1.
Christian
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A Christian is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christian derives from the Koine Greek word Christós, a translation of the Biblical Hebrew term mashiach, while there are diverse interpretations of Christianity which sometimes conflict, they are united in believing that Jesus has a unique significance. The term Christian is also used as an adjective to describe anything associated with Christianity, or in a sense all that is noble, and good. According to a 2011 Pew Research Center survey, there were 2.2 billion Christians around the world in 2010, by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion. According to a 2012 Pew Research Center survey Christianity will remain the worlds largest religion in 2050, about half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic, while more than a third are Protestant. Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the worlds Christians, other Christian groups make up the remainder. Christians make up the majority of the population in 158 countries and territories,280 million Christian live as a minority. In the Greek Septuagint, christos was used to translate the Hebrew מָשִׁיחַ, in other European languages, equivalent words to Christian are likewise derived from the Greek, such as Chrétien in French and Cristiano in Spanish. The second mention of the term follows in Acts 26,28, where Herod Agrippa II replied to Paul the Apostle, Then Agrippa said unto Paul, Almost thou persuadest me to be a Christian. The third and final New Testament reference to the term is in 1 Peter 4,16, which believers, Yet if as a Christian, let him not be ashamed. The city of Antioch, where someone gave them the name Christians, had a reputation for coming up with such nicknames, in the Annals he relates that by vulgar appellation commonly called Christians and identifies Christians as Neros scapegoats for the Great Fire of Rome. Another term for Christians which appears in the New Testament is Nazarenes which is used by the Jewish lawyer Tertullus in Acts 24, the Hebrew equivalent of Nazarenes, Notzrim, occurs in the Babylonian Talmud, and is still the modern Israeli Hebrew term for Christian. A wide range of beliefs and practices is found across the world among those who call themselves Christian, denominations and sects disagree on a common definition of Christianity. Most Baptists and fundamentalists, for example, would not acknowledge Mormonism or Christian Science as Christian, in fact, the nearly 77 percent of Americans who self-identify as Christian are a diverse pluribus of Christianities that are far from any collective unity. The identification of Jesus as the Messiah is not accepted by Judaism, the term for a Christian in Hebrew is נוּצְרי, a Talmudic term originally derived from the fact that Jesus came from the Galilean village of Nazareth, today in northern Israel. Adherents of Messianic Judaism are referred to in modern Hebrew as יְהוּדִים מָשִׁיחַיים, the term Nasara rose to prominence in July 2014, after the Fall of Mosul to the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. The nun or ن— the first letter of Nasara—was spray-painted on the property of Christians ejected from the city, where there is a distinction, Nasrani refers to people from a Christian culture and Masihi is used by Christians themselves for those with a religious faith in Jesus. In some countries Nasrani tends to be used generically for non-Muslim Western foreigners, another Arabic word sometimes used for Christians, particularly in a political context, is Ṣalībī from ṣalīb which refers to Crusaders and has negative connotations
2.
Nonprofit organization
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A nonprofit organization is an organization whose purpose is something other than making a profit. A nonprofit organization is dedicated to furthering a particular social cause or advocating for a particular point of view. This is known as the non-distribution constraint, the decision to adopt a nonprofit legal structure is one that will often have taxation implications, particularly where the nonprofit seeks income tax exemption, charitable status and so on. The terms nonprofit and not-for-profit are not consistently differentiated across jurisdictions, in laymans terms they are usually equivalent in concept, although in various jurisdictions there are accounting and legal differences. The nonprofit landscape is varied, although many people have come to associate NPOs with charitable organizations. Although charities do make up an often high-profile or visible aspect of the sector, overall, they tend to be either member-serving or community-serving. e. It could be argued many nonprofits sit across both camps, at least in terms of the impact they make. For example, the support group that provides a lifeline to those with a particular condition or disease could be deemed to be serving its members. Many NPOs use the model of a bottom line in that furthering their cause is more important than making a profit. Although NPOs are permitted to generate revenues, they must be retained by the organization for its self-preservation, expansion. NPOs have controlling members or a board of directors, many have paid staff including management, whereas others employ unpaid volunteers and executives who work with or without compensation. In some countries, where there is a fee, in general. The extent to which an NPO can generate surplus revenues may be constrained or use of surplus revenues may be restricted. Some NPOs may also be a charity or service organization, they may be organized as a corporation or as a trust. Their goal is not to be successful in terms of wealth, NPOs have a wide diversity of structures and purposes. Some of the above must be expressed in the charter of establishment or constitution. Others may be provided by the authority at each particular jurisdiction. While affiliations will not affect a legal status, they may be taken into consideration by legal proceedings as an indication of purpose, most countries have laws that regulate the establishment and management of NPOs and that require compliance with corporate governance regimes
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
5.
San Diego
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San Diego is a major city in California, United States. It is in San Diego County, on the coast of the Pacific Ocean in Southern California, approximately 120 miles south of Los Angeles and immediately adjacent to the border with Mexico. With an estimated population of 1,394,928 as of July 1,2015, San Diego is the eighth-largest city in the United States and second-largest in California. It is part of the San Diego–Tijuana conurbation, the second-largest transborder agglomeration between the US and a country after Detroit–Windsor, with a population of 4,922,723 people. San Diego has been called the birthplace of California, historically home to the Kumeyaay people, San Diego was the first site visited by Europeans on what is now the West Coast of the United States. Upon landing in San Diego Bay in 1542, Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo claimed the area for Spain, the Presidio and Mission San Diego de Alcalá, founded in 1769, formed the first European settlement in what is now California. In 1821, San Diego became part of the newly independent Mexico, in 1850, California became part of the United States following the Mexican–American War and the admission of California to the union. The city is the seat of San Diego County and is the center of the region as well as the San Diego–Tijuana metropolitan area. San Diegos main economic engines are military and defense-related activities, tourism, international trade, the presence of the University of California, San Diego, with the affiliated UCSD Medical Center, has helped make the area a center of research in biotechnology. The original inhabitants of the region are now known as the San Dieguito, the area of San Diego has been inhabited by the Kumeyaay people. The first European to visit the region was Portuguese-born explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo sailing under the flag of Castile, sailing his flagship San Salvador from Navidad, New Spain, Cabrillo claimed the bay for the Spanish Empire in 1542, and named the site San Miguel. In November 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent to map the California coast, in May 1769, Gaspar de Portolà established the Fort Presidio of San Diego on a hill near the San Diego River. It was the first settlement by Europeans in what is now the state of California, in July of the same year, Mission San Diego de Alcalá was founded by Franciscan friars under Junípero Serra. By 1797, the mission boasted the largest native population in Alta California, with over 1,400 neophytes living in, Mission San Diego was the southern anchor in California of the historic mission trail El Camino Real. Both the Presidio and the Mission are National Historic Landmarks, in 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. In 1822, Mexico began attempting to extend its authority over the territory of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government in 1833, the 432 residents of the town petitioned the governor to form a pueblo, and Juan María Osuna was elected the first alcalde, defeating Pío Pico in the vote
6.
Evangelicalism
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Its origins are usually traced back to English Methodism, the Moravian Church, and German Lutheran Pietism. While all these phenomena contributed greatly, John Wesley and other early Methodists were at the root of sparking this new movement during the First Great Awakening, today, Evangelicals are found across many Protestant branches, as well as in various denominations not subsumed to a specific branch. Among leaders and major figures of the Evangelical Protestant movement were John Wesley, George Whitefield, Jonathan Edwards, Billy Graham, Harold John Ockenga, John Stott and Martyn Lloyd-Jones. The movement gained momentum during the 18th and 19th centuries with the Great Awakenings in the United Kingdom. The Americas, Africa, and Asia are home to the majority of Evangelicals, United States has the largest concentration of Evangelicals in the world, its community forms a quarter of the population, is politically important and based mostly in the Bible Belt. In the United Kingdom, Evangelicals are mostly represented in the Methodist Church, Baptist communities, Evangelicalism, a major part of popular Protestantism, is among the most dynamic religious movements in the contemporary world, alongside resurgent Islam. While on the rise globally, the world is particularly influenced by its spread. The first published use of evangelical in English came in 1531 when William Tyndale wrote He exhorteth them to proceed constantly in the evangelical truth. One year later Sir Thomas More produced the earliest recorded use in reference to a theological distinction when he spoke of Tyndale his evangelical brother Barns, during the Reformation, Protestant theologians embraced the label as referring to gospel truth. Martin Luther referred to the evangelische Kirche to distinguish Protestants from Catholics in the Roman Catholic Church, into the 21st century, evangelical has continued in use as a synonym for Protestant in continental Europe, and elsewhere. This usage is reflected in the names of Protestant denominations such as the Evangelical Church in Germany, the term may also occur outside any religious context to characterize a generic missionary, reforming, or redeeming impulse or purpose. For example, the Times Literary Supplement refers to the rise, one influential definition of Evangelicalism has been proposed by historian David Bebbington. Conversionism, or belief in the necessity of being again, has been a constant theme of Evangelicalism since its beginnings. To Evangelicals, the message of the gospel is justification by faith in Christ and repentance, or turning away. Conversion differentiates the Christian from the non-Christian, and the change in life it leads to is marked by both a rejection of sin and a corresponding personal holiness of life. A conversion experience can be emotional, including grief and sorrow for sin followed by great relief at receiving forgiveness, the stress on conversion is further differentiated from other forms of Protestantism by the belief that an assurance of salvation will accompany conversion. Among Evangelicals, individuals have testified to both sudden and gradual conversions, biblicism is reverence for the Bible and a high regard for biblical authority. All Evangelicals believe in inspiration, though they disagree over how this inspiration should be defined
7.
