This will allow for the ions to build up on the nuclei. There are a multitude of factors that affect the rate and order of magnitude with which crystallization proceeds as well as the difference in formation of crystallites
7.
Phase (matter)
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In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of space, throughout which all physical properties of a material are essentially uniform. Examples of physical properties include density, index of refraction, magnetization, a simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and mechanically separable. In a system consisting of ice and water in a jar, the ice cubes are one phase, the water is a second phase. The glass of the jar is another separate phase, the term phase is sometimes used as a synonym for state of matter, but there can be several immiscible phases of the same state of matter. Also, the phase is sometimes used to refer to a set of equilibrium states demarcated in terms of state variables such as pressure and temperature by a phase boundary on a phase diagram. Distinct phases may be described as different states of such as gas, liquid, solid. Useful mesophases between solid and liquid form other states of matter, distinct phases may also exist within a given state of matter. As shown in the diagram for iron alloys, several phases exist for both the solid and liquid states, phases may also be differentiated based on solubility as in polar or non-polar. A mixture of water and oil will separate into two phases. Water has a low solubility in oil, and oil has a low solubility in water. Solubility is the amount of a solute that can dissolve in a solvent before the solute ceases to dissolve. A mixture can separate into more than two phases and the concept of phase separation extends to solids, i. e. solids can form solid solutions or crystallize into distinct crystal phases. Metal pairs that are mutually soluble can form alloys, whereas metal pairs that are mutually insoluble cannot, as many as eight immiscible liquid phases have been observed. Mutually immiscible liquid phases are formed from water, hydrophobic solvents, perfluorocarbons, silicones, several different metals. Not all organic solvents are completely miscible, e. g. a mixture of ethylene glycol, phases do not need to macroscopically separate spontaneously. Emulsions and colloids are examples of immiscible phase pair combinations that do not physically separate, left to equilibration, many compositions will form a uniform single phase, but depending on the temperature and pressure even a single substance may separate into two or more distinct phases. Within each phase, the properties are uniform but between the two phases properties differ, water in a closed jar with an air space over it forms a two phase system. Most of the water is in the phase, where it is held by the mutual attraction of water molecules
8.
Chart
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A chart, also called a graph, is a graphical representation of data, in which the data is represented by symbols, such as bars in a bar chart, lines in a line chart, or slices in a pie chart. A chart can represent tabular numeric data, functions or some kinds of qualitative structure, the term chart as a graphical representation of data has multiple meanings, A data chart is a type of diagram or graph, that organizes and represents a set of numerical or qualitative data. Maps that are adorned with extra information for a purpose are often known as charts, such as a nautical chart or aeronautical chart. Other domain specific constructs are sometimes called charts, such as the chart in music notation or a record chart for album popularity. Charts are often used to understanding of large quantities of data. Charts can usually be more quickly than the raw data. They are used in a variety of fields, and can be created by hand or by computer using a charting application. Certain types of charts are useful for presenting a given data set than others. For example, data that presents percentages in different groups are displayed in a pie chart. On the other hand, data that represents numbers that change over a period of time might be best shown as a line chart. A chart can take a variety of forms, however there are common features that provide the chart with its ability to extract meaning from data. Typically the data in a chart is represented graphically, since humans are able to infer meaning from pictures quicker than from text. Text is generally used only to annotate the data, one of the most important uses of text in a graph is the title. A graphs title usually appears above the graphic and provides a succinct description of what the data in the graph refers to. Dimensions in the data are displayed on axes. If a horizontal and an axis are used, they are usually referred to as the x-axis and y-axis respectively. Each axis will have a scale, denoted by periodic graduations, each axis will typically also have a label displayed outside or beside it, briefly describing the dimension represented. If the scale is numerical, the label will often be suffixed with the unit of scale in parentheses
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Height
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Height is the measure of vertical distance, either how tall something is, or how high up it is. For example The height of the building is 50 m or The height of the airplane is 10,000 m, when used to describe how high something like an airplane or mountain peak is from sea level, height is more often called altitude. Height is measured along the axis between a specified point and another. English high is derived from Old English hēah, ultimately from Proto-Germanic *xauxa-z, the derived noun height, also the obsolete forms heighth and highth, is from Old English híehþo, later héahþu, as it were from Proto-Germanic *xaux-iþa. In elementary models of space, height may indicate the third dimension, height is normal to the plane formed by the length and width. Height is also used as a name for more abstract definitions. Although height is relative to a plane of reference, most measurements of height in the world are based upon a zero surface. Both altitude and elevation, two synonyms for height, are defined as the position of a point above the mean sea level. One can extend the surface under the continents, naively. In practice, the sea level under a continent has to be computed from gravity measurements, instead of using the sea level, geodesists often prefer to define height from the surface of a reference ellipsoid, see Geodetic system, vertical datum. Defining the height of geographic landmarks becomes a question of reference, in aviation terminology, the terms height, altitude, and elevation are not synonyms. Usually, the altitude of an aircraft is measured from sea level, Elevation is also measured from sea level, but is most often regarded as a property of the ground. Thus, elevation plus height can equal altitude, but the term altitude has several meanings in aviation, Human height is one of the areas of study within anthropometry. While height variations within a population are largely genetic, height variations between populations are mostly environmental, the United Nations uses height to monitor changes in the nutrition of developing nations. In human populations, average height can distill down complex data about the birth, upbringing, social class, diet. Acrophobia Centimetre–gram–second system of units Chinese units of measurement Elevation Human height Imperial units International System of Units United States customary units