Antifeminism
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Antifeminism is broadly defined as opposition to some or all forms of feminism. This opposition has taken various forms across time and cultures, for example, antifeminists in the late 1800s and early 1900s resisted womens suffrage, while antifeminists in the late 20th century in the United States opposed the Equal Rights Amendment. That social arrangements among men and women favor men, Antifeminist is also used to describe public female figures, some of whom define themselves as feminists, based on their opposition to some or all elements of feminist movements. Daphne Patai and Noreta Koertge argue that the intention of labeling these women antifeminists is to silence them, the meaning of antifeminism has varied across time and cultures, and antifeminism attracts both men and women. Some women, like those in the Womens National Anti-Suffrage League, emma Goldman, for example, was widely considered antifeminist during her fight against suffragism in the US. Decades later, however, she was heralded as a founder of anarcha-feminism, mens studies scholar and feminist Michael Kimmel defines antifeminism as the opposition to womens equality. He says that antifeminists oppose womens entry into the sphere, the re-organization of the private sphere, womens control of their bodies. He argues that antifeminists consider the gender division of labor as natural and inevitable. Some antifeminists view feminism as a denial of innate differences between the genders, and an attempt to people against their biological tendencies. Antifeminists also frequently argue that feminism, despite claiming to espouse equality, for example, the ubiquity of casual sex and the decline of marriage are mentioned as negative consequences of feminism. Some of these traditionalists oppose womens entry into the workforce, political office, antifeminists argue that a change of womens roles is a destructive force that endangers the family, or is contrary to religious morals. The womens movement began in 1848, most famously articulated by Elizabeth Stanton, janet Chafetz identified in a study 32 first-wave antifeminist movements, including those in the 19th century and early 20th century movements. These countermovements were in response to some womens growing demands, which were perceived as threatening to the way of life. Though men were not the only antifeminists, men experienced what some have called a crisis of masculinity in response to gender roles being challenged. Mens responses to increased feminism varied, some men even subscribed to feminist ideology, but others went the other direction and became decidedly antifeminist. Opponents of womens entry into institutions of higher learning argued that education was too great a burden on women. Other antifeminists opposed womens entry into the force, their right to join unions, to sit on juries. The pro-family movement appeared in the late 19th century, by about 1870 and this movement was intended to halt the rising divorce rate and reinforce traditional family values
8.
Christian right
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In the U. S. the Christian right is an informal coalition formed around a core of evangelical Protestants and Roman Catholics. The Christian right draws additional support from politically conservative mainline Protestants, Jews, the movement has its roots in American politics going back as far as the 1940s and has been especially influential since the 1970s. Its influence draws, in part, from grassroots activism as well as focus on social issues. The Christian right is known as the New Christian Right or the Religious Right. John C. Green of the Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life states that Jerry Falwell used the religious right to describe himself. Gary Schneeberger, vice president of media and public relations for Focus on the Family, the phrase socially conservative evangelicals is not very exciting, but thats certainly the way to do it. Evangelical leaders like Tony Perkins of the Family Research Council have called attention to the problem of equating the term Christian right with evangelicals, although evangelicals constitute the core constituency of the Christian right, not all evangelicals fit the description. The problem of description is complicated by the fact that religious conservative may refer to other groups. Mennonites and the Amish, for example, are theologically conservative, patricia Miller states that the alliance between evangelical leaders and the Catholic bishops has been a cornerstone of the Christian Right for nearly twenty years. Since about 1980, the Christian right has been associated with institutions including the Moral Majority, the Christian Coalition, Focus on the Family. Into the 1960 election, Catholics and evangelicals worked against each other, as evangelicals mobilized their forces to defeat Catholics Al Smith in 1928 and John F. Kennedy in 1960. The alienation of Southern Democrats from the Democratic Party contributed to the rise of the right, in 1976, U. S. President Jimmy Carter received the support of the Christian right largely because of his much-acclaimed religious conversion. It has also engaged in battles over pornography, obscenity, abortion, state sanctioned prayer in schools, textbook contents, homosexuality. Connally ruling that permitted the Internal Revenue Service to collect penalty taxes from private schools that violated federal laws. Lets remember, he said animatedly, that the Religious Right did not come together in response to the Roe decision. In the 1974 Bob Jones University v. Simon case, the US Supreme Court further enforced the Green decision, the following year, the IRS sought to penalize Bob Jones University for refusing to allow interracial dating. As Balmer recalled, During the following break in the conference proceedings and he was adamant that, yes, the 1975 action by the IRS against Bob Jones University was responsible for the genesis of the Religious Right in the late 1970s. After mobilizing to defend Bob Jones University and its racially discriminatory policies, Weyrich said and he recalled that someone suggested that they had the makings of a broader political movement—something that Weyrich had been pushing for all along—and asked what other issues they might address
9.
Liberalism
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Liberalism is a political philosophy or worldview founded on ideas of liberty and equality. Liberalism first became a political movement during the Age of Enlightenment. Liberalism rejected the social and political norms of hereditary privilege, state religion, absolute monarchy. The 17th-century philosopher John Locke is often credited with founding liberalism as a philosophical tradition. Locke argued that man has a natural right to life, liberty and property. Liberals opposed traditional conservatism and sought to replace absolutism in government with representative democracy, prominent revolutionaries in the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution used liberal philosophy to justify the armed overthrow of what they saw as tyrannical rule. Liberalism started to spread rapidly especially after the French Revolution, the 19th century saw liberal governments established in nations across Europe, South America, and North America. During the 20th century, liberal ideas spread even further as liberal democracies found themselves on the side in both world wars. In Europe and North America, the establishment of social liberalism became a key component in the expansion of the welfare state, today, liberal parties continue to wield power and influence throughout the world. Words such as liberal, liberty, libertarian, and libertine all trace their history to the Latin liber, which means free. One of the first recorded instances of the word occurs in 1375. The words early connection with the education of a medieval university soon gave way to a proliferation of different denotations and connotations. In 16th century England, liberal could have positive or negative attributes in referring to someones generosity or indiscretion, in Much Ado About Nothing, Shakespeare wrote of a liberal villaine who hath. confest his vile encounters. With the rise of the Enlightenment, the word acquired decisively more positive undertones, being defined as free from narrow prejudice in 1781, in 1815, the first use of the word liberalism appeared in English. In Spain, the Liberales, the first group to use the label in a political context. From 1820 to 1823, during the Trienio Liberal, King Ferdinand VII was compelled by the liberales to swear to uphold the Constitution, by the middle of the 19th century, liberal was used as a politicised term for parties and movements worldwide. Over time, the meaning of the word began to diverge in different parts of the world. According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, In the United States, liberalism is associated with the policies of the New Deal programme of the Democratic administration of Pres
10.
National Organization for Women
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The National Organization for Women is an American feminist organization founded in 1966. The organization consists of 550 chapters in all 50 U. S. states, both conferences were held in Washington, D. C. They thus gathered in Betty Friedan’s hotel room to form a new organization, on a paper napkin Friedan scribbled the acronym NOW. Salmond, Morag Simchak and Clara Wells, the founders were frustrated with the way in which the federal government was not enforcing the new anti-discrimination laws. NOW was created in order to mobilize women, give women’s rights advocates the power to put pressure on employers and the government, and to promote full equality of the sexes. It hoped to increase the number of women attending colleges and graduate schools, employed in professional jobs instead of domestic or secretarial work, NOWs Statement of Purpose, which was adopted at its organizing conference in Washington, D. C. NOW was also one of the first women’s organizations to include the concerns of women in their efforts. Betty Friedan and Pauli Murray wrote NOWs Statement of Purpose in 1966, also in 1966, Marguerite Rawalt became a member of NOW, and acted as their first legal counsel. There were many influences contributing to the rise of NOW, such influences included the Presidents Commission on the Status of Women, Betty Friedans book The Feminine Mystique, and passage and lack of enforcement of the Civil Right Act of 1964. The Presidents Commission on the Status of Women was established in 1961 by John F. Kennedy, in hopes of providing a solution to female discrimination in education, work force, Kennedy appointed Eleanor Roosevelt as the head of the organization. The goal of action was to compromise those wanting to advance womens rights in the workforce, the commission was in a way to settle the tension between opposing sides. Betty Friedan wrote The Feminine Mystique in response to her own experiences and she was a feminist long before her book, by educating herself and deviating from the domestic female paradigm. The books purpose was to fuel movement to a role outside of domestic environment. Acknowledging some satisfaction from raising children, cooking, rearranging house decor was not enough to suffice the deeper desire for women to achieve an education, in an interview, Friedan specifically notes, There was no activism in that cause when I wrote Feminine Mystique. But I realized that it was not enough just to write a book, There had to be social change. And I remember somewhere in that period coming off an airplane some guy was carrying a sign and it said, The first step in revolution is consciousness. Well, I did the consciousness with The Feminine Mystique, but then there had to be organization and there had to be a movement. And I helped organize NOW, the National Organization for Women and the National Womens Political Caucus and NARAL, the NOW bill of rights was included in the 1970 anthology Sisterhood is Powerful, An Anthology of Writings From The Womens Liberation Movement, edited by Robin Morgan
11.
Barbara Walters
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Barbara Jill Walters is an American broadcast journalist, author, and television personality. Walters is known for having hosted a variety of programs, including Today, The View, 20/20. Since retirement as a full-time host and contributor, she has continued to report for ABC News. As a result of her outstanding interviewing ability and her popularity with viewers, even though her production duties made her a significant contributor to the program, she had no input in choosing a successor for Downs when he left in 1971, and Frank McGee was hired. In 1974, at the time of McGees death, Walters acquired the co-host position on the program, from 1979 to 2004, she worked as co-host and a producer for the ABC newsmagazine 20/20. In 1997, Walters created and debuted as a co-host on The View and she retired as a co-host of The View in 2014 after 16 seasons. Walters initially retired as a producer of the program in 2015. Since her retirement from The View, she has hosted a number of reports for 20/20. Additionally, Walters has continued to host her annual 10 Most Fascinating People special on ABC. In 1996, Walters was ranked #34 on the TV Guide 50 Greatest TV Stars of All Time list, Barbara Walters was born in 1929 in Boston to Dena and Louis Lou Walters. Her parents were both Jewish, and descendants of refugees from the former Russian Empire, Walters paternal grandfather, Isaac Abrahams, was born in Łódź, Poland, and emigrated to the United Kingdom, changing his name to Abraham Walters. Walters father, Lou, was born in London c.1896 and moved to New York with his father and his mother and four sisters arrived in 1910. In 1949 her father opened the New York version of the Latin Quarter and he also worked as a Broadway producer. He also was the Entertainment Director for the Tropicana Resort and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, Walters brother, Burton, died in 1944 of pneumonia. Walters elder sister, Jacqueline, was mentally disabled and died of ovarian cancer in 1985. According to Walters, her father made and lost several fortunes throughout his life in show business and he was a booking agent, and unlike her uncles who were in the shoe and dress business, his job was not very safe. During the good times, Walters recalls her father taking her to the rehearsals of the club shows he directed and produced. The actresses and dancers would make a fuss over her
12.
Betty Friedan
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Betty Friedan was an American writer, activist, and feminist. A leading figure in the movement in the United States. The national strike was successful beyond expectations in broadening the feminist movement, in 1971, Friedan joined other leading feminists to establish the National Womens Political Caucus. Regarded as an author and intellectual in the United States, Friedan remained active in politics and advocacy for the rest of her life. As early as the 1960s Friedan was critical of polarized and extreme factions of feminism that attacked groups such as men, one of her later books, The Second Stage, critiqued what Friedan saw as the extremist excesses of some feminists. Friedan was born Bettye Naomi Goldstein on February 4,1921 in Peoria, Illinois, to Harry and Miriam Goldstein, whose Jewish families were from Russia and Hungary. Harry owned a store in Peoria, and Miriam wrote for the society page of a newspaper when Friedans father fell ill. Her mothers new life outside the home seemed much more gratifying and she attended Peoria High School, and became involved in the school newspaper. When her application to write a column was turned down, she and six other friends launched a magazine called Tide. She attended all-female Smith College in 1938 and she won a scholarship prize in her first year for outstanding academic performance. In her second year she became interested in poetry, and had poems published in campus publications. In 1941, she became editor-in-chief of the college newspaper, the editorials became more political under her leadership, taking a strong antiwar stance and occasionally causing controversy. She graduated summa cum laude and Phi Beta Kappa in 1942 with a major in psychology, in 1943 she spent a year at the University of California, Berkeley on a fellowship for graduate work in psychology with Erik Erikson. She became more active, continuing to mix with Marxists. In her memoirs, she claimed that her boyfriend at the time had pressured her into turning down a Ph. D. fellowship for further study, after leaving Berkeley, Friedan became a journalist for leftist and labor union publications. Between 1943 and 1946 she wrote for The Federated Press and between 1946 and 1952 she worked for the United Electrical Workers UE News, one of her assignments was to report on the House Un-American Activities Committee. Friedan was dismissed from the union newspaper UE News in 1952 because she was pregnant with her second child, after leaving UE News she became a freelance writer for various magazines, including Cosmopolitan. For her 15th college reunion in 1957 Friedan conducted a survey of graduates, focusing on their education, subsequent experiences
13.
Women's rights
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In some countries, these rights are institutionalized or supported by law, local custom, and behavior, whereas in others they are ignored and suppressed. They differ from broader notions of rights through claims of an inherent historical and traditional bias against the exercise of rights by women and girls, in favor of men. Although males seem to have dominated in many cultures, there are some exceptions, for example, in the Nigerian Aka culture women may hunt, even on their own, and often control distribution of resources. Ancient Egypt had female rulers, such as Cleopatra, Women throughout historical and ancient China were considered inferior and had subordinate legal status based on the Confucian law. In Imperial China, the Three Obediences promoted daughters to obey their fathers, wives to obey their husbands, Women could not inherit businesses or wealth and men had to adopt a son for such financial purposes. Late imperial law also featured seven different types of divorces, the status of women in China was also low largely due to the custom of foot binding. About 45% of Chinese women had bound feet in the 19th century, for the upper classes, it was almost 100%. In 1912, the Chinese government ordered the cessation of foot-binding, foot-binding involved alteration of the bone structure so that the feet were only about 4 inches long. The bound feet caused difficulty of movement, thus limiting the activities of women. Due to the custom that men and women should not be near each other. This resulted in a tremendous need for doctors of Western Medicine in China. Thus, female medical missionary Dr. Mary H. Fulton was sent by the Foreign Missions Board of the Presbyterian Church to found the first medical college for women in China. Known as the Hackett Medical College for Women, this College was located in Guangzhou, China, the College was aimed at the spreading of Christianity and modern medicine and the elevation of Chinese womens social status. During the Republic of China and earlier Chinese governments, women were legally bought and these women were known as Mui Tsai. The lives of Mui Tsai were recorded by American feminist Agnes Smedley in her book Portraits of Chinese Women in Revolution. However, in 1949 the Republic of China had been overthrown by communist guerillas led by Mao Zedong, in May 1950 the Peoples Republic of China enacted the New Marriage Law to tackle the sale of women into slavery. This outlawed marriage by proxy and made legal so long as both partners consent. The New Marriage Law raised the age of marriage to 20 for men and 18 for women
14.