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Bilirubin
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Bilirubin is a yellow compound that occurs in the normal catabolic pathway that breaks down heme in vertebrates. This catabolism is a process in the bodys clearance of waste products that arise from the destruction of aged red blood cells. First the hemoglobin gets stripped of the molecule which thereafter passes through various processes of porphyrin catabolism. For example, the molecules excreted in the urine differ from those in the feces, the production of biliverdin from heme is the first major step in the catabolic pathway, after which the enzyme biliverdin reductase performs the second step, producing bilirubin from biliverdin. Bilirubin is excreted in bile and urine, and elevated levels may indicate certain diseases and it is responsible for the yellow color of bruises and the yellow discoloration in jaundice. Its subsequent breakdown products, such as stercobilin, cause the color of feces. A different breakdown product, urobilin, is the component of the straw-yellow color in urine. It has also found in plants. Bilirubin consists of a chain of four pyrrole-like rings. In heme, these four rings are connected into a larger ring, Bilirubin can be conjugated with a molecule of glucuronic acid which makes it soluble in water. This is an example of glucuronidation, Bilirubin is very similar to the pigment phycobilin used by certain algae to capture light energy, and to the pigment phytochrome used by plants to sense light. All of these contain a chain of four pyrrolic rings. Like these other pigments, some of the double-bonds in bilirubin isomerize when exposed to light and this allows the excretion of unconjugated bilirubin in bile. Some textbooks and research articles show the geometric isomer of bilirubin. The naturally occurring isomer is the Z, Z-isomer, Bilirubin is created by the activity of biliverdin reductase on biliverdin, a green tetrapyrrolic bile pigment that is also a product of heme catabolism. Bilirubin, when oxidized, reverts to become once again. This cycle, in addition to the demonstration of the potent antioxidant activity of bilirubin, has led to the hypothesis that bilirubins main physiologic role is as a cellular antioxidant, the measurement of indirect bilirubin depends on its reaction with diazosulfanilic acid to create azobilirubin. However, unconjugated bilirubin also reacts slowly with diazosulfanilic acid, so that the measured indirect bilirubin is an underestimate of the true unconjugated concentration
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Serum (blood)
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In blood, the serum is the component that is neither a blood cell nor a clotting factor, it is the blood plasma not including the fibrinogens. Serum includes all proteins not used in blood clotting and all the electrolytes, antibodies, antigens, hormones, the study of serum is serology, which may also include proteomics. Serum is used in diagnostic tests, as well as blood typing. Blood is centrifuged to remove cellular components, anti-coagulated blood yields plasma containing fibrinogen and clotting factors. Coagulated blood yields serum without fibrinogen, although some clotting factors remain, serum is an essential factor for the self-renewal of embryonic stem cells in combination with the cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor. Such convalescent serum is a form of immunotherapy, blood serum and plasma are one the largest source of biomarkers, whether for diagnostics or therapeutics. For analysis of biomarkers in blood samples, it is possible to do a pre-separation by free-flow electrophoresis that usually consists of a depletion of serum albumin protein. This method enables greater penetration of the proteome via separation of a variety of charged or chargeable analytes. Like many other nouns, the word serum can be pluralized when used in certain senses. To speak of multiple serum specimens from people, physicians sometimes speak of sera
12.
Reference ranges for blood tests
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Reference ranges for blood tests are sets of values used by a health professional to interpret a set of medical test results from blood samples. Reference ranges for blood tests are studied within the field of clinical chemistry, blood test results should always be interpreted using the reference range provided by the laboratory that performed the test. A reference range is defined as the set of values 95 percent of the normal population falls within. It is determined by collecting data from vast numbers of laboratory tests, in this article, all values denote blood plasma concentration, which is approximately 60–100% larger than the actual blood concentration if the amount inside red blood cells is negligible. The precise factor depends on hematocrit as well as amount inside RBCs, is usually given with dL as the denominator in the United States, and usually with L in, for example, Sweden. Molar concentration is used to a degree in most of the rest of the world, including the United Kingdom and other parts of Europe and Australia. International units are based on measured biological activity or effect, or for some substances, enzyme activity is commonly used for e. g. liver function tests like AST, ALT, LD and γ-GT in Sweden. Percentages and time-dependent units are used for calculated derived parameters, e. g. for beta cell function in homeostasis model assessment or thyroids secretory capacity. If not otherwise specified, a range for a blood test is generally the venous range. An exception is for acid-base and blood gases, which are given for arterial blood. Still, the values are approximately equal between the arterial and venous sides for most substances, with the exception of acid-base, blood gases. Arterial levels for drugs are generally higher than venous levels because of extraction while passing through tissues, reference ranges are usually given as what are the usual values found in the population, more specifically the prediction interval that 95% of the population fall into. This may also be called standard range, for most substances presented, the optimal levels are the ones normally found in the population as well. More specifically, optimal levels are close to a central tendency of the values found in the population. However, usual and optimal levels may differ substantially, most notably among vitamins and blood lipids, references range may vary with age, sex, race, pregnancy, diet, use of prescribed or herbal drugs and stress. Reference ranges often depend on the method used, for reasons such as inaccuracy, lack of standardisation, lack of certified reference material. Also, reference ranges may be inaccurate when the groups used to establish the ranges are small. Units dont necessarily imply anything about molarity or mass, a few substances are below this main interval, e. g. thyroid stimulating hormone, being measured in mU/L, or above, like rheumatoid factor and CA19-9, being measured in U/mL
13.