Feminism
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Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies, and social movements that share a common goal, to define and advance political, economic, personal, and social rights for women. This includes seeking to establish opportunities for women in education. Feminists have also worked to promote autonomy and integrity, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment. Numerous feminist movements and ideologies have developed over the years and represent different viewpoints, some forms of feminism have been criticized for taking into account only white, middle class, and educated perspectives. This criticism led to the creation of specific or multicultural forms of feminism, including black feminism. Charles Fourier, a Utopian Socialist and French philosopher, is credited with having coined the word féminisme in 1837, depending on the historical moment, culture and country, feminists around the world have had different causes and goals. Most western feminist historians assert that all working to obtain womens rights should be considered feminist movements. Other historians assert that the term should be limited to the modern feminist movement and those historians use the label protofeminist to describe earlier movements. The history of the modern western feminist movements is divided into three waves, each wave dealt with different aspects of the same feminist issues. The first wave comprised womens suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second wave was associated with the ideas and actions of the womens liberation movement beginning in the 1960s. The second wave campaigned for legal and social equality for women, the third wave is a continuation of, and a reaction to, the perceived failures of second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. First-wave feminism was a period of activity during the 19th century, in the UK and US, it focused on the promotion of equal contract, marriage, parenting, and property rights for women. This was followed by Australia granting female suffrage in 1902, in 1928 this was extended to all women over 21. In the U. S. notable leaders of this movement included Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing womens right to vote. These women were influenced by the Quaker theology of spiritual equality, in the United States, first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote in all states. During the late Qing period and reform movements such as the Hundred Days Reform, Chinese feminists called for womens liberation from traditional roles, later, the Chinese Communist Party created projects aimed at integrating women into the workforce, and claimed that the revolution had successfully achieved womens liberation. According to Nawar al-Hassan Golley, Arab feminism was closely connected with Arab nationalism, in 1899, Qasim Amin, considered the father of Arab feminism, wrote The Liberation of Women, which argued for legal and social reforms for women. He drew links between womens position in Egyptian society and nationalism, leading to the development of Cairo University, in 1923 Hoda Shaarawi founded the Egyptian Feminist Union, became its president and a symbol of the Arab womens rights movement
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Euthanasia
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Euthanasia is the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering. There are different euthanasia laws in each country, the British House of Lords Select Committee on Medical Ethics defines euthanasia as a deliberate intervention undertaken with the express intention of ending a life, to relieve intractable suffering. In the Netherlands and Flanders, euthanasia is understood as termination of life by a doctor at the request of a patient, Euthanasia is categorized in different ways, which include voluntary, non-voluntary, or involuntary. Voluntary euthanasia is legal in some countries, non-voluntary euthanasia is illegal in all countries. Involuntary euthanasia is illegal in all countries and is usually considered murder. As of 2006, euthanasia is the most active area of research in contemporary bioethics, in some countries there is a divisive public controversy over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of euthanasia. Jurisdictions where euthanasia is legal include the Netherlands, Canada, Colombia, Belgium, like other terms borrowed from history, euthanasia has had different meanings depending on usage. Bacon referred to an outward euthanasia—the term outward he used to distinguish from a spiritual concept—the euthanasia which regards the preparation of the soul, in current usage, euthanasia has been defined as the painless inducement of a quick death. Another approach incorporates the notion of suffering into the definition, the third element incorporated into many definitions is that of intentionality – the death must be intended, rather than being accidental, and the intent of the action must be a merciful death. Beauchamp and Davidson also highlight Baruch Brodys an act of euthanasia is one in one person. Kills another person for the benefit of the person, who actually does benefit from being killed. Prior to Draper, Beauchamp and Davidson had also offered a definition that includes these elements and their definition specifically discounts fetuses in order to distinguish between abortions and euthanasia, In summary, we have argued. In discussing his definition, Wreen noted the difficulty of justifying euthanasia when faced with the notion of the right to life. In response, Wreen argued that euthanasia has to be voluntary, and that euthanasia is, as such. Other commentators incorporate consent more directly into their definitions, hence, euthanasia can be voluntary only. Euthanasia may be classified according to whether a person gives informed consent into three types, voluntary, non-voluntary and involuntary, however, others see consent as essential. Euthanasia conducted with the consent of the patient is termed voluntary euthanasia, active voluntary euthanasia is legal in Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Passive voluntary euthanasia is legal throughout the U. S. per Cruzan v. Director, when the patient brings about his or her own death with the assistance of a physician, the term assisted suicide is often used instead
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Embryonic stem cell
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Embryonic stem cells are pluripotent stem cells derived from the inner cell mass of a blastocyst, an early-stage preimplantation embryo. Human embryos reach the blastocyst stage 4–5 days post fertilization, at time they consist of 50–150 cells. Human ES cells measure approximately 14 μm while mouse ES cells are closer to 8 μm, embryonic stem cells, derived from the blastocyst stage early mammalian embryos, are distinguished by their ability to differentiate into any cell type and by their ability to propagate. Embryonic stem cells properties include having a normal karyotype, maintaining high telomerase activity and these include each of the more than 220 cell types in the adult body. If the pluripotent differentiation potential of stem cells could be harnessed in vitro. This would provide a new treatment approach to a wide variety of conditions where age, disease. Besides the ethical concerns of stem cell therapy, there is a problem of graft-versus-host disease associated with allogeneic stem cell transplantation. However, these associated with histocompatibility may be solved using autologous donor adult stem cells. Stem cell banks or more recently by reprogramming of cells with defined factors. Embryonic stem cells provide hope that it will be possible to overcome the problems of donor tissue shortage and also, other potential uses of embryonic stem cells include investigation of early human development, study of genetic disease and as in vitro systems for toxicology testing. Current research focuses on differentiating ES into a variety of types for eventual use as cell replacement therapies. Some of the types that have or are currently being developed include cardiomyocytes, neurons, hepatocytes, bone marrow cells, islet cells. However, the derivation of such cell types from ESs is not without obstacles, for example, studies are underway to differentiate ES in to tissue specific CMs and to eradicate their immature properties that distinguish them from adult CMs. Studies have shown that cardiomyocytes derived from ES are validated in vitro models to test drug responses, ES derived cardiomyocytes have been shown to respond to pharmacological stimuli and hence can be used to assess cardiotoxicity like Torsades de Pointes. ES-derived hepatocytes are also models that could be used in the preclinical stages of drug discovery. However, the development of hepatocytes from ES has proven to be challenging, therefore, current research is focusing on establishing fully functional ES-derived hepatocytes with stable phase I and II enzyme activity. Researchers have also differentiated ES into dopamine-producing cells with the hope that these neurons could be used in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, recently, the development of ESC after Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer of Olfactory ensheathing cells to a healthy Oocyte has been recommended for Neuro-degenerative diseases. ESs have also been differentiated to natural killer cells and bone tissue, studies involving ES are also underway to provide an alternative treatment for diabetes
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Needle exchange programme