Mass
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In physics, mass is a property of a physical body. It is the measure of a resistance to acceleration when a net force is applied. It also determines the strength of its gravitational attraction to other bodies. The basic SI unit of mass is the kilogram, Mass is not the same as weight, even though mass is often determined by measuring the objects weight using a spring scale, rather than comparing it directly with known masses. An object on the Moon would weigh less than it does on Earth because of the lower gravity and this is because weight is a force, while mass is the property that determines the strength of this force. In Newtonian physics, mass can be generalized as the amount of matter in an object, however, at very high speeds, special relativity postulates that energy is an additional source of mass. Thus, any body having mass has an equivalent amount of energy. In addition, matter is a defined term in science. There are several distinct phenomena which can be used to measure mass, active gravitational mass measures the gravitational force exerted by an object. Passive gravitational mass measures the force exerted on an object in a known gravitational field. The mass of an object determines its acceleration in the presence of an applied force, according to Newtons second law of motion, if a body of fixed mass m is subjected to a single force F, its acceleration a is given by F/m. A bodys mass also determines the degree to which it generates or is affected by a gravitational field and this is sometimes referred to as gravitational mass. The standard International System of Units unit of mass is the kilogram, the kilogram is 1000 grams, first defined in 1795 as one cubic decimeter of water at the melting point of ice. Then in 1889, the kilogram was redefined as the mass of the prototype kilogram. As of January 2013, there are proposals for redefining the kilogram yet again. In this context, the mass has units of eV/c2, the electronvolt and its multiples, such as the MeV, are commonly used in particle physics. The atomic mass unit is 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, the atomic mass unit is convenient for expressing the masses of atoms and molecules. Outside the SI system, other units of mass include, the slug is an Imperial unit of mass, the pound is a unit of both mass and force, used mainly in the United States
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International System of Units
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The International System of Units is the modern form of the metric system, and is the most widely used system of measurement. It comprises a coherent system of units of measurement built on seven base units, the system also establishes a set of twenty prefixes to the unit names and unit symbols that may be used when specifying multiples and fractions of the units. The system was published in 1960 as the result of an initiative began in 1948. It is based on the system of units rather than any variant of the centimetre-gram-second system. The motivation for the development of the SI was the diversity of units that had sprung up within the CGS systems, the International System of Units has been adopted by most developed countries, however, the adoption has not been universal in all English-speaking countries. The metric system was first implemented during the French Revolution with just the metre and kilogram as standards of length, in the 1830s Carl Friedrich Gauss laid the foundations for a coherent system based on length, mass, and time. In the 1860s a group working under the auspices of the British Association for the Advancement of Science formulated the requirement for a coherent system of units with base units and derived units. Meanwhile, in 1875, the Treaty of the Metre passed responsibility for verification of the kilogram, in 1921, the Treaty was extended to include all physical quantities including electrical units originally defined in 1893. The units associated with these quantities were the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, in 1971, a seventh base quantity, amount of substance represented by the mole, was added to the definition of SI. On 11 July 1792, the proposed the names metre, are, litre and grave for the units of length, area, capacity. The committee also proposed that multiples and submultiples of these units were to be denoted by decimal-based prefixes such as centi for a hundredth, on 10 December 1799, the law by which the metric system was to be definitively adopted in France was passed. Prior to this, the strength of the magnetic field had only been described in relative terms. The technique used by Gauss was to equate the torque induced on a magnet of known mass by the earth’s magnetic field with the torque induced on an equivalent system under gravity. The resultant calculations enabled him to assign dimensions based on mass, length, a French-inspired initiative for international cooperation in metrology led to the signing in 1875 of the Metre Convention. Initially the convention only covered standards for the metre and the kilogram, one of each was selected at random to become the International prototype metre and International prototype kilogram that replaced the mètre des Archives and kilogramme des Archives respectively. Each member state was entitled to one of each of the prototypes to serve as the national prototype for that country. Initially its prime purpose was a periodic recalibration of national prototype metres. The official language of the Metre Convention is French and the version of all official documents published by or on behalf of the CGPM is the French-language version
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Molar concentration
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A commonly used unit for molar concentration in chemistry is the molar, which is defined as the number of moles per litre. A solution with a concentration of 1 mol/L is equivalent to 1 molar, Molar concentration or molarity is most commonly expressed in units of moles of solute per litre of solution. Or more simply,1 molar =1 M =1 mole/litre, in thermodynamics the use of molar concentration is often not convenient, because the volume of most solutions slightly depends on temperature due to thermal expansion. This problem is resolved by introducing temperature correction factors, or by using a temperature-independent measure of concentration such as molality. The reciprocal quantity represents the dilution which can appear in Ostwalds law of dilution, in the International System of Units the base unit for molar concentration is mol/m3. However, this is impractical for most laboratory purposes and most chemical literature traditionally uses mol/dm3, or mol dm−3, the words millimolar and micromolar refer to mM and μM, respectively. The conversion to number concentration C i is given by, C i = c i ⋅ N A where N A is the Avogadro constant, approximately 6. 022×1023 mol−1. The conversion to mass concentration ρ i is given by, ρ i = c i ⋅ M i where M i is the mass of constituent i. A simpler relation can be obtained by considering the total molar concentration namely the sum of molar concentrations of all the components of the mixture, in an ionic solution, ionic strength is proportional to the sum of molar concentration of salts. The sum of products between these quantities equals one, ∑ i c i ⋅ V i ¯ =1 Molar concentration depends on the variation of the volume of the solution due mainly to thermal expansion. On small intervals of temperature the dependence is, c i = c i, T0 where c i, T0 is the concentration at a reference temperature. Molar and mass concentration have different values in space where diffusion happens, example 1, Consider 11.6 g of NaCl dissolved in 100 g of water. Example 2, Another typical task in chemistry is the preparation of 100 mL of a 2 mol/L solution of NaCl in water, example 3, The density of water is approximately 1000 g/L and its molar mass is 18.02 g/mol. Example 4, A typical protein in bacteria, such as E. coli, may have about 60 copies, and the volume of a bacterium is about 10 −15 L. For example, if a sodium carbonate solution has a concentration of c =1 mol/L. Molar Solution Concentration Calculator Experiment to determine the concentration of vinegar by titration