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It is based on the philosophy of harm reduction that attempts to reduce the risk factors for diseases such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis. While NSPs provide most or all equipment free of charge, exchange programmes require service users to return used syringes to receive a number of new syringes. WHOs findings have also supported by the American Medical Association. Needle-exchange programmes can be traced back to activities undertaken during the 1970s. The idea is likely to have rediscovered in multiple locations. The first government-approved initiative was undertaken in the early to mid-1980s, while the initial programme was motivated by an outbreak of hepatitis B, the AIDS pandemic motivated the rapid adoption of these programmes around the world. Harm reduction begins with the assumption that it is not reasonable to assume that individuals make healthy decisions. Advocates hold that those trapped in dangerous behaviors are often unable and/or unwilling to free of them. A tendency in the profession has been to treat drug dependency as a chronic illness like diabetes, hypertension and asthma, to be treated, evaluated. Treating drug dependency as an illness absolves drug users of responsibility for their condition, NEPs treat recreational drug use as a health issue and neither condemn nor condone the practice. Some US states ordinarily require a prescription to buy needles and syringes, NEPs provide access in such areas. National District Attorneys Association s view is that denial of human agency offends common sense as well as criminal statutes, where individual decisions impact public health and welfare, criminal sanctions are appropriate and necessary. Children deserve a clear, unmixed message that there are choices in life and wrong choices in life, that we are responsible for our actions. It is estimated that the annual cost of HIV care per person in the United States is US$15,745. Those with advanced HIV had an estimated cost of US$40,678. In the U. S. the cost per needle at an NEP is approximately US$0.97, whereas the estimated cost of the dose of HIV medication. According to the Centers for Disease Control, around 1/5 of all new HIV infections, needle-exchange programmes are supported by the CDC and the National Institute of Health. The NIH estimates that in the United States, between fifteen and twenty percent of drug users have HIV and at least seventy percent have hepatitis C
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Cloning
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In biology, cloning is the process of producing similar populations of genetically identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as bacteria, insects or plants reproduce asexually. Cloning in biotechnology refers to processes used to create copies of DNA fragments, cells, the term also refers to the production of multiple copies of a product such as digital media or software. The term clone, invented by J. B. S. Haldane, is derived from the Ancient Greek word κλών klōn, twig, referring to the process whereby a new plant can be created from a twig. In horticulture, the spelling clon was used until the twentieth century, since the term entered the popular lexicon in a more general context, the spelling clone has been used exclusively. In botany, the term lusus was traditionally used, Cloning is a natural form of reproduction that has allowed life forms to spread for more than 50 thousand years. It is the method used by plants, fungi, and bacteria. Examples of these organisms include blueberry plants, hazel trees, the Pando trees, the Kentucky coffeetree, Myricas, molecular cloning refers to the process of making multiple molecules. Cloning is commonly used to amplify DNA fragments containing whole genes and it is used in a wide array of biological experiments and practical applications ranging from genetic fingerprinting to large scale protein production. In practice, localization of the gene to a chromosome or genomic region does not necessarily enable one to isolate or amplify the relevant genomic sequence, initially, the DNA of interest needs to be isolated to provide a DNA segment of suitable size. Subsequently, a procedure is used where the amplified fragment is inserted into a vector. The vector is linearised using restriction enzymes, and incubated with the fragment of interest under appropriate conditions with an enzyme called DNA ligase, following ligation the vector with the insert of interest is transfected into cells. A number of techniques are available, such as chemical sensitivation of cells, electroporation, optical injection. Finally, the cells are cultured. Modern cloning vectors include selectable antibiotic resistance markers, which allow only cells in which the vector has been transfected, additionally, the cloning vectors may contain colour selection markers, which provide blue/white screening on X-gal medium. Nevertheless, these selection steps do not absolutely guarantee that the DNA insert is present in the cells obtained, further investigation of the resulting colonies must be required to confirm that cloning was successful. This may be accomplished by means of PCR, restriction fragment analysis and/or DNA sequencing, Cloning a cell means to derive a population of cells from a single cell. In the case of organisms such as bacteria and yeast. However, in the case of cell cultures from multi-cellular organisms, a useful tissue culture technique used to clone distinct lineages of cell lines involves the use of cloning rings
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Secularity
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Secularity is the state of being separate from religion, or of not being exclusively allied with or against any particular religion. Historically, the secular was not related or linked to religion. The idea of a dichotomy between religion and the secular originated in the 18th century European Enlightenment, one can regard eating and bathing as examples of secular activities, because there may not be anything inherently religious about them. Nevertheless, some religious traditions see both eating and bathing as sacraments, therefore making them religious activities within those world views, saying a prayer derived from religious text or doctrine, worshipping through the context of a religion, and attending a religious school are examples of religious activities. The secular is experienced in diverse ways ranging from separation of religion and state to being anti-religion or even pro-religion, a related term, secularism, involves the principle that government institutions and their representatives should remain separate from religious institutions, their beliefs, and their dignitaries. Many businesses and corporations, and some operate on secular lines. This stands in contrast to theocracy, government with deity as its highest authority, Secular and secularity derive from the Latin word saeculum which meant of a generation, belonging to an age or denoted a period of about one hundred years. In the ancient world, saeculum was not defined in contrast to any sacred concerns and had a usage in Latin. It was in Christian Latin of medieval times, that saeculum was used for distinguishing this temporal age of the world from the realm of God. The Christian doctrine that God exists outside time led medieval Western culture to use secular to indicate separation from specifically religious affairs and involvement in temporal ones. This does not necessarily imply hostility to God or religion, though some use the term this way, routinization — institutionalizing through integration into the society. Differentiation — a redefined place such as when accepting its status as one religion in a plural religious field or morphing into a more generic, disengagement — the detachment of certain facets of social life from religion. Transformation — gradual change over time in a sense that Protestantism became for Christianity. Generalization — a particular kind of change in which it becomes less specific, more abstract, has moderation of controversial and divisive claims. Desacralization — culture and rationality guide people while leaving out religious beings, segmentation — the development of specialized religious institutions, which take their place beside other specialized social institutions. Secularism — the only form that leads to rejection of religion. Examples of secular used in this way include, Secular authority, which involves legal, police, and military authority, as distinct from clerical authority, or matters under church control. Secular clergy in the Roman Catholic Church, who, traditionally, do not live the lives of the regular clergy and are therefore, in a sense
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Gambling
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Gambling is the wagering of money or something of value on an event with an uncertain outcome with the primary intent of winning money or material goods. Gambling thus requires three elements be present, consideration, chance and prize, the term gaming in this context typically refers to instances in which the activity has been specifically permitted by law. However, this distinction is not universally observed in the English-speaking world, for instance, in the United Kingdom, the regulator of gambling activities is called the Gambling Commission. Gambling is also an international commercial activity, with the legal gambling market totaling an estimated $335 billion in 2009. In other forms, gambling can be conducted with materials which have a value, many popular games played in modern casinos originate from Europe and China. Games such as craps, baccarat, roulette, and blackjack originate from different areas of Europe, a version of keno, an ancient Chinese lottery game, is played in casinos around the world. In addition, pai gow poker, a hybrid between pai gow and poker is also played, many jurisdictions, local as well as national, either ban gambling or heavily control it by licensing the vendors. Such regulation generally leads to gambling tourism and illegal gambling in the areas where it is not allowed, there is generally legislation requiring that the odds in gaming devices are statistically random, to prevent manufacturers from making some high-payoff results impossible. Since these high-payoffs have very low probability, a bias can quite easily be missed unless the odds are checked carefully. Most jurisdictions that allow gambling require participants to be above a certain age, in some jurisdictions, the gambling age differs depending on the type of gambling. For example, in many American states one must be over 21 to enter a casino, E. g. Nonetheless, both insurance and gambling contracts are typically considered aleatory contracts under most legal systems, though they are subject to different types of regulation. Under common law, particularly English Law, a contract may not give a casino bona fide purchaser status. For case law on recovery of gambling losses where the loser had stolen the funds see Rights of owner of money as against one who won it in gambling transaction from thief. This was a plot point in a Perry Mason novel, The Case of the Singing Skirt. Religious perspectives on gambling have been mixed, ancient Hindu poems like the Gamblers Lament and the Mahabharata testify to the popularity of gambling among ancient Indians. However, the text Arthashastra recommends taxation and control of gambling, ancient Jewish authorities frowned on gambling, even disqualifying professional gamblers from testifying in court. For these social and religious reasons, most legal jurisdictions limit gambling, in at least one case, the same bishop opposing a casino has sold land to be used for its construction. Although different interpretations of law exist in the Muslim world
21.