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Amount of substance
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Amount of substance is a standards-defined quantity that measures the size of an ensemble of elementary entities, such as atoms, molecules, electrons, and other particles. It is sometimes referred to as chemical amount, the International System of Units defines the amount of substance to be proportional to the number of elementary entities present. The SI unit for amount of substance is the mole and it has the unit symbol mol. The proportionality constant is the inverse of the Avogadro constant, the mole is defined as the amount of substance that contains an equal number of elementary entities as there are atoms in 12g of the isotope carbon-12. This number is called Avogadros number and has the value 6. 022140857×1023 and it is the numerical value of the Avogadro constant which has the unit 1/mol, and relates the molar mass of an amount of substance to its mass. Therefore, the amount of substance of a sample is calculated as the sample mass divided by the mass of the substance. Amount of substance appears in thermodynamic relations such as the gas law. Another unit of amount of substance in use in engineering in the United States is the pound-mole. When quoting an amount of substance, it is necessary to specify the entity involved, unless there is no risk of ambiguity. One mole of chlorine could refer either to chlorine atoms, as in 58.44 g of sodium chloride, or to chlorine molecules, the simplest way to avoid ambiguity is to replace the term substance by the name of the entity or to quote the empirical formula. The main derived quantity in which amount of substance enters into the numerator is amount of substance concentration and this name is often abbreviated to amount concentration, except in clinical chemistry where substance concentration is the preferred term to avoid ambiguity with mass concentration. The term molar concentration is incorrect, but commonly used, the alchemists, and especially the early metallurgists, probably had some notion of amount of substance, but there are no surviving records of any generalization of the idea beyond a set of recipes. In 1758, Mikhail Lomonosov questioned the idea that mass was the measure of the quantity of matter. The development of the concept of amount of substance was coincidental with, and vital to,1777, Wenzel publishes Lessons on Affinity, in which he demonstrates that the proportions of the base component and the acid component remain the same during reactions between two neutral salts. 1789, Lavoisier publishes Treatise of Elementary Chemistry, introducing the concept of a chemical element,1792, Richter publishes the first volume of Stoichiometry or the Art of Measuring the Chemical Elements. The term stoichiometry is used for the first time, the first tables of equivalent weights are published for acid–base reactions. Richter also notes that, for an acid, the equivalent mass of the acid is proportional to the mass of oxygen in the base. 1794, Prousts Law of definite proportions generalizes the concept of equivalent weights to all types of chemical reaction,1805, Dalton publishes his first paper on modern atomic theory, including a Table of the relative weights of the ultimate particles of gaseous and other bodies
17.
IUPAC
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The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry /ˈaɪjuːpæk/ or /ˈjuːpæk/ is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations that represents chemists in individual countries. It is a member of the International Council for Science, IUPAC is registered in Zürich, Switzerland, and the administrative office, known as the IUPAC Secretariat, is in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States. This administrative office is headed by IUPACs executive director, currently Lynn Soby, IUPAC was established in 1919 as the successor of the International Congress of Applied Chemistry for the advancement of chemistry. Its members, the National Adhering Organizations, can be national chemistry societies, national academies of sciences, there are fifty-four National Adhering Organizations and three Associate National Adhering Organizations. IUPACs Inter-divisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols is the world authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements. Since its creation, IUPAC has been run by different committees with different responsibilities. These committees run different projects which include standardizing nomenclature, finding ways to bring chemistry to the world, IUPAC is best known for its works standardizing nomenclature in chemistry and other fields of science, but IUPAC has publications in many fields including chemistry, biology and physics. IUPAC is also known for standardizing the atomic weights of the elements through one of its oldest standing committees, the need for an international standard for chemistry was first addressed in 1860 by a committee headed by German scientist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz. This committee was the first international conference to create an international naming system for organic compounds, the ideas that were formulated in that conference evolved into the official IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry. IUPAC stands as a legacy of this meeting, making it one of the most important historical international collaborations of chemistry societies, since this time, IUPAC has been the official organization held with the responsibility of updating and maintaining official organic nomenclature. IUPAC as such was established in 1919, one notable country excluded from this early IUPAC is Germany. Germanys exclusion was a result of prejudice towards Germans by the Allied powers after World War I, Germany was finally admitted into IUPAC during 1929. However, Nazi Germany was removed from IUPAC during World War II, during World War II, IUPAC was affiliated with the Allied powers, but had little involvement during the war effort itself. After the war, East and West Germany were eventually readmitted to IUPAC, since World War II, IUPAC has been focused on standardizing nomenclature and methods in science without interruption. In 2016, IUPAC denounced the use of chlorine as a chemical weapon, the letter stated, Our organizations deplore the use of chlorine in this manner. According to the CWC, the use, stockpiling, distribution, IUPAC is governed by several committees that all have different responsibilities. Each committee is made up of members of different National Adhering Organizations from different countries, the steering committee hierarchy for IUPAC is as follows, All committees have an allotted budget to which they must adhere. Any committee may start a project, if a projects spending becomes too much for a committee to continue funding, it must take the issue to the Project Committee
18.
NIST
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The National Institute of Standards and Technology is a measurement standards laboratory, and a non-regulatory agency of the United States Department of Commerce. Its mission is to promote innovation and industrial competitiveness, in 1821, John Quincy Adams had declared Weights and measures may be ranked among the necessities of life to every individual of human society. From 1830 until 1901, the role of overseeing weights and measures was carried out by the Office of Standard Weights and Measures, president Theodore Roosevelt appointed Samuel W. Stratton as the first director. The budget for the first year of operation was $40,000, a laboratory site was constructed in Washington, DC, and instruments were acquired from the national physical laboratories of Europe. In addition to weights and measures, the Bureau developed instruments for electrical units, in 1905 a meeting was called that would be the first National Conference on Weights and Measures. Quality standards were developed for products including some types of clothing, automobile brake systems and headlamps, antifreeze, during World War I, the Bureau worked on multiple problems related to war production, even operating its own facility to produce optical glass when European supplies were cut off. Between the wars, Harry Diamond of the Bureau developed a blind approach radio aircraft landing system, in 1948, financed by the Air Force, the Bureau began design and construction of SEAC, the Standards Eastern Automatic Computer. The computer went into operation in May 1950 using a combination of vacuum tubes, about the same time the Standards Western Automatic Computer, was built at the Los Angeles office of the NBS and used for research there. A mobile version, DYSEAC, was built for the Signal Corps in 1954, due to a changing mission, the National Bureau of Standards became the National Institute of Standards and Technology in 1988. Following 9/11, NIST conducted the investigation into the collapse of the World Trade Center buildings. NIST had a budget for fiscal year 2007 of about $843.3 million. NISTs 2009 budget was $992 million, and it also received $610 million as part of the American Recovery, NIST employs about 2,900 scientists, engineers, technicians, and support and administrative personnel. About 1,800 NIST associates complement the staff, in addition, NIST partners with 1,400 manufacturing specialists and staff at nearly 350 affiliated centers around the country. NIST publishes the Handbook 44 that provides the Specifications, tolerances, the Congress of 1866 made use of the metric system in commerce a legally protected activity through the passage of Metric Act of 1866. NIST is headquartered in Gaithersburg, Maryland, and operates a facility in Boulder, nISTs activities are organized into laboratory programs and extramural programs. Effective October 1,2010, NIST was realigned by reducing the number of NIST laboratory units from ten to six, nISTs Boulder laboratories are best known for NIST‑F1, which houses an atomic clock. NIST‑F1 serves as the source of the official time. NIST also operates a neutron science user facility, the NIST Center for Neutron Research, the NCNR provides scientists access to a variety of neutron scattering instruments, which they use in many research fields
19.
Parts-per notation
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In science and engineering, the parts-per notation is a set of pseudo-units to describe small values of miscellaneous dimensionless quantities, e. g. mole fraction or mass fraction. Since these fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures, they are pure numbers with no associated units of measurement, commonly used are ppm, ppb, ppt and ppq. Parts-per notation is often used describing dilute solutions in chemistry, for instance, the unit “1 ppm” can be used for a mass fraction if a water-borne pollutant is present at one-millionth of a gram per gram of sample solution. When working with aqueous solutions, it is common to assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL, therefore, it is common to equate 1 kilogram of water with 1 L of water. Consequently,1 ppm corresponds to 1 mg/L and 1 ppb corresponds to 1 μg/L, similarly, parts-per notation is used also in physics and engineering to express the value of various proportional phenomena. For instance, a metal alloy might expand 1.2 micrometers per meter of length for every degree Celsius. For instance, the accuracy of distance measurements when using a laser rangefinder might be 1 millimeter per kilometer of distance, this could be expressed as “Accuracy =1 ppm. ”Parts-per notations are all dimensionless quantities, in mathematical expressions. In fractions like “2 nanometers per meter” so the quotients are pure-number coefficients with positive values less than 1, when parts-per notations, including the percent symbol, are used in regular prose, they are still pure-number dimensionless quantities. However, they take the literal “parts per” meaning of a comparative ratio. Parts-per notations may be expressed in terms of any unit of the same measure, in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, chemical shift is usually expressed in ppm. It represents the difference of a frequency in parts per million from the reference frequency. The reference frequency depends on the magnetic field and the element being measured. It is usually expressed in MHz, typical chemical shifts are rarely more than a few hundred Hz from the reference frequency, so chemical shifts are conveniently expressed in ppm. Parts-per notation gives a quantity that does not depend on the instruments field strength. One part per hundred is generally represented by the percent symbol and denotes one part per 100 parts, one part in 102, and this is equivalent to approximately one drop of water diluted into 5 milliliters or about fifteen minutes out of one day. One part per thousand should generally be spelled out in full and it may also be denoted by the millage symbol. Note however, that specific disciplines such as oceanography, as well as educational exercises, one part per thousand denotes one part per 1000 parts, one part in 103, and a value of 1 × 10−3. This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 50 milliliters or about one, one part per ten thousand is denoted by the permyriad symbol
20.