Roe v. Wade
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Roe v. Wade,410 U. S.113, is a landmark decision by the United States Supreme Court on the issue of abortion. It was decided simultaneously with a case, Doe v. Bolton. Arguing that these state interests became stronger over the course of a pregnancy, later, in Planned Parenthood v. Casey, the Court rejected Roes trimester framework while affirming its central holding that a woman has a right to abortion until fetal viability. The Roe decision defined viable as potentially able to live outside the mothers womb, Justices in Casey acknowledged that viability may occur at 23 or 24 weeks, or sometimes even earlier, in light of medical advances. According to the Court, the criminal abortion laws in effect in a majority of States today are of relatively recent vintage. Providing a historical analysis on abortion, Justice Harry Blackmun noted that abortion was resorted to without scruple in Greek, Blackmun also addressed the permissive and restrictive abortion attitudes and laws throughout history, noting the disagreements among leaders in those eras and the formative laws and cases. In the United States, in 1821, Connecticut passed the first state statute criminalizing abortion, every state had abortion legislation by 1900. In June 1969, 21-year-old Norma L. McCorvey discovered she was pregnant with her third child and she returned to Dallas, Texas, where friends advised her to assert falsely that she had been raped in order to obtain a legal abortion. However, this failed because there was no police report documenting the alleged rape. She attempted to obtain an abortion, but found that the unauthorized facility had been closed down by the police. Eventually, she was referred to attorneys Linda Coffee and Sarah Weddington, in 1970, Coffee and Weddington filed suit in the United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas on behalf of McCorvey. The defendant in the case was Dallas County District Attorney Henry Wade, McCorvey was no longer claiming her pregnancy was a result of rape, and later acknowledged that she had lied about having been raped. Rape is not mentioned in the opinions in the case. In addition, the court relied on Justice Arthur Goldbergs concurrence in Griswold v. Connecticut, the court, however, declined to grant an injunction against enforcement of the law. In 1971, Shirley Wheeler was charged with manslaughter after Florida hospital staff reported her illegal abortion to the police and she received a sentence of two years probation and under her probation, she had to move back into her parents house in North Carolina. Roe v. Wade reached the Supreme Court on appeal in 1970, the justices delayed taking action on Roe and a closely related case, Doe v. Bolton, until they had decided Younger v. Harris and United States v. Vuitch. The day after they announced their decision in Vuitch, they voted to hear both Roe and Doe, arguments were scheduled by the full Court for December 13,1971. Before the Court could hear the arguments, Justices Hugo Black
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Doe v. Bolton
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Doe v. Bolton,410 U. S.179, was a decision of the United States Supreme Court overturning the abortion law of Georgia. The Supreme Courts decision was released on January 22,1973, Doe v. Bolton challenged Georgias much more conservative abortion statute. The Georgia law in question permitted abortion only in cases of rape, severe fetal deformity, in addition, only Georgia residents could receive abortions under this statutory scheme, non-residents could not have an abortion in Georgia under any circumstances. The anonymous plaintiff has since identified as Sandra Cano, a 22-year-old mother of three who was nine weeks pregnant at the time the lawsuit was filed. Cano describes herself as pro-life and claims her attorney, Margie Pitts Hames, lied to her in order to have a plaintiff. On October 14,1970, a panel of the U. S. District Court for the Northern District of Georgia consisting of Northern District of Georgia Judges Albert John Henderson. The court also declined to issue an injunction against enforcement of the law, the plaintiff appealed to the Supreme Court under a statute, since repealed, permitting bypass of the circuit appeals court. The oral arguments and re-arguments followed the schedule as those in Roe. Atlanta attorney Hames represented Doe at the hearings, while Georgia assistant attorney general Dorothy Toth Beasley represented Bolton, the Court reiterated the protected right to privacy, which applied to matters involving marriage, procreation, contraception, family relationships, child rearing, and education. Justice Harry A. Blackmun wrote the majority opinion for the Court, in which he explained the sensitive and emotional nature of the issue and the deep and seemingly absolute convictions on both sides. Justice Blackmun went on to conclude that as a constitutional matter, together, Doe and Roe declared abortion as a constitutional right and overturned most laws against abortion in other U. S. states. Roe legalized abortion nationwide for approximately the first six months of pregnancy until the point of fetal viability, the Courts opinion in Doe v. Bolton stated that a woman may obtain an abortion after viability, if necessary to protect her health. All these factors may relate to health, the district court denied her motion, and she appealed. When the appeals court denied her motion, she requested review by the United States Supreme Court. However, the Supreme Court declined to hear Sandra Canos suit to overturn the ruling, Sandra Cano died on September 30,2014. Canadian Supreme Court case of R. v. Bolton,410 U. S.179 from LII-Cornell Law School United States Senate Committee of the Judiciary Testimony of Sandra Cano
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Right to life
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The right to life is a moral principle based on the belief that a human being has the right to live and, in particular, should not be killed by another human being. The concept of a right to life arises in debates on issues of capital punishment, war, abortion, euthanasia, justifiable homicide and, by extension, public health care. Human rights activists oppose the death penalty, calling it cruel, inhuman, and degrading punishment, and Amnesty International considers it to be the ultimate, irreversible denial of Human Rights. The United Nations General Assembly has adopted, in 2007,2008,2010,2012 and 2014 non-binding resolutions calling for a moratorium on executions. International law only allows law enforcement officers to take life where absolutely necessary to defend themselves. In 1966 the National Conference of Catholic Bishops asked Fr, james T. McHugh to begin observing trends in abortion reform within the United States. The National Right to Life Committee was funded in 1967 as the Right to Life League to coordinate its state campaigns under the auspices of the National Conference of Catholic Bishops. James T. McHugh and his assistant, Michael Taylor, proposed a different plan. Anti-abortion advocates argue that humans have the same fundamental right to life from the moment of conception that humans have after their birth. Although pro-life advocates accept that women have a right to autonomy, they deny that right entitles the women to violate the prenatal right to life. Generally speaking, those identifying themselves as right to life believe abortion is morally unacceptable, the term right to choose is a rhetorical device used in the abortion debate by abortion-rights proponents. Many abortion rights advocates argue that humans are not human persons. Advocates of the right to choose may take either or both positions, generally speaking, those identifying themselves as pro-choice are advocates for legal elective abortion. At the same time, some advocates for legalized abortion state that they simply do not know for sure where in pregnancy life begins, some biologists however, have determined that the properties of life emerge at the cellular level. Other advocates have stated that they hold personal views against abortion but do not support putting those beliefs into law, some utilitarian ethicists argue that the right to life, where it exists, depends on conditions other than membership of the human species. The philosopher Peter Singer is a proponent of this argument. For Singer, the right to life is grounded in the ability to plan, bioethicists associated with the Disability Rights and Disability Studies communities have argued that Singers epistemology is based on ableist conceptions of disability. In 1444, the Poljica Statute declared right to live -for nothing existed since ever, there are exceptions for lawful executions and self-defense, arresting a fleeing suspect, and suppressing riots and insurrections
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Welfare
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For conceptual models of social well-being, see Social welfare function. Welfare is the provision of a level of well-being and social support for citizens without current means to support basic needs. The welfare state expands on this concept to include such as universal healthcare. In the Roman Empire, the first emperor Augustus provided the Cura Annonae or grain dole for citizens who could not afford to buy food every month, Social welfare was enlarged by the Emperor Trajan. Trajans program brought acclaim from many, including Pliny the Younger, the Song dynasty government supported multiple programs which could be classified as social welfare, including the establishment of retirement homes, public clinics, and paupers graveyards. According to economist Robert Henry Nelson, The medieval Roman Catholic Church operated a far-reaching, early welfare programs in Europe included the English Poor Law of 1601, which gave parishes the responsibility for providing welfare payments to the poor. This system was modified by the 19th-century Poor Law Amendment Act. It was predominantly in the late 19th and early 20th centuries that a system of state welfare provision was introduced in many countries. Otto von Bismarck, Chancellor of Germany, introduced one of the first welfare systems for the working classes, in Great Britain the Liberal government of Henry Campbell-Bannerman and David Lloyd George introduced the National Insurance system in 1911, a system later expanded by Clement Attlee. The United States inherited Englands poor house laws and has had a form of welfare since before it won its independence. Modern welfare states include Germany, France, the Netherlands, as well as the Nordic countries, such as Iceland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, esping-Andersen classified the most developed welfare state systems into three categories, Social Democratic, Conservative, and Liberal. In the Islamic world, Zakat, one of the Five Pillars of Islam, has collected by the government since the time of the Rashidun caliph Umar in the 7th century. The taxes were used to provide income for the needy, including the poor, elderly, orphans, widows, according to the Islamic jurist Al-Ghazali, the government was also expected to store up food supplies in every region in case a disaster or famine occurred. Welfare can take a variety of forms, such as payments, subsidies and vouchers. A persons eligibility for welfare may also be constrained by means testing or other conditions, Welfare is provided by governments or their agencies, by private organizations, or a combination of both. Funding for welfare usually comes from government revenue, but when dealing with charities or NGOs. Some countries run conditional cash transfer welfare programs where payment is conditional on behaviour of the recipients, the 1890s economic depression and the rise of the trade unions and the Labor parties during this period led to a movement for welfare reform. In 1900, the states of New South Wales and Victoria enacted legislation introducing non-contributory pensions for those aged 65, a national invalid disability pension was started in 1910, and a national maternity allowance was introduced in 1912
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Legitimacy (family law)