International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
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The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry /ˈaɪjuːpæk/ or /ˈjuːpæk/ is an international federation of National Adhering Organizations that represents chemists in individual countries. It is a member of the International Council for Science, IUPAC is registered in Zürich, Switzerland, and the administrative office, known as the IUPAC Secretariat, is in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, United States. This administrative office is headed by IUPACs executive director, currently Lynn Soby, IUPAC was established in 1919 as the successor of the International Congress of Applied Chemistry for the advancement of chemistry. Its members, the National Adhering Organizations, can be national chemistry societies, national academies of sciences, there are fifty-four National Adhering Organizations and three Associate National Adhering Organizations. IUPACs Inter-divisional Committee on Nomenclature and Symbols is the world authority in developing standards for the naming of the chemical elements. Since its creation, IUPAC has been run by different committees with different responsibilities. These committees run different projects which include standardizing nomenclature, finding ways to bring chemistry to the world, IUPAC is best known for its works standardizing nomenclature in chemistry and other fields of science, but IUPAC has publications in many fields including chemistry, biology and physics. IUPAC is also known for standardizing the atomic weights of the elements through one of its oldest standing committees, the need for an international standard for chemistry was first addressed in 1860 by a committee headed by German scientist Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz. This committee was the first international conference to create an international naming system for organic compounds, the ideas that were formulated in that conference evolved into the official IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry. IUPAC stands as a legacy of this meeting, making it one of the most important historical international collaborations of chemistry societies, since this time, IUPAC has been the official organization held with the responsibility of updating and maintaining official organic nomenclature. IUPAC as such was established in 1919, one notable country excluded from this early IUPAC is Germany. Germanys exclusion was a result of prejudice towards Germans by the Allied powers after World War I, Germany was finally admitted into IUPAC during 1929. However, Nazi Germany was removed from IUPAC during World War II, during World War II, IUPAC was affiliated with the Allied powers, but had little involvement during the war effort itself. After the war, East and West Germany were eventually readmitted to IUPAC, since World War II, IUPAC has been focused on standardizing nomenclature and methods in science without interruption. In 2016, IUPAC denounced the use of chlorine as a chemical weapon, the letter stated, Our organizations deplore the use of chlorine in this manner. According to the CWC, the use, stockpiling, distribution, IUPAC is governed by several committees that all have different responsibilities. Each committee is made up of members of different National Adhering Organizations from different countries, the steering committee hierarchy for IUPAC is as follows, All committees have an allotted budget to which they must adhere. Any committee may start a project, if a projects spending becomes too much for a committee to continue funding, it must take the issue to the Project Committee
21.
IUPAC books
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The Compendium of Chemical Terminology is a book published by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry containing internationally accepted definitions for terms in chemistry. Work on the first edition was initiated by Victor Gold, hence its informal name, the first edition was published in 1987 and the second edition, edited by A. D. McNaught and A. Wilkinson, was published in 1997. A slightly expanded version of the Gold Book is also freely searchable online, translations have also been published in French, Spanish and Polish
22.
Aqueous solution
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An aqueous solution is a solution in which the solvent is water. It is usually shown in chemical equations by appending to the relevant chemical formula, for example, a solution of table salt, or sodium chloride, in water would be represented as Na+ + Cl−. The word aqueous means pertaining to, related to, similar to, as water is an excellent solvent and is also naturally abundant, it is a ubiquitous solvent in chemistry. Substances that are hydrophobic often do not dissolve well in water, an example of a hydrophilic substance is sodium chloride. Acids and bases are aqueous solutions, as part of their Arrhenius definitions, the ability of a substance to dissolve in water is determined by whether the substance can match or exceed the strong attractive forces that water molecules generate between themselves. If the substance lacks the ability to dissolve in water the molecules form a precipitate, reactions in aqueous solutions are usually metathesis reactions. Metathesis reactions are another term for double-displacement, that is, when a cation displaces to form a bond with the other anion. The cation bonded with the latter anion will dissociate and bond with the other anion, aqueous solutions that conduct electric current efficiently contain strong electrolytes, while ones that conduct poorly are considered to have weak electrolytes. Those strong electrolytes are substances that are ionized in water. Nonelectrolytes are substances that dissolve in water yet maintain their molecular integrity, examples include sugar, urea, glycerol, and methylsulfonylmethane. When writing the equations of reactions, it is essential to determine the precipitate. To determine the precipitate, one must consult a chart of solubility, soluble compounds are aqueous, while insoluble compounds are the precipitate. Remember that there may not always be a precipitate, when performing calculations regarding the reacting of one or more aqueous solutions, in general one must know the concentration, or molarity, of the aqueous solutions. Solution concentration is given in terms of the form of the prior to it dissolving. Metal ions in aqueous solution Solubility Dissociation Acid-base reaction theories Properties of water Zumdahl S.1997, 4th ed. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Company
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Solid solution