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Legitimacy, in traditional Western common law, is the status of a child born to parents who are legally married to each other, and of a child conceived before the parents obtain a legal divorce. Conversely, illegitimacy is the status of a child born outside marriage, depending on the cultural context, legitimacy can affect a childs rights of inheritance to the putative fathers estate and the childs right to bear the fathers surname or title. Illegitimacy has also had consequences for the mothers and childs right to support from the putative father, in medieval Wales, a bastard was defined simply as a child not acknowledged by its father. All children, whether born in or out of wedlock, that were acknowledged by the father enjoyed the legal rights. Englands Statute of Merton stated, regarding illegitimacy, He is a bastard that is born before the marriage of his parents and this definition also applied to situations when a childs parents could not marry, as when one or both were already married or when the relationship was incestuous. The Poor Law of 1576 formed the basis of English bastardy law and its purpose was to punish a bastard childs mother and putative father, and to relieve the parish from the cost of supporting mother and child. By an act of 1576, it was ordered that bastards should be supported by their putative fathers, if the genitor could be found, then he was put under very great pressure to accept responsibility and to maintain the child. Under English law, a bastard was unable to be an heir to real property, in contrast to the situation under civil law, a younger non-bastard brother would have no claim to the land. The Legitimacy Act 1926 of England and Wales legitimized the birth of a if the parents subsequently married each other. The Legitimacy Act 1959 extended the legitimization even if the parents had married others in the meantime, neither the 1926 nor 1959 Acts changed the laws of succession to the British throne and succession to peerage titles. The Family Law Reform Act 1969 allowed a bastard to inherit on the intestacy of his parents, in canon and in civil law, the offspring of putative marriages have also been considered legitimate. Since 2003 in England and Wales,2002 in Northern Ireland and 2006 in Scotland, still, children born out of wedlock may not be eligible for certain federal benefits unless the child has been legitimized in the appropriate jurisdiction. Many other countries have abolished by any legal disabilities of a child born out of wedlock. In France, legal reforms regarding illegitimacy began in the 1970s, the European Convention on the Legal Status of Children Born out of Wedlock came into force in 1978. Countries which ratify it must ensure that children born outside marriage are provided with legal rights as stipulated in the text of this Convention, the Convention was ratified by the UK in 1981 and by Ireland in 1988. Use of the illegitimate child is now rare, even in legal contexts. It has been stricken from passports and legal documents as needlessly insulting and stigmatizing to the child, terms such as extra-marital child, love child and child born out of wedlock are more commonly used. Also used in Britain and other English-speaking countries is bastard, though such as natural child are preferred in polite society
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Divorce
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Divorce should not be confused with annulment, which declares the marriage null and void, with legal separation or de jure separation or with de facto separation. Reasons for divorce vary, from sexual incompatibility or lack of independence for one or both spouses to a personality clash, the only countries that do not allow divorce are the Philippines, the Vatican City and the British Crown Dependency of Sark. The Vatican City is a state, which has no procedure for divorce. Countries that have relatively recently legalized divorce are Italy, Portugal, Brazil, Spain, Argentina, Paraguay, Colombia, Andorra, Ireland, Chile, grounds for divorce vary widely from country to country. Marriage may be seen as a contract, a status, or a combination of these, where it is seen as a contract, the refusal or inability of one spouse to perform the obligations stipulated in the contract may constitute a ground for divorce for the other spouse. In contrast, in countries, divorce is purely no fault. Many jurisdictions offer both the option of a no fault divorce as well as an at fault divorce and this is the case, for example, in many US states. Though divorce laws vary between jurisdictions, there are two approaches to divorce, fault based and no-fault based. In some jurisdictions one spouse may be forced to pay the fees of another spouse. Laws vary as to the period before a divorce is effective. However, issues of division of property are determined by the law of the jurisdiction in which the property is located. In Europe, divorce laws differ from country to country, reflecting differing legal and cultural traditions, in some countries, particularly in some former communist countries, divorce can be obtained only on one single general ground of irretrievable breakdown of the marriage. Yet, what such a breakdown of the marriage is interpreted very differently from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Separation constitutes a ground of divorce in some European countries. g. in the laws of Latvia. Divorce laws are not static, they often change reflecting evolving social norms of societies, some countries have completely overhauled their divorce laws, such as Spain in 2005, and Portugal in 2008. A new divorce law also came into force in September 2007 in Belgium, bulgaria also modified its divorce regulations in 2009. e. The negotiations with the participation of an advocate or agreement made before the registrar of Public Registry Office, Austria, instead, is a European country where the divorce law still remains conservative. The liberalization of laws is not without opposition, particularly in the United States
27.
Defense of Marriage Act
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DOMAs passage did not prevent individual states from recognizing same-sex marriage, but it imposed constraints on the benefits received by all legally married same-sex couples. Initially introduced in May 1996, DOMA passed both houses of Congress by large, veto-proof majorities and was signed into law by President Bill Clinton in September 1996. In United States v. Windsor, the U. S. Supreme Court declared Section 3 of DOMA unconstitutional under the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment, the issue of legal recognition of same-sex marriage attracted mainstream attention infrequently until the 1980s. A sympathetic reporter heard several gay men raise the issue in 1967, baker later changed his legal name to Pat Lynn McConnell and married his male partner in 1971, but the marriage was not legally recognized. A1972 off-Broadway play, Nightride, depicted a black–white homosexual marriage, in 1979, IntegrityUSA, an organization of gay Episcopalians, raised the issue when the U. S. Episcopal Church considered a ban on the ordination of homosexuals as priests. The New York Times said the question was all but dormant until the late 1980s when, according to gay activists, brought questions of inheritance and death benefits to many peoples minds. In May 1989, Denmark established registered partnerships that granted same-sex couples many of the associated with marriage. In the same year, New Yorks highest court ruled that two homosexual men qualified as a family for the purposes of New York Citys rent-control regulations. In September 1989, the State Bar Association of California urged recognition of marriages between homosexuals even before gay rights advocates adopted the issue, gary Bauer, head of the socially conservative Family Research Council, predicted the issue would be a major battleground in the 1990s. In 1991, Georgia Attorney General Michael J. Bowers withdrew a job offer to a lesbian who planned to marry another woman in a Jewish wedding ceremony. The Conference of Bishops responded, There is basis neither in Scripture nor tradition for the establishment of a ceremony by this church for the blessing of a homosexual relationship. In a critique of radicalism in the gay movement, Bruce Bawers A Place at the Table advocated the legalization of same-sex marriage. In Baehr v. Miike, the Supreme Court of Hawaii ruled that the state must show a compelling interest in prohibiting same-sex marriage, the main provisions of the act were as follows, Section 1. Short title This Act may be cited as the Defense of Marriage Act, Georgia Representative Bob Barr, then a Republican, authored the Defense of Marriage Act and introduced it in the House of Representatives on May 7,1996. Senator Don Nickles, Oklahoma, introduced the bill in the Senate, the House Judiciary Committee stated that the Act was intended by Congress to reflect and honor a collective moral judgment and to express moral disapproval of homosexuality. The Acts congressional sponsors stated, he bill amends the U. S. Nickles said, If some state wishes to recognize same-sex marriage and he said the bill would ensure that the 49 other states dont have to and the Federal Government does not have to. In opposition to the bill, Colorado Rep. Patricia Schroeder said and this is just stirring the political waters and seeing what hate you can unleash. The Democratic Party platform that year did not mention DOMA or marriage, in a June 1996 interview in the gay and lesbian magazine The Advocate, Clinton said, I remain opposed to same-sex marriage
28.
Secular humanism
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Secular humanism posits that human beings are capable of being ethical and moral without religion or a god. It does not, however, assume that humans are inherently evil or innately good. Rather, the humanist life stance emphasizes the unique responsibility facing humanity, along with this, an essential part of secular humanism is a continually adapting search for truth, primarily through science and philosophy. Many secular humanists derive their moral codes from a philosophy of utilitarianism, ethical naturalism, or evolutionary ethics, the Happy Human is the official symbol of the IHEU as well as being regarded as a universally recognised symbol for those who call themselves Humanists. Secular humanist organizations are found in all parts of the world and those who call themselves humanists are estimated to number between four and five million people worldwide. The meaning of the phrase secular humanism has evolved over time, the phrase has been used since at least the 1930s, and in 1943, the then Archbishop of Canterbury, William Temple, was reported as warning that the Christian tradition. Was in danger of being undermined by a Secular Humanism which hoped to retain Christian values without Christian faith, the release in 1980 of A Secular Humanist Declaration by the newly formed Council for Democratic and Secular Humanism gave secular humanism an organisational identity within the United States. However, many adherents of the approach reject the use of the secular as obfuscating and confusing. All too often secular humanism is reduced to a sterile outlook consisting of more than secularism slightly broadened by academic ethics. This kind of hyphenated humanism easily becomes more about the adjective than its referent, adherents of this view, including the International Humanist and Ethical Union and the American Humanist Association, consider that the unmodified but capitalised word Humanism should be used. The endorsement by the IHEU of the capitalization of the word Humanism, the American Humanist Association began to adopt this view in 1973, and the IHEU formally endorsed the position in 1989. In 2002 the IHEU General Assembly unanimously adopted the Amsterdam Declaration and this declaration makes exclusive use of capitalized Humanist and Humanism, which is consistent with IHEUs general practice and recommendations for promoting a unified Humanist identity. To further promote Humanist identity, these words are also free of any adjectives, such usage is not universal among IHEU member organizations, though most of them do observe these conventions. Historical use of the humanism, is related to the writings of pre-Socratic philosophers. These writings were lost to European societies until Renaissance scholars rediscovered them through Muslim sources, in 1851 George Holyoake coined the term secularism to describe a form of opinion which concerns itself only with questions, the issues of which can be tested by the experience of this life. The modern secular movement coalesced around Holyoake, Charles Bradlaugh and their intellectual circle, the first secular society, the Leicester Secular Society, dates from 1851. Similar regional societies came together to form the National Secular Society in 1866, holyoakes secularism was strongly influenced by Auguste Comte, the founder of positivism and of modern sociology. Comte believed human history would progress in a law of three stages from a phase, to the metaphysical, toward a fully rational positivist society
29.
People for the American Way
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People For the American Way is a progressive advocacy group in the United States. Organized as a 501 non-profit organization, PFAW was founded in 1981 by television producer Norman Lear, Lear founded the organization in 1980 to challenge the Moral Majority. Officially incorporated on September 4,1980, its co-founders included Democratic Congresswoman Barbara Jordan and Time Inc. chairman, PFAW began as a project of the Tides Foundation, a donor-advised fund that directs money to politically liberal causes. Former presidents of PFAW include Tony Podesta and Ralph Neas, later, the People For the American Way Voter Alliance was launched as a political action committee. PFAW monitors what it characterizes as right-wing activities, toward this end, the organization sponsors a website called Right Wing Watch, which showcases video footage of groups and individuals who take conservative stances on social issues. In response, David Benham said, We love all people, I love Islam, Muslims, and my brother and I would never discriminate. Never have we -- never would we, PFAW has been active in battles over judicial nominations, opposing U. S. Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork and supporting the nomination to the U. S. Supreme Court of Sonia Sotomayor. PFAW is also active in elections, donating $339,874 to oppose Republican candidates in the 2014 election cycle. Michael Keegan is the organizations president, members of the groups board of directors include John Hall Buchanan, Jr. Alec Baldwin, Seth MacFarlane, Mary Frances Berry, Julian Bond, Bertis Downs IV, James Hormel, Dolores Huerta, Jane Lynch, Josh Sapan, Dennis Van Roekel, Howie Klein and Reg Weaver. Major donors to PFAW include George Soros Open Society Institute, the Miriam G. wallach Foundation, the Bauman Foundation, and the Evelyn and Walter Haas, Jr. Fund
30.
Creationism and evolution in public education
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The status of creation and evolution in public education has been the subject of substantial debate and conflict in legal, political, and religious circles. Most western countries have legislation that mandates only evolutionary biology is to be taught in the appropriate scientific syllabuses, some adherents are passionately opposed to the consensus view of the scientific community. Rigidly arbitrary interpretations, represented as being the meaning of religious texts, is the greatest cause of conflict with evolutionary. Internationally, evolution is taught in courses with limited controversy, with the exception of a few areas of the United States. In Brazil, teaching of creationism in scientific education classes is forbidden by the Ministry of Education. Religious education is not forbidden as such, but the constitution states that the union can neither impose, nor promote, nor finance any religion. In 2004 however, teachers of religious classes in schools of the education department of Rio de Janeiro began to present creationism in their classes as scientific fact. The practice was initiated by politicians in power who were promoting their personal religious views. Subsequently in congress a religious bench, or faction, has become increasingly influential, for example, a Brazilian senator, Marcelo Crivella, the former Minister of Fishing and Aquiculture, publicly declared his religiously founded antagonism to evolution. Such prominent influences have drawn the attention of the defenders of the secular state, during drafting, the report and draft resolution were prepared by the delegate from the French Socialist Party, Guy Lengagne. Reuters noted that calling off the debate and vote also won support from east European deputies, the procedure used for the referral was criticized by the Assemblys Committee on Culture, Science and Education. If we are not careful, creationism could become a threat to human rights and it rejects that creationism in any form, including intelligent design, can be considered scientific, but considers possible its inclusion in religion and cultural classes. The resolution concludes that teaching creationism in school as a theory may threaten civil rights. The resolution summarizes itself in Para and we dont claim to found a new species upon finding a fish with two heads. And by the president of Southern Baptist Theological Seminary Albert Mohler considering that this can mean that Europe has forgotten even its Christian memory. In February 2009, the resolution was a point of a conference held in Dortmund, Germany. The minister responded that the Ministry of Education was not in possession of information about the number of institutions that had received the book. Further, he stated that the choice of materials is decided by local school boards
31.
Providence, Rhode Island
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Providence is the capital of and most populous city in the U. S. state of Rhode Island, founded in 1636, and one of the oldest cities in the United States. It is located in Providence County and is the third most populous city in New England, after Boston, Providence has a city population of 179,154, it is also part of the Providence metropolitan area which extends into southern Massachusetts. The Providence metropolitan area has an population of 1,604,291. This can be considered, in turn, to be part of the Greater Boston commuting area, Providence was founded by Roger Williams, a religious exile from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He named the area in honor of Gods merciful Providence, which he believed was responsible for revealing such a haven for him, the city is situated at the mouth of the Providence River at the head of Narragansett Bay. Providence was one of the first cities in the country to industrialize and became noted for its tool, jewelry. The city was nicknamed the Beehive of Industry, it began rebranding itself as the Creative Capital in 2009 to emphasize its educational resources. The area that is now Providence was first settled in June 1636 by Roger Williams and was one of the original Thirteen Colonies of the United States, Williams and his company felt compelled to withdraw from Massachusetts Bay Colony. Providence quickly became a refuge for persecuted religious dissenters, as Williams himself had been exiled from Massachusetts, Providence residents were among the first Patriots to spill blood in the leadup to the American Revolution during the Gaspée Affair of 1772. Rhode Island was the first of the thirteen colonies to renounce its allegiance to the British Crown on May 4,1776. It was also the last of the thirteen colonies to ratify the United States Constitution on May 29,1790, following the war, Providence was the countrys ninth-largest city with 7,614 people. The economy shifted from maritime endeavors to manufacturing, in particular machinery, tools, silverware, jewelry, by the start of the 20th century, Providence boasted some of the largest manufacturing plants in the country, including Brown & Sharpe, Nicholson File, and Gorham Silverware. Providence residents ratified a city charter in 1831 as the population passed 17,000. From its incorporation as a city in 1832 until 1878, the seat of city government was located in the Market House, located in Market Square, the city offices quickly outgrew this building, and the City Council resolved to create a permanent municipal building in 1845. The city offices moved into the City Hall in 1878, during the Civil War, local politics split over slavery as many had ties to Southern cotton. Despite ambivalence concerning the war, the number of military volunteers routinely exceeded quota, by the early 1900s, Providence was one of the wealthiest cities in the United States. Immigrant labor powered one of the nations largest industrial manufacturing centers, Providence was a major manufacturer of industrial products from steam engines to precision tools to silverware, screws, and textiles. From 1975 until 1982, $606 million of local and national Community Development funds were invested throughout the city.4 million ft² Providence Place Mall, despite new investment, poverty remains an entrenched problem as it does in most post-industrial New England cities
32.
Lee v. Weisman
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Lee v. Weisman,505 U. S.577, was a United States Supreme Court decision regarding school prayer. It was the first major school prayer case decided by the Rehnquist Court and it ruled that schools may not sponsor clerics to conduct even non-denominational prayer. Vitale,370 U. S.421 and Abington v. Schempp,374 U. S.203, robert E. Lee was the principal of Nathan Bishop Middle School in Providence, Rhode Island. He invited a Jewish rabbi to deliver a prayer at the 1989 graduation ceremony, the question being reviewed was whether or not this was constitutional. The Rhode Island district court denied the Weismans motion, the family did attend the graduation ceremony, and the rabbi did deliver the benediction. The Weismans continued their litigation after the graduation and won a victory at the First Circuit Court of Appeals, arguments were heard on November 6,1991. The 5–4 decision was announced on June 24,1992 and it was somewhat surprising as a victory for the Weismans and a defeat for the school district. Instead, Kennedy wrote an opinion that repudiated the school districts main arguments, true, Deborah could elect not to attend commencement without renouncing her diploma, but we shall not allow the case to turn on this point. Everyone knows that, in our society and in our culture, a school rule which excuses attendance is beside the point. A reasonable dissenter of high school age could believe that standing or remaining silent signified her own participation in, or approval of, and the State may not place the student dissenter in the dilemma of participating or protesting. Since adolescents are often susceptible to pressure, especially in matters of social convention. The principle that government may accommodate the free exercise of religion does not supersede the fundamental limitations imposed by the Establishment Clause, as we have observed before, there are heightened concerns with protecting freedom of conscience from subtle coercive pressure in the elementary and secondary public schools. Our decisions in and recognize, among other things, that prayer exercises in public schools carry a risk of indirect coercion. The concern may not be limited to the context of schools, the test seeks to determine whether the state has applied coercive pressure on an individual to support or participate in religion. Justice Souter devoted his concurring opinion to an analysis, rebutting the contention that the government could endorse nonsectarian prayers. He cited the writings of James Madison and pointed to the versions of the First Amendment that the First Congress considered. Souter, too, took issue with the school districts defense of religious exercises. As its instrument of destruction, the bulldozer of its engineering, the Court invents a boundless