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A solid solution is a solid-state solution of one or more solutes in a solvent. The solid solution needs to be distinguished from a mechanical mixtures of powdered solids like two salts, sugar and salt, etc, the mechanical mixtures have total or partial miscibility gap in solid state. Examples of solid solutions include crystallized salts from their liquid mixture, metal alloys, in the case of metal alloys intermetallic compounds occur frequently. The solute may incorporate into the solvent crystal lattice substitutionally, by replacing a solvent particle in the lattice, or interstitially, by fitting into the space between solvent particles. Both of these types of solid solution affect the properties of the material by distorting the crystal lattice, some mixtures will readily form solid solutions over a range of concentrations, while other mixtures will not form solid solutions at all. The propensity for any two substances to form a solution is a complicated matter involving the chemical, crystallographic. 1 displays an alloy of two metals which forms a solution at all relative concentrations of the two species. Solid solutions have important commercial and industrial applications, as such mixtures often have superior properties to pure materials, many metal alloys are solid solutions. Even small amounts of solute can affect the electrical and physical properties of the solvent, the binary phase diagram in Fig.2 shows the phases of a mixture of two substances in varying concentrations, A and B. The region labeled α is a solution, with B acting as the solute in a matrix of A. On the other end of the scale, the region labeled β is also a solid solution. The large solid region in between the α and β solid solutions, labeled α + β, is not a solid solution, at other proportions, the material will enter a mushy or pasty phase until it warms up to being completely melted. The mixture at the dip point of the diagram is called a eutectic alloy, lead-tin mixtures formulated at that point are useful when soldering electronic components, particularly if done manually, since the solid phase is quickly entered as the solder cools. In contrast, when lead-tin mixtures were used to solder seams in automobile bodies a pasty state enabled a shape to be formed with a paddle or tool. When a solid solution becomes unstable — due to a temperature, for example — exsolution occurs. This is mainly caused by difference in cation size, cations which have a large difference in radii are not likely to readily substitute. Take the alkali feldspar minerals for example, whose end members are albite, NaAlSi3O8 and microcline and this leads to exsolution where they will separate into two separate phases. In the case of the feldspar minerals, thin white albite layers will alternate between typically pink microcline
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Buffer solution
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For an individual weak acid or weak base component, see Buffering agent. For uses not related to chemistry, see Buffer. A buffer solution is an aqueous solution consisting of a mixture of an acid and its conjugate base. Its pH changes very little when a small amount of acid or base is added to it. Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a constant value in a wide variety of chemical applications. In nature, there are systems that use buffering for pH regulation. For example, the buffering system is used to regulate the pH of blood. Buffer solutions achieve their resistance to pH change because of the presence of an equilibrium between the acid HA and its conjugate base A−. HA ⇌ H+ + A− When some strong acid is added to a mixture of the weak acid and its conjugate base. Because of this, the ion concentration increases by less than the amount expected for the quantity of strong acid added. Similarly, if strong alkali is added to the mixture the hydrogen ion concentration decreases by less than the amount expected for the quantity of alkali added, the effect is illustrated by the simulated titration of a weak acid with pKa =4.7. The relative concentration of undissociated acid is shown in blue and of its base in red. The pH changes relatively slowly in the region, pH = pKa ±1. OH− + H+ → H2O Once the acid is more than 95% deprotonated the pH rises rapidly because most of the alkali is consumed in the neutralization reaction. Buffer capacity, β, is a measure of the resistance of a buffer solution to pH change on addition of hydroxide ions. It can be defined as follows, β = d n d where dn is an infinitesimal amount of added base and d is the resulting infinitesimal change in the cologarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. With this definition the buffer capacity of an acid, with a dissociation constant Ka. This equation shows that there are three regions of raised buffer capacity, at very low p the term in the denominator predominates and buffer capacity rises exponentially with decreasing pH
25.
Colloid
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A colloid, in chemistry, is a mixture in which one substance of microscopically dispersed insoluble particles is suspended throughout another substance. Sometimes the dispersed substance alone is called the colloid, the colloidal suspension refers unambiguously to the overall mixture. Unlike a solution, whose solute and solvent constitute only one phase, a colloid has a dispersed phase, to qualify as a colloid, the mixture must be one that does not settle or would take a very long time to settle appreciably. The dispersed-phase particles have a diameter between approximately 1 and 1000 nanometers, such particles are normally easily visible in an optical microscope, although at the smaller size range, an ultramicroscope or an electron microscope may be required. Homogeneous mixtures with a phase in this size range may be called colloidal aerosols, colloidal emulsions, colloidal foams, colloidal dispersions. The dispersed-phase particles or droplets are affected largely by the surface chemistry present in the colloid, some colloids are translucent because of the Tyndall effect, which is the scattering of light by particles in the colloid. Other colloids may be opaque or have a slight color, Colloidal suspensions are the subject of interface and colloid science. This field of study was introduced in 1861 by Scottish scientist Thomas Graham, because of the size exclusion, the colloidal particles are unable to pass through the pores of an ultrafiltration membrane with a size smaller than their own dimension. The smaller the size of the pore of the ultrafiltration membrane, the measured value of the concentration of a truly dissolved species will thus depend on the experimental conditions applied to separate it from the colloidal particles also dispersed in the liquid. This is particularly important for solubility studies of readily hydrolyzed species such as Al, Eu, Am, Cm, the colloid particles are attracted toward water. They are also called reversible sols, hydrophobic colloids, These are opposite in nature to hydrophilic colloids. The colloid particles are repelled by water and they are also called irreversible sols. In some cases, a colloid suspension can be considered a homogeneous mixture and this is because the distinction between dissolved and particulate matter can be sometimes a matter of approach, which affects whether or not it is homogeneous or heterogeneous. The following forces play an important role in the interaction of particles, Excluded volume repulsion. Electrostatic interaction, Colloidal particles often carry a charge and therefore attract or repel each other. The charge of both the continuous and the phase, as well as the mobility of the phases are factors affecting this interaction. Van der Waals forces, This is due to interaction between two dipoles that are permanent or induced. Even if the particles do not have a permanent dipole, fluctuations of the electron density gives rise to a dipole in a particle
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Phase diagram
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For the use of this term in mathematics and physics, see phase space. Common components of a phase diagram are lines of equilibrium or phase boundaries, phase transitions occur along lines of equilibrium. Triple points are points on phase diagrams where lines of equilibrium intersect, triple points mark conditions at which three different phases can coexist. For example, the phase diagram has a triple point corresponding to the single temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid. The solidus is the temperature below which the substance is stable in the solid state, the liquidus is the temperature above which the substance is stable in a liquid state. There may be a gap between the solidus and liquidus, within the gap, the substance consists of a mixture of crystals, the simplest phase diagrams are pressure–temperature diagrams of a single simple substance, such as water. The axes correspond to the pressure and temperature, the phase diagram shows, in pressure–temperature space, the lines of equilibrium or phase boundaries between the three phases of solid, liquid, and gas. The fusion curves for water and Antimony are with negative slopes, the curves on the phase diagram show the points where the free energy becomes non-analytic, their derivatives with respect to the coordinates change discontinuously. For example, the capacity of a container filled with ice will change abruptly as the container is heated past the melting point. The open spaces, where the energy is analytic, correspond to single phase regions. Single phase regions are separated by lines of non-analytical behavior, where phase transitions occur, in the diagram on the left, the phase boundary between liquid and gas does not continue indefinitely. Instead, it terminates at a point on the diagram called the critical point. This reflects the fact that, at high temperatures and pressures. In water, the critical point occurs at around Tc =647.096 K, pc =22.064 MPa, the existence of the liquid–gas critical point reveals a slight ambiguity in labelling the single phase regions. Thus, the liquid and gaseous phases can blend continuously into each other, the solid–liquid phase boundary can only end in a critical point if the solid and liquid phases have the same symmetry group. Thus, the substance requires a temperature for its molecules to have enough energy to break out of the fixed pattern of the solid phase. A similar concept applies to liquid–gas phase changes, water, because of its particular properties, is one of the several exceptions to the rule. In addition to temperature and pressure, other properties may be graphed in phase diagrams
27.
Eutectic system
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It is only in this atomic/molecular ratio that the eutectic system melts as a whole, at a specific temperature the super-lattice releasing at once all its components into a liquid mixture. The eutectic temperature is the lowest possible melting temperature over all of the ratios for the involved component species. Conversely, as a non-eutectic mixture cools down, each component will solidify at a distinct temperature. The coordinates defining a eutectic point on a phase diagram are the percentage ratio. Not all binary alloys have eutectic points because the electrons of the component species are not always compatible, in any mixing ratio. The term eutectic was coined in 1884 by British physicist and chemist Frederick Guthrie, tangibly, this means the liquid and two solid solutions all coexist at the same time and are in chemical equilibrium. There is also a thermal arrest for the duration of the change of phase during which the temperature of the system does not change, the resulting solid macrostructure from a eutectic reaction depends on a few factors. The most important factor is how the two solid solutions nucleate and grow, the most common structure is a lamellar structure, but other possible structures include rodlike, globular, and acicular. Compositions of eutectic systems that are not at the composition can be classified as hypoeutectic or hypereutectic. As the temperature of a composition is lowered the liquid mixture will precipitate one component of the mixture before the other. In a hypereutectic solution, there will be a phase of species β whereas a hypoeutectic solution will have a proeutectic α phase. Eutectic alloys have two or more materials and have a eutectic composition, when a non-eutectic alloy solidifies, its components solidify at different temperatures, exhibiting a plastic melting range. Conversely, when a well-mixed, eutectic alloy melts, it does so at a single, some uses include, NEMA Eutectic Alloy Overload Relays for electrical protection of 3-phase motors for pumps, fans, conveyors, and other factory process equipment. The eutectic nature of salt and water is exploited when salt is spread on roads to aid snow removal, ethanol–water has an unusually biased eutectic point, i. e. it is close to pure ethanol, which sets the maximum proof obtainable by fractional freezing. Solar salt, 60% NaNO3 and 40% KNO3, forms a eutectic molten salt mixture which is used for energy storage in concentrated solar power plants. To reduce the melting point in the solar molten salts calcium nitrate is used in the following proportion, 42% Ca2, 43% KNO3. Lidocaine and prilocaine—both are solids at room temperature—form a eutectic that is an oil with a 16 °C melting point that is used in mixture of local anesthetic preparations. Menthol and camphor, both solids at room temperature, form a eutectic that is a liquid at room temperature in the proportions,8,2,7,3,6,4
28.
Alloy
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An alloy is a mixture of metals or a mixture of a metal and another element. Alloys are defined by a metallic bonding character, an alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements or a mixture of metallic phases. Intermetallic compounds are alloys with a stoichiometry and crystal structure. Zintl phases are sometimes considered alloys depending on bond types. Alloys are used in a variety of applications. In some cases, a combination of metals may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties, in other cases, the combination of metals imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength. Examples of alloys are steel, solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze, the alloy constituents are usually measured by mass. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be classified as homogeneous, or heterogeneous or intermetallic. An alloy is a mixture of elements, which forms an impure substance that retains the characteristics of a metal. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal and this is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the base, they will be soluble. The mechanical properties of alloys will often be different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is very soft, such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal. Although both metals are soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength. Adding a small amount of carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel
