1.
Vox populi
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In broadcasting, vox populi is an interview with members of the public. Vox populi is a Latin phrase that means voice of the people. Usually the interviewees are shown in public places, and supposed to be giving spontaneous opinions in a chance encounter – unrehearsed persons, as such, broadcast journalists almost always refer to them as the abbreviated vox pop. In U. S. broadcast journalism it is referred to as a man on the street interview or MOTS. Because the results of such an interview are unpredictable at best and this presents difficulties of balance, in that the selection used ought to be, from the point of view of journalistic standards, a fair cross-section of opinions. Although the two can be often confused, a vox pop is not a form of a survey. Each person is asked the question, the aim is to get a variety of answers. Journalists are usually instructed to approach a wide range of people to get varied answers from different points of view, the interviewees should be of various ages, sexes, classes and communities so that the diverse views and reactions of the general people will be known. Generally, the vox pop question will be asked of different persons in different parts of streets or public places. g, a question can be asked to a group of students about the quality of their education. With increasing public familiarity with the term, several radio and television programs have been named vox pop in allusion to this practice. English translation, And those people should not be listened to who keep saying the voice of the people is the voice of God, since the riotousness of the crowd is always very close to madness. The usage indicates that the phrase had long become a aphorism of common political wisdom by Alcuin and Charlemagnes time. Vox Populi is a book that was written by Timothy E. Gregory, Vox Populi is on the seal of the Alabama House of Representatives. Vox Populi is a song from the group Thirty Seconds to Mars on their album This Is War, Vox Populi is the name of a resistance movement, led by Daisy Fitzroy, in the game BioShock Infinite. Vox Populi is mentioned in a speech by the character V in the film V for Vendetta, Vox Populi is the name of the 11th episode of the first season of the CBS television series Jericho. The quote Vox populi, vox Dei is used by Sherlock Holmes in releasing Captain Crocker from his custody in the story The Adventure of the Abbey Grange. The quote Vox populi, vox Dei is mentioned by Joey Lucas in a conversation with Josh Lyman in the 16th episode of the first season of The West Wing, Vox Populi is the name of a song by Greek electronica band Stereo Nova. Vox pops were included in episodes of Monty Pythons Flying Circus
2.
Continuity of government
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Continuity of government is the principle of establishing defined procedures that allow a government to continue its essential operations in case of nuclear war or other catastrophic event. COG was developed by the British government before and during World War II to counter threats, the need for continuity-of-government plans gained new urgency with nuclear proliferation. Countries during the Cold War and afterwards developed such plans to avoid confusion, in the US at least, COG is no longer limited to nuclear emergencies, the Continuity of Operations Plan was activated following the September 11 attacks. Canada built numerous nuclear bunkers across the country, nicknamed Diefenbunkers in a play on the last name of then-Prime Minister John Diefenbaker, the Peoples Republic of China once operated Underground Project 131, intended to be the PLA headquarters in Hubei during a nuclear conflict. During the Cold War, Denmark built two bunker complexes, named REGAN Vest and REGAN Øst, in Jutland and Zealand respectively, the Centre dOpération des Forces Aériennes Stratégiques is a hardened command centre for French nuclear forces at Taverny Air Base in Taverny, Val dOise. The alternate national command center is located at Mont Verdun near Lyon, the hardened headquarters of Force Océanique Stratégique, Frances nuclear SSBN fleet, is at Houilles, Yvelines. Germany operated a government bunker to house the German government, parliament, drafts of emergency powers legislation have been drawn up in secret, including legislation to deal with circumstances such as an attack on cabinet involving numerous deaths. The New Zealand government believes the most likely disaster scenario to affect the government is an earthquake in Wellington. The government has plans to move Parliament and essential staff to Devonport Naval Base in Auckland if such an event occurs, the Norwegian government operates a nuclear bunker called Sentralanlegget in Buskerud County. The bunker is meant to accommodate the Norwegian Royal Family and the government in case of an attack on the nation. There is also a bunker beneath Høyblokka in downtown Oslo, very little, in the public domain, is known about Russias COG plans. The second command and control center in the Urals, after Yamantau, is speculated to be underground and located near, or under. In spite of this, the command posts for the Strategic Rocket Forces remains Kuntsevo in Moscow. The facility at Kosvinsky, finished in early 1996, was designed to resist US earth-penetrating warheads, further command centers, according to globalsecurity. Another alleged subterranean destination, apart from the aforementioned underground town at Ramenki/Moscow State University is Vnukovo-2 airport, despite official Russian state ambiguity, it is speculated that many of the Moscow bunkers are linked by an underground railway line. During the Cold War, the Klara skyddsrum was built underneath Stockholm, the bunker is designed to accommodate two thirds of the government and between 8,000 and 12,000 civilians in the case of a military attack on Stockholm. It is designed as a large, two-story oval, with multiple entrances. During peace time, parts of it are used as a parking garage, the primary British COG headquarters is at the Ministry of Defence in Whitehall
3.
Commonwealth (U.S. state)
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Each was, prior to 1776, a British colony, or parts thereof, and share a strong influence of English common law in some of their laws and institutions. The term Commonwealth does not describe or provide for any specific political status or legal relationship when used by a state and those that do use it are equal to those that do not. It refers to the common weal, or welfare, of the public and is derived from a translation of the Latin term res publica. Besides the four aforementioned states, other states may also, on occasion, vermont, for instance, uses the term commonwealth three times in its constitution, interchangeably with the term state. Also, while Delaware was primarily referred to as a State in its 1776 constitution, two U. S. territories are also designated as commonwealths, Puerto Rico and the Northern Mariana Islands. When used in connection with areas under U. S, on June 1,1792, Kentucky County officially became a state. Kentucky is the state outside of the first 13 that uses commonwealth in its name. Massachusetts is officially named The Commonwealth of Massachusetts by its constitution, the name State of Massachusetts Bay was used in all acts and resolves up to 1780 and the first draft of the constitution. The current name can be traced to the draft of the state constitution. In Massachusetts, the term State is occasionally used in an official manner and this is evident in the name of the agency Massachusetts State Police, the Massachusetts State House and in Bridgewater State Hospital. The Seal of Pennsylvania does not use the term, but legal processes are in the name of the Commonwealth and it is a traditional official designation used in referring to the state. In 1776, Pennsylvanias first state constitution referred to it as both Commonwealth and State, a pattern of usage that was perpetuated in the constitutions of 1790,1838,1874 and 1958, one of Pennsylvanias two intermediate appellate courts is called the Commonwealth Court. A detailed history describing the origins of Pennsylvanias government, including its designation as a commonwealth from colonial times, is available from the Secretary of the Commonwealths office, the name Commonwealth of Virginia dates back to its independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain. Virginias first constitution directed that Commissions and Grants shall run, In the Name of the commonwealth of Virginia, the Secretary of the Commonwealth still issues commissions in this manner. Among other references, the constitution furthermore dictated that criminal indictments were to conclude against the peace, in Virginia, the term State is occasionally used in an official manner, but usually in a compound structure rather than as a stand-alone noun. This is evident in the name of the agency Virginia State Corporation Commission and in Virginia State Police, the state university in Richmond is known as Virginia Commonwealth University. In Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, state-level criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the Commonwealth, in California, Colorado, Illinois, Michigan, and New York, they are brought in the name of the People
4.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
5.
Confederate States of America
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The Confederate States, officially the Confederate States of America, commonly referred to as the Confederacy, was a breakaway country of 11 secessionist slave states existing from 1861 to 1865. It was never recognized as an Independent country, although it achieved belligerent status by Britain. A new Confederate government was established in February 1861 before Lincoln took office in March, after the Civil War began in April, four slave states of the Upper South – Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina – also declared their secession and joined the Confederacy. The government of the United States rejected the claims of secession, the Civil War began with the April 12,1861, Confederate attack upon Fort Sumter, a Union fort in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. In spring 1865, after four years of fighting which led to an estimated 620,000 military deaths, all the Confederate forces surrendered. Jefferson Davis later lamented that the Confederacy had disappeared in 1865, Missouri and Kentucky were represented by partisan factions from those states, while the legitimate governments of those two states retained formal adherence to the Union. Also fighting for the Confederacy were two of the Five Civilized Tribes located in Indian Territory and a new, but uncontrolled, Confederate Territory of Arizona. Efforts by certain factions in Maryland to secede were halted by federal imposition of law, while Delaware, though of divided loyalty. A Unionist government in parts of Virginia organized the new state of West Virginia. With the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1,1863, the Union made abolition of slavery a war goal, as Union forces moved southward, large numbers of plantation slaves were freed. Many joined the Union lines, enrolling in service as soldiers, teamsters and laborers, the most notable advance was Shermans March to the Sea in late 1864. Much of the Confederacys infrastructure was destroyed, including telegraphs, railroads, plantations in the path of Shermans forces were severely damaged. Internal movement became increasingly difficult for Southerners, weakening the economy and these losses created an insurmountable disadvantage in men, materiel, and finance. Public support for Confederate President Jefferson Daviss administration eroded over time due to repeated military reverses, economic hardships, after four years of campaigning, Richmond was captured by Union forces in April 1865. Shortly afterward, Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant, President Davis was captured on May 10,1865, and jailed in preparation for a treason trial that was ultimately never held. The U. S. government began a process known as Reconstruction which attempted to resolve the political and constitutional issues of the Civil War. By 1877, the Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction in the former Confederate states, Confederate veterans had been temporarily disenfranchised by Reconstruction policy. The prewar South had many areas, the war left the entire region economically devastated by military action, ruined infrastructure
6.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
7.
Frankfort, Kentucky
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Frankfort is the capital city of the Commonwealth of Kentucky and the seat of Franklin County. Based on population, it is the fifth-smallest state capital in the United States and it is a home rule-class city in Kentucky, the population was 25,527 at the 2010 census. Located along the Kentucky River, Frankfort is the city of the Frankfort, Kentucky Micropolitan Statistical Area. The town of Frankfort likely received its name from an event that took place in the 1780s, American Indians attacked a group of early European-American pioneers from Bryan Station, who were making salt at a ford in the Kentucky River. Pioneer Stephen Frank was killed, and the settlers called the crossing Franks Ford. This name was later elided to Frankfort, in 1786, James Wilkinson purchased the 260-acre tract of land on the north side of the Kentucky River, which developed as downtown Frankfort. He was a promoter of Frankfort as the state capital. After Kentucky became the 15th state in early 1792, five commissioners from various counties were appointed on June 20 to choose a location for the capital and they were John Allen and John Edwards, Henry Lee, Thomas Kennedy, and Robert Todd. A number of communities competed for this honor, but Frankfort won, Frankfort had a United States post office by 1794, with Daniel Weisiger as postmaster. John Brown, a Virginia lawyer and statesman, built a home now called Liberty Hall in Frankfort in 1796, before Kentuckys statehood, he represented Virginia in the Continental Congress and the U. S. Congress. While in Congress, he introduced the bill granting statehood to Kentucky, after statehood, he was elected by the state legislature as one of the states U. S. Senators. In 1796, the Kentucky General Assembly appropriated funds to provide a house to accommodate the governor, the Old Governors Mansion is claimed to be the oldest official executive residence still in use in the United States. In 1829, Gideon Shryock designed the Old Capitol, Kentuckys third and it served Kentucky as its capitol from 1830 to 1910. The separate settlement known as South Frankfort was annexed by the city in January 3,1850, during the American Civil War, the Union Army built fortifications overlooking Frankfort on what is now called Fort Hill. The Confederate Army also occupied Frankfort for a time starting from September 3,1862. On February 3,1900 Governor-elect William Goebel was assassinated in Frankfort while walking to the capitol on the way to his inauguration, former Secretary of State Caleb Powers was later found guilty of a conspiracy to murder Goebel. Frankfort has grown considerably since the 1960s, a modern addition to the State Office Building was completed in 1967. The original building was completed in the 1930s on the location of the former Kentucky State Penitentiary, some of the stone from the old prison was used for the walls surrounding the office building
8.
Union (American Civil War)
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The Union was opposed by 11 southern slave states that formed the Confederate States, or the Confederacy. All of the Unions states provided soldiers for the U. S. Army, the Border states played a major role as a supply base for the Union invasion of the Confederacy. The Northeast provided the resources for a mechanized war producing large quantities of munitions and supplies. The Midwest provided soldiers, food, horses, financial support, Army hospitals were set up across the Union. Most states had Republican governors who energetically supported the war effort, the Democratic Party strongly supported the war in 1861 but in 1862 was split between the War Democrats and the anti-war element led by the Copperheads. The Democrats made major gains in 1862 in state elections. They lost ground in 1863, especially in Ohio, in 1864 the Republicans campaigned under the National Union Party banner, which attracted many War Democrats and soldiers and scored a landslide victory for Lincoln and his entire ticket. The war years were quite prosperous except where serious fighting and guerrilla warfare took place along the southern border, prosperity was stimulated by heavy government spending and the creation of an entirely new national banking system. The Union states invested a great deal of money and effort in organizing psychological and social support for soldiers wives, widows, orphans, and for the soldiers themselves. Most soldiers were volunteers, although after 1862 many volunteered to escape the draft, Draft resistance was notable in some larger cities, especially New York City with its massive anti-draft riots of 1863 and in some remote districts such as the coal mining areas of Pennsylvania. In the context of the American Civil War, the Union is sometimes referred to as the North, both then and now, as opposed to the Confederacy, which was the South. The Union never recognized the legitimacy of the Confederacys secession and maintained at all times that it remained entirely a part of the United States of America, in foreign affairs the Union was the only side recognized by all other nations, none of which officially recognized the Confederate government. The term Union occurs in the first governing document of the United States, the subsequent Constitution of 1787 was issued and ratified in the name not of the states, but of We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union. Union, for the United States of America, is repeated in such clauses as the Admission to the Union clause in Article IV. Even before the war started, the preserve the Union was commonplace. Using the term Union to apply to the non-secessionist side carried a connotation of legitimacy as the continuation of the political entity. In comparison to the Confederacy, the Union had a large industrialized and urbanized area, additionally, the Union states had a manpower advantage of 5 to 2 at the start of the war. Year by year, the Confederacy shrank and lost control of increasing quantities of resources, meanwhile, the Union turned its growing potential advantage into a much stronger military force
9.
Flags of the Confederate States of America
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Three successive designs served as the official national flag of the Confederate States of America during its existence from 1861 to 1865. These include flags displayed in states, cities, towns and counties, schools, colleges and universities, private organizations and associations, and by individuals. The state flag of Mississippi features the Confederate armys battle flag in the canton, or upper left corner, the only current U. S. state flag to do so. The state flag of Georgia is very similar to the first national flag of the Confederacy, the Stars and Bars, the first official national flag of the Confederacy, often called the Stars and Bars, was flown from March 4,1861, to May 1,1863. It was designed by German/Prussian artist Nicola Marschall in Marion, Alabama, the Stars and Bars flag was adopted March 4,1861, in the first temporary national capital of Montgomery, Alabama, and raised over the dome of that first Confederate capitol. Marschall also designed the Confederate army uniform, one of the first acts of the Provisional Confederate Congress was to create the Committee on the Flag and Seal, chaired by William Porcher Miles, a congressman and Fire-Eater from South Carolina. The committee asked the public to submit thoughts and ideas on the topic and was, as historian John M. Coski puts it, overwhelmed by requests not to abandon the old flag of the United States. Miles had already designed a flag that became known as the Confederate Battle Flag. But given the support for a flag similar to the U. S. flag. The Stars and Bars was also criticized on grounds for its resemblance to the U. S. flag. Many Confederates disliked the Stars and Bars, seeing it as symbolic of a federal power the Confederate states were seceding from in order to preserve the institution of slavery. As early as April 1861, a month after the adoption, some were already criticizing the flag, calling it a servile imitation. In January 1862, George William Bagby, writing for the Southern Literary Messenger, every body wants a new Confederate flag, Bagby wrote, also stating that The present one is universally hated. It resembles the Yankee flag and that is enough to make it unutterably detestable, the editor of the Charleston Mercury expressed a similar view, stating that It seems to be generally agreed that the Stars and Bars will never do for us. They resemble too closely the dishonored Flag of Yankee Doodle … we imagine that the Battle Flag will become the Southern Flag by popular acclaim. Thompson stated in April 1863 that he disliked the flag on account of its resemblance to that of the abolition despotism against which we are fighting. Over the course of the use by the Confederacy, additional stars were added to the flags canton. This reflected the Confederacys claims of having admitted Kentucky and Missouri into the Confederacy, the first showing of the 13-star flag was outside the Ben Johnson House in Bardstown, Kentucky, the 13-star design was also in use as the Confederate navys battle ensign
10.
Bowling Green, Kentucky
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Bowling Green is a home rule-class city in and the county seat of Warren County, Kentucky, United States. Founded by pioneers in 1798, Bowling Green was the capital of Confederate Kentucky during the American Civil War. The city was the inspiration for the 1967 Everly Brothers song Bowling Green and it is the home of numerous manufacturers, including General Motors and Fruit of the Loom. The Bowling Green Assembly Plant has been the source of all Chevrolet Corvettes built since 1981, Bowling Green is also home to the states second-largest public university, Western Kentucky University. In 2014, Forbes magazine listed Bowling Green as one of the Top 25 Best Places to Retire in the United States, the first Europeans known to have reached the area carved their names on beech trees near the river around 1775. By 1778, settlers established McFaddens Station on the bank of the Barren River. Present-day Bowling Green grew out of homesteads erected by Robert and George Moore and General Elijah Covington, the Moore brothers arrived from Virginia circa 1794. In 1798, only two years after Warren County had been formed, Robert Moore donated 2 acres of land to county trustees for the purpose of constructing public buildings, soon after, he donated an additional 30 to 40 acres surrounding the original plot. The city of Bowling Green was officially incorporated by the Commonwealth of Kentucky on March 6,1798, some controversy exists over the source of the towns name. Some historians dispute this, however, and credit Bowling Green, Virginia, early records indicate that the city name was also spelled Bowlingreen. By 1810, Bowling Green had 154 residents, growth in steamboat commerce and the proximity of the Barren River increased Bowling Greens importance. Canal locks and dams on the Barren River made it more navigable. In 1832, the first portage railway connected the river to the location of the current county courthouse, mules pulled freight and passengers to and from the city on the tracks. Despite rapid urbanization of the Bowling Green area in the 1830s, Bowling Green declared itself neutral in an attempt to escape the Civil War. Because of its location and resources, however, both the Union and Confederacy sought control of the city. The majority of its residents rejected both the Confederacy and the Lincoln administration, on September 18,1861, around 1300 Confederate soldiers arrived from Tennessee to occupy the city, placed under command of Kentucky native General Simon Bolivar Buckner. The citys pro-Union feelings surprised the Confederate occupiers, surrounding hills were fortified to secure possible military approaches to the valuable river and railroad assets. In November 1861, the provisional Confederate government of Kentucky chose Bowling Green as its capital and they destroyed bridges across the Barren River, the railroad depot, and other important buildings that could be used by the enemy
11.
Russellville, Kentucky
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Russellville is a home rule-class city in Logan County, Kentucky, in the United States. It is the seat of its county, the population was 6,947 at the time of the 2010 U. S. Census. Also known as Cooks Station, the community – located about 1 mile east of the present city – became Logan Court House when it was chosen as the seat of newly formed Logan County in 1792. Gen. William Russell was given a 2, 000-acre grant for his service during the American Revolution. He donated part of property, in 1795, as a platted section for the county seat. The town was renamed in Russells honor in 1798 and it was formally established by the state legislature on January 15,1810. It was incorporated as a city on February 19,1840, in the early 19th century, the community had leaders who were politically prominent in the state. Four homes in the city still stand which at one time were the residences of future governors of Kentucky, John Breathitt, James Morehead, John J. Crittenden, and Charles S. Morehead. During the Civil War, the Kentucky General Assembly declared its neutrality, even Kentucky was a slave state and Confederate sentiment was strong in the Blue Grass and the west, the residents of the mountainous eastern section were mainly small farmers and pro-Union. George W. Johnson was elected as the states Confederate governor, despite de facto Union control over the rest of Kentucky, the government was recognized and Kentucky admitted to the Confederacy. Kentucky thus became the star on the Confederate flag. After the war, Kentucky struggled for years with unrest. Brothers Frank and Jesse James, who later had their own outlaw gang, a Russellville bank on the city square displays a large mural painted depicting the robbery. A reenactment is performed annually during the citys Tobacco and Heritage Festival, several downtown homes have been listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Russellville is located at 36°50′33″N 86°53′34″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 10.6 square miles, all land. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,149 people,3,064 households, the population density was 672.1 people per square mile. There were 3,458 housing units at a density of 325.1 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 78. 64% White,18. 62% African American,0. 39% Native American,0. 36% Asian,0. 03% Pacific Islander,0. 57% from other races, and 1. 38% from two or more races
12.
Government in exile
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A government in exile is a political group which claims to be a countrys legitimate government, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in a foreign country. Governments in exile usually plan to one day return to their native country, a government in exile differs from a rump state in the sense that a rump state controls at least part of its former territory. For example, during World War I, nearly all of Belgium was occupied by Germany, a government in exile, in contrast, has lost all its territory. Governments in exile frequently occur during wartime occupation, or in the aftermath of a war, revolution. For example, during German expansion in World War II, some European governments sought refuge in the United Kingdom, a government in exile may also form from widespread belief in the illegitimacy of a ruling government. For instance, the National Coalition for Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces was formed as a result of the Syrian Civil War, which sought to end the rule of the ruling Baath Party. The effectiveness of a government in exile depends primarily on the amount of support it can receive, some governments in exile develop into a formidable force, posing a serious challenge to the incumbent regime of the country, while others are maintained chiefly as a symbolic gesture. The phenomenon of a government in exile predates formal use of the term, with the spread of constitutional monarchy, monarchical governments in exile started to include a prime minister, such as the Dutch government during World War II headed by Pieter Sjoerds Gerbrandy. International law recognizes that governments in exile may undertake many types of actions in the conduct of their daily affairs. For example, the WWII Provisional Government of Free India had such authority among the ethnically Indian population of British Malaya, governments in exile may have little or no recognition from other states. Some exiled governments have some characteristics in common with rump states, such disputed or partially in exile cases are noted in the tables below. These governments in exile were created by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled. These governments in exile were created by deposed governments or rulers who continue to claim legitimate authority of the state they once controlled but whose state no longer exists. By contrast, this theory is not accepted by those who view the sovereignty of Taiwan as having been returned to the Republic of China at the end of the war. Both the Peoples Republic of China government and the Republic of China government hold the latter view and these governments in exile claim legitimacy of autonomous territories of another state and have been created by deposed governments or rulers, who do not claim independence as a separate state. These governments in exile are governments of non-self-governing or occupied territories and they claim legitimate authority over a territory they once controlled, or claim legitimacy of a post-decolonization authority. The claim may stem from an exiled groups election as a legitimate government, the United Nations recognizes the right of self-determination for the population of these territories, including the possibility of establishing independent sovereign states. In 1994, however the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority interim territorial administration as result of the Oslo Accords signed by the PLO, Israel, the United States, and Russia
13.
Army of Tennessee
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The Army of Tennessee was the principal Confederate army operating between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River during the American Civil War. It was formed in late 1862 and fought until the end of the war in 1865 and it should not be confused with the Union Army of the Tennessee, named after the Tennessee River. The army was formed on November 20,1862, when General Braxton Bragg renamed the former Army of Mississippi and was divided into two corps commanded by Leonidas Polk and William J. Hardee, the remaining division was assigned to Hardees corps while Kirby Smith returned to East Tennessee. The armys cavalry was consolidated into a command under Joseph Wheeler. The armys first major engagement under its new name took place against the Army of the Cumberland on December 31 along the Stones River. The attacks started at 6 a. m. against the Union right wing and forced the Union flank back towards the Union supply route to Nashville, Bragg expected Union commander William S. Rosecrans to retreat during the night but Rosecrans decided to remain. No fighting took place on January 1, the next day Bragg assigned one division to seize a ridge on the east side of Stones River, Bragg retreated during the night and halted near the Duck River. When he learned of the dispute, Confederate President Jefferson Davis sent Joseph Johnston to inspect the army, Johnston however refused to take command of the army. In the summer of 1863, Rosecrans began an offensive, generally known as the Tullahoma Campaign, due to the low level of the river, Bragg felt compelled to retreat back to his supply center of Chattanooga, Tennessee, where he established his headquarters. When the Union forces halted following the campaign, Bragg took the opportunity to make several changes in the army. Hardee was transferred to Mississippi in July and replaced by D. H. Hill, the cavalry was reorganized into two corps commanded by Wheeler and Forrest, a two-division Reserve Corps was also organized under the command of W. H. T. Rosecrans launched the Chickamauga Campaign in late August, staging demonstrations near Chattanooga and this convinced Bragg that Rosecrans was crossing the river to the north, however, Union forces were actually crossing to the south of the city. This forced Bragg to fall back into northern Georgia, abandoning the important railroad hub of Chattanooga on September 8, over the course of the next several days, Bragg attempted to launch several attacks on isolated parts of the Union army but each attempt failed. During September 19 at Chickamauga, both sides fed in reinforcements as the day progressed, Polk was ordered to attack at daylight on September 20, with Longstreet attacking immediately afterwards, but Polk didnt launch his attack until midmorning. The left wing failed to dislodge the Union army but Longstreets wing attacked a gap in the Union army which routed the Union right flank. A portion of the Union army rallied on Horseshoe Ridge and held off multiple Confederate attacks until evening, when it followed the rest of Rosecrans army into Chattanooga. Bragg considered an attack on the city too costly. Instead he spread the Confederate army along the Tennessee River, cutting the Union railroad supply line into the city, during the next several weeks, Bragg became embroiled with a dispute with the armys corps commanders
14.
Confederate States Army
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The Confederate States Army was the military ground force of the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. S. Military Academy and colonel of a regiment during the Mexican War. In March 1861, the Provisional Confederate Congress established a more permanent Confederate States Army, the better estimates of the number of individual Confederate soldiers are between 750,000 and 1,000,000 men. This does not include a number of slaves who were pressed into performing various tasks for the army, such as construction of fortifications. Since these figures include estimates of the number of individual soldiers who served at any time during the war. These numbers do not include men who served in Confederate naval forces, although most of the soldiers who fought in the American Civil War were volunteers, both sides by 1862 resorted to conscription, primarily as a means to force men to register and to volunteer. In the absence of records, estimates of the percentage of Confederate soldiers who were draftees are about double the 6 percent of Union soldiers who were conscripts. Confederate casualty figures also are incomplete and unreliable, one estimate of Confederate wounded, which is considered incomplete, is 194,026. These numbers do not include men who died from causes such as accidents. Other Confederate forces surrendered between April 16,1865 and June 28,1865, by the end of the war, more than 100,000 Confederate soldiers had deserted. The Confederacys government effectively dissolved when it fled Richmond in April, by the time Abraham Lincoln took office as President of the United States on March 4,1861, the seven seceding slave states had formed the Confederate States. The Confederacy seized federal property, including nearly all U. S. Army forts, Lincoln was determined to hold the forts remaining under U. S. control when he took office, especially Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. Under orders from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, C. S. troops under the command of General P. G. T, Beauregard bombarded Fort Sumter on April 12–13,1861, forcing its capitulation on April 14. The Northern states were outraged by the Confederacys attack and demanded war and it rallied behind Lincolns call on April 15, for all the states to send troops to recapture the forts from the secessionists, to put down the rebellion and to preserve the Union intact. Four more slave states joined the Confederacy. The Confederate Congress provided for a Confederate army patterned after the United States Army and it was to consist of a large provisional force to exist only in time of war and a small permanent regular army. Although the two forces were to exist concurrently, very little was done to organize the Confederate regular army, the Provisional Army of the Confederate States began organizing on April 27. Virtually all regular, volunteer, and conscripted men preferred to enter this organization since officers could achieve a rank in the Provisional Army than they could in the Regular Army
15.
Braxton Bragg
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Bragg, a native of North Carolina, was educated at West Point and became an artillery officer. He served in Florida and then received three brevet promotions for distinguished service in the Mexican-American War, most notably the Battle of Buena Vista. After a series of posts in the Indian Territory, he resigned from the U. S. Army in 1856 to become a plantation owner in Louisiana. During the Civil War, Bragg trained soldiers in the Gulf Coast region and he was a corps commander at the Battle of Shiloh and subsequently was named to command the Army of Mississippi. He and Edmund Kirby Smith attempted an invasion of Kentucky in 1862, in December, he fought another inconclusive battle at Murfreesboro, Tennessee, the Battle of Stones River, but once again withdrew his army. In 1863, he fought a series of battles against Maj. Gen. William S. Rosecrans, in June, he was outmaneuvered in the Tullahoma Campaign and retreated into Chattanooga. In November, Braggs army was routed in turn by Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant in the Battles for Chattanooga. The defeat at Chattanooga was the last straw, and Bragg was recalled in early 1864 to Richmond, near the end of the war, he defended Wilmington, North Carolina, and served as a corps commander in the Carolinas Campaign. After the war Bragg worked as the superintendent of the New Orleans waterworks, a supervisor of improvements at Mobile, Alabama. Bragg is generally considered among the worst generals of the Civil War, although his commands often outnumbered those he fought against, most of the battles in which he engaged ended in defeats. The only exception was Chickamauga, which was due to the timely arrival of Lieutenant General James Longstreets corps. Most historians fault Bragg for impatience and poor treatment of others, Braxton Bragg was born in Warrenton, North Carolina, one of the six sons of Thomas and Margaret Crosland Bragg. One of his brothers was future Confederate Attorney General Thomas Bragg. He was often ridiculed as a child because of rumors about his mothers prison sentence for murdering an African American freeman. Grady McWhiney, the biographer of Braggs early life and career, states that despite these rumors. He was descended from Thomas Bragg, who was born in England, in the thousands of letters that Bragg wrote during his lifetime, he spoke fondly of his father, but never mentioned his mother. When Bragg was only ten old, his father decided on a military career for him. Eventually the oldest Bragg son, John, recently elected as a state legislator, senator Willie P. Mangum and West Point admitted Braxton at the age of 16
16.
Don Carlos Buell
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Don Carlos Buell was a United States Army officer who fought in the Seminole War, the Mexican-American War, and the American Civil War. Buell led Union armies in two great Civil War battles—Shiloh and Perryville, the nation was angry at his failure to defeat the outnumbered Confederates after Perryville, or to secure East Tennessee. Historians concur that he was brave and industrious, and a master of logistics, Buell was relieved of field command in late 1862 and made no more significant military contributions. Don Carlos Buell was born in Lowell, Ohio and he was a first cousin of George P. Buell, also a Union general. He lived in Indiana for a time before the American Civil War, Military Academy in 1841 and was commissioned a second lieutenant in the 3rd U. S. In the Mexican-American War, he served under both Zachary Taylor and Winfield Scott and he was brevetted three times for bravery and was wounded at Churubusco. Between the wars he served in the U. S. Army Adjutant Generals office and as an adjutant in California, at the start of the American Civil War, Buell was an early organizer of the Army of the Potomac and briefly commanded one of its divisions. He was promoted to general, with seniority dating from May 17,1861. In November 1861, he succeeded Brig. Gen. William T. Sherman in command at Louisville, Buells command was designated the Department of the Ohio and his troops the Army of the Ohio. Buells superiors wanted him to operate in eastern Tennessee, an area with Union sympathies, however, Buell essentially disregarded his orders and moved against Nashville instead, which he captured on February 25,1862, against little opposition. At the Battle of Shiloh, Buell reinforced Grant with three of the five divisions of the Army of the Ohio, about 20,000 men, Buell considered that his arrival was the primary reason that Grant avoided a major defeat. But Halleck needed to continually prod Buell to get his army to Pittsburg Landing in order to reinforce Grant, concentrating for a planned attack on the Confederate stronghold at Corinth. Although Buells army was only 90 miles east at Columbia, it one month to reach Pittsburg Landing. Buell considered himself the victor of the battle and denigrated Grants contribution, the commanders operated almost completely independently of each other and Buell proved slow and hesitant to commit himself. Following Shiloh, Henry Halleck arrived in person to command of Grant. The combined Union force,100,000 men strong, began an extremely sluggish pursuit against P. G. T, beauregards Army of Tennessee, which had retreated into northern Mississippi. Despite a more than 2-1 numerical advantage, Halleck took caution to an extreme, the Siege of Corinth ended in the Confederates abandoning the city on May 25. Afterwards, Halleck split up the two armies and sent Buell eastward to capture Chattanooga while Grant remained in the Corinth area
17.
George W. Johnson (governor)
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George Washington Johnson was the first Confederate governor of Kentucky. The convention created a Confederate shadow government for the Commonwealth, despite his meager political experience—having previously served only three years in the Kentucky House of Representatives—Johnson labored vehemently to ensure the success of the shadow government. Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10,1861, when Albert Sidney Johnston abandoned the Confederate capital of Bowling Green, Governor Johnson and the other government officials accompanied him. Despite his advanced age and an arm, Johnson volunteered for military service in General Johnstons army. Johnson was killed at the Battle of Shiloh, making him the state governor, Union or Confederate. He was succeeded by Richard Hawes, the second and last governor of Confederate Kentucky, George Washington Johnson was born on May 27,1811 near Georgetown in Scott County, Kentucky, the son of major William and Betsy Payne Johnson. Major Johnson died soon after the close of the War of 1812, in which he was a participant, and George Johnson was reared in the home of his stepfather, John Allen. Johnson received three degrees from Transylvania University, an A. B. in 1829, an LL. B. in 1832, on August 20,1833, he married Ann Eliza Viley, daughter of Captain Willa and Lydia Smith Viley. The couple had ten children, seven of whom lived to adulthood, Johnson briefly practiced law in Georgetown, but decided he preferred farming. He owned a 300-acre farm near Georgetown, as well as a 1, in 1838, Johnson was elected as a Democrat to the Kentucky House of Representatives. He was offered the nominations for lieutenant governor and U. S. Congressman, in August 1845, Johnson headed the Committee of Sixty that seized abolitionist Cassius M. Clays printing press and shipped it to Cincinnati, Ohio. Breckinridge for president in 1860, he did not feel that Abraham Lincolns election justified secession, as the Confederate States of America were formed, however, Johnson began to lose hope for Kentucky as a part of the Union. In 1861, Johnson traveled to Richmond, Virginia to ask Jefferson Davis to respect Kentuckys neutrality in the Civil War. Following a near sweep of Kentuckys state and federal elections by Union sympathizers, William Bull Nelson established Camp Dick Robinson, southern sympathizers saw this as a breach of the Commonwealths neutrality, and called a State Rights Convention on September 10,1861. Johnson was among the delegates from seventy Kentucky counties who attended the convention, the delegates elected Richard Hawes as chair, called for a restoration of Kentuckys neutrality in the war, and condemned the Federal government for its invasion. From Virginia, Johnson traveled through Tennessee to Bowling Green where, despite his age, Johnson chaired the committee that authored the conventions final report, and personally introduced some of its key resolutions. The report called for a sovereignty convention to sever ties with the Federal government, Johnson, Breckinridge, and Humphrey Marshall were among the notable members of the Committee of Ten that made arrangements for the convention. On November 18,1861,116 delegates representing 68 Kentucky counties convened at the Clark House in Russellville, over the next three days, a shadow government was established with Bowling Green as its temporary capital
18.
Battle of Shiloh
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The Battle of Shiloh, also known as the Battle of Pittsburg Landing, was a major battle in the Western Theater of the American Civil War, fought April 6–7,1862, in southwestern Tennessee. A Union force known as the Army of the Tennessee under Major General Ulysses S. T. Beauregard, launched an attack on Grants army from its base in Corinth. Johnston was killed in action during the fighting, Beauregard, who succeeded to command of the army. Overnight Grant was reinforced by one of his own divisions stationed further north and was joined by three divisions from another Union army under Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell. This allowed them to launch a counterattack the next morning which completely reversed the Confederate gains of the previous day. On April 6, the first day of the battle, the Confederates struck with the intention of driving the Union defenders away from the river, Johnston hoped to defeat Grants army before the anticipated arrival of General Buells Army of the Ohio. The Confederate battle lines became confused during the fighting, and Grants men instead fell back to the northeast. A Union position on a sunken road, nicknamed the Hornets Nest. Benjamin Prentisss and William H. L. Wallaces divisions, provided critical time for the remainder of the Union line to stabilize under the protection of artillery batteries. Wallace was mortally wounded when the position collapsed, while several regiments from the two divisions were surrounded and surrendered. General Johnston was shot in the leg and bled to death while leading an attack. Beauregard, his second in command, acknowledged how tired the army was from the days exertions, Confederate forces were forced to retreat from the area, ending their hopes of blocking the Union advance into northern Mississippi. Smiths orders were to lead raids intended to capture or damage the railroads in southwestern Tennessee, Brig. Gen. William T. Shermans troops arrived from Paducah, Kentucky, to conduct a similar mission to break the railroads near Eastport, Mississippi. Halleck also ordered Grant to advance his Army of West Tennessee on an invasion up the Tennessee River, Grant left Fort Henry and headed upriver, arriving at Savannah, Tennessee, on March 14, and established his headquarters on the east bank of the river. Grants troops set up camp farther upriver, five divisions at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee, meanwhile, Hallecks command was enlarged through consolidation of Grants and Buells armies and renamed the Department of the Mississippi. With Buells Army of the Ohio under his command, Halleck ordered Buell to concentrate with Grant at Savannah, Buell began a march with much of his army from Nashville, Tennessee, and headed southwest toward Savannah. The railroad was a supply line connecting the Mississippi River at Memphis, Tennessee to Richmond. Maj. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant developed a reputation during the war for being concerned with his own plans than with those of the enemy
19.
Richard Hawes
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Richard Hawes was a United States Representative from Kentucky and the second Confederate Governor of Kentucky. He was part of the politically influential Hawes family and his brother, uncle, and cousin also served as U. S. Representatives, and his grandson Harry B. Hawes was a member of the United States Senate, Hawes began his political career as an ardent Whig and was a close friend of the partys founder, Henry Clay. When the party declined and dissolved in the 1850s, Hawes became a Democrat, at the outbreak of the Civil War, Hawes was a supporter of Kentuckys doctrine of armed neutrality. When the Commonwealths neutrality was breached in September 1861, Hawes fled to Virginia, when Kentuckys Confederate government was formed in Russellville, Hawes was offered the position of state auditor, but declined. Months later, he was selected to be Confederate governor of the Commonwealth following George W. Johnsons death at the Battle of Shiloh. The ceremony was interrupted, however, by forces under Union general Don Carlos Buell, Hawes relocated to Virginia, where he continued to lobby President Jefferson Davis to attempt another invasion of Kentucky. At the end of the war, the Confederate government of Kentucky in exile ceased to exist and he swore an oath of allegiance to the Union, and was allowed to return to his law practice. He was elected county judge of Bourbon County, a post he held until his death in 1877, Richard Hawes was born on February 6,1797 near Bowling Green, Caroline County, Virginia. He was one of children born to Richard and Clara Walker Hawes. The Haweses were a family, Richards brother, Albert Gallatin Hawes, nephew, Aylett Hawes. In 1810, the moved to Kentucky, settling in Fayette County. Part of Hawess early education was obtained through the Jessamine County school conducted by Samuel Wilson, on November 13,1818, Hawes married Hetty Morrison Nicholas of Lexington. He pursued classical studies at Transylvania University, then studied law under Robert C, Hawes and Wickliffe became law partners upon the formers admission to the bar in 1818. Due to overcrowding of the bar in Lexington, Hawes moved to Winchester in 1824, while there, he became part owner of a rope and bagging factory with Benjamin H. Buckner. Hawes began his career in 1828 when he was elected as a Whig to represent Clark County. As a member of the militia, Hawes saw limited service in the Black Hawk War in 1832. He was a candidate for U. S
20.
Ohio River
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The Ohio River, which streams westward from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to Cairo, Illinois, is the largest tributary, by volume, of the Mississippi River in the United States. The 981-mile river flows through or along the border of six states, through its largest tributary, the Tennessee River, the basin includes many of the states of the southeastern U. S. It is the source of drinking water for three million people and it is named in Iroquoian or Seneca, Ohi, yó, lit. Good River or Shawnee, Pelewathiipi and Spelewathiipi, the river had great significance in the history of the Native Americans, as numerous civilizations formed along its valley. For thousands of years, Native Americans used the river as a major transportation, in 1669, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle led a French expedition to the Ohio River, becoming the first Europeans to see it. After European-American settlement, the served as a border between present-day Kentucky and Indian Territories. It was a transportation route for pioneers during the westward expansion of the early U. S. In his Notes on the State of Virginia published in 1781–82, Thomas Jefferson stated and its current gentle, waters clear, and bosom smooth and unbroken by rocks and rapids, a single instance only excepted. During the 19th century, the river was the boundary of the Northwest Territory. Where the river was narrow, it was the way to freedom for thousands of slaves escaping to the North, many helped by free blacks and whites of the Underground Railroad resistance movement. The Ohio River is a transition area, as its water runs along the periphery of the humid subtropical. It is inhabited by fauna and flora of both climates, in winter, it regularly freezes over at Pittsburgh but rarely further south toward Cincinnati and Louisville. At Paducah, Kentucky, in the south, near the Ohios confluence with the Mississippi, Paducah was founded there because it is the northernmost ice-free reach of the Ohio. The Ohio River is formed by the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers at Point State Park in Pittsburgh, from there, it flows northwest through Allegheny and Beaver counties, before making an abrupt turn to the south-southwest at the West Virginia–Ohio–Pennsylvania triple-state line. From there, it forms the border between West Virginia and Ohio, upstream of Wheeling, West Virginia, the river then follows a roughly southwest and then west-northwest course until Cincinnati, before bending to a west-southwest course for most of its length. The course forms the borders of West Virginia and Kentucky. The Ohio drains parts of 15 states in four regions, northeast New York, a small area of the southern border along the headwaters of the Allegheny. Pennsylvania, a corridor from the corner to north central border
21.
Pittsburgh
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Pittsburgh is a city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in the United States, and is the county seat of Allegheny County. The city proper has a population of 304,391. The metropolitan population of 2,353,045 is the largest in both the Ohio Valley and Appalachia, the second-largest in Pennsylvania, and the 26th-largest in the U. S. The city features 30 skyscrapers, two inclines, a fortification and the Point State Park at the confluence of the rivers. Aside from steel, Pittsburgh has led in manufacturing of aluminum, glass, shipbuilding, petroleum, foods, sports, transportation, computing, autos, and electronics. For part of the 20th century, Pittsburgh was behind only New York and Chicago in corporate headquarters employment, Americas 1980s deindustrialization laid off area blue-collar workers and thousands of downtown white-collar workers when the longtime Pittsburgh-based world headquarters moved out. The area has served also as the federal agency headquarters for cyber defense, software engineering, robotics, energy research. The area is home to 68 colleges and universities, including research and development leaders Carnegie Mellon University, the region is a hub for Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design, sustainable energy, and energy extraction. Pittsburgh was named in 1758 by General John Forbes, in honor of British statesman William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham. The current pronunciation, which is unusual in English speaking countries, is almost certainly a result of a printing error in some copies of the City Charter of March 18,1816. The error was repeated commonly enough throughout the rest of the 19th century that the pronunciation was lost. After a public campaign the original spelling was restored by the United States Board on Geographic Names in 1911. The area of the Ohio headwaters was long inhabited by the Shawnee, the first known European to enter the region was the French explorer/trader Robert de La Salle from Quebec during his 1669 expedition down the Ohio River. European pioneers, primarily Dutch, followed in the early 18th century, Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a 1717 manuscript, and later that year European fur traders established area posts and settlements. In 1749, French soldiers from Quebec launched an expedition to the forks to unite Canada with French Louisiana via the rivers, during 1753–54, the British hastily built Fort Prince George before a larger French force drove them off. The French built Fort Duquesne based on LaSalles 1669 claims, the French and Indian War, the North American front of the Seven Years War, began with the future Pittsburgh as its center. British General Edward Braddock was dispatched with Major George Washington as his aide to take Fort Duquesne, the British and colonial force were defeated at Braddocks Field. General John Forbes finally took the forks in 1758, Forbes began construction on Fort Pitt, named after William Pitt the Elder while the settlement was named Pittsborough
22.
Cincinnati
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Cincinnati is a city in the U. S. state of Ohio that serves as county seat of Hamilton County. Settled in 1788, the city is located on the side of the confluence of the Licking with the Ohio River. With a population of 298,550, Cincinnati is the third-largest city in Ohio and its metropolitan statistical area is the 28th-largest in the United States and the largest centered in Ohio. The city is part of the larger Cincinnati–Middletown–Wilmington combined statistical area. In the 19th century, Cincinnati was an American boomtown in the heart of the country, it rivaled the larger cities in size. Throughout much of the 19th century, it was listed among the top 10 U. S and it was by far the largest city in the west. By the end of the 19th century, with the shift from steamboats to railroads drawing off freight shipping, trade patterns had altered and Cincinnatis growth slowed considerably. Cincinnati is home to two sports teams, the Cincinnati Reds, the oldest franchise in Major League Baseball. The University of Cincinnati, founded in 1819, is one of the 50 largest in the United States, Cincinnati is known for its historic architecture. In the late 1800s, Cincinnati was commonly referred to as Paris of America, due mainly to such ambitious projects as the Music Hall, Cincinnatian Hotel. The original surveyor, John Filson, named it Losantiville, in 1790, Arthur St. Ethnic Germans were among the early settlers, migrating from Pennsylvania and the backcountry of Virginia and Tennessee. General David Ziegler succeeded General St. Clair in command at Fort Washington, after the conclusion of the Northwest Indian Wars and removal of Native Americans to the west, he was elected as the mayor of Cincinnati in 1802. Cincinnati was incorporated as a city in 1819, exporting pork products and hay, it became a center of pork processing in the region. From 1810 to 1830 its population tripled, from 9,642 to 24,831. Completion of the Miami and Erie Canal in 1827 to Middletown, Ohio further stimulated businesses, the city had a labor shortage until large waves of immigration by Irish and Germans in the late 1840s. The city grew rapidly over the two decades, reaching 115,000 persons by 1850. Construction on the Miami and Erie Canal began on July 21,1825, the first section of the canal was opened for business in 1827. In 1827, the canal connected Cincinnati to nearby Middletown, by 1840, during this period of rapid expansion and prominence, residents of Cincinnati began referring to the city as the Queen City
23.
Slavery in the United States
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Slavery had been practiced in British North America from early colonial days, and was legal in all Thirteen Colonies at the time of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. By the time of the American Revolution, the status of slave had been institutionalized as a racial caste associated with African ancestry, when the United States Constitution was ratified, a relatively small number of free people of color were among the voting citizens. During and immediately following the Revolutionary War, abolitionist laws were passed in most Northern states, most of these states had a higher proportion of free labor than in the South and economies based on different industries. They abolished slavery by the end of the 18th century, some with gradual systems that kept adults as slaves for two decades. But the rapid expansion of the industry in the Deep South after the invention of the cotton gin greatly increased demand for slave labor. Congress during the Jefferson administration prohibited the importation of slaves, effective in 1808, domestic slave trading, however, continued at a rapid pace, driven by labor demands from the development of cotton plantations in the Deep South. More than one million slaves were sold from the Upper South, which had a surplus of labor, New communities of African-American culture were developed in the Deep South, and the total slave population in the South eventually reached 4 million before liberation. As the West was developed for settlement, the Southern state governments wanted to keep a balance between the number of slave and free states to maintain a balance of power in Congress. The new territories acquired from Britain, France, and Mexico were the subject of major political compromises, by 1850, the newly rich cotton-growing South was threatening to secede from the Union, and tensions continued to rise. When Abraham Lincoln won the 1860 election on a platform of halting the expansion of slavery, the first six states to secede held the greatest number of slaves in the South. Shortly after, the Civil War began when Confederate forces attacked the US Armys Fort Sumter, four additional slave states then seceded. In the early years of the Chesapeake Bay settlements, colonial officials found it difficult to attract and retain laborers under the frontier conditions. Most laborers came from Britain as indentured servants, having signed contracts of indenture to pay with work for their passage, their upkeep and training and these indentured servants were young people who intended to become permanent residents. In some cases, convicted criminals were transported to the colonies as indentured servants, the indentured servants were not slaves, but were required to work for four to seven years in Virginia to pay the cost of their passage and maintenance. Historians estimate that more than half of all immigrants to the English colonies of North America during the 17th and 18th centuries came as indentured servants. The number of indentured servants among immigrants was particularly high in the South, many Germans, Scots-Irish, and Irish came to the colonies in the 18th century, settling in the backcountry of Pennsylvania and further south. The planters in the South found that the problem with indentured servants was that many left after several years, just when they had become skilled. In addition, an economy in England in the late 17th
24.
United States presidential election, 1860
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The United States presidential election of 1860 was the nineteenth quadrennial presidential election to select the President and Vice President of the United States. The election was held on Tuesday, November 6,1860, the United States had been divided during the 1850s on questions surrounding the expansion of slavery and the rights of slave owners. Incumbent President James Buchanan, like his predecessor Franklin Pierce, was a northerner with sympathies for the South and he recommended that Supreme Court Justice Robert Grier vote proslavery in the Dred Scott v. Sandford case of 1857. This was so unpopular it backfired on Buchanans presidency, allowing the Republican Party to win a majority in the House in 1858, in 1860, these issues broke the Democratic Party into Northern and Southern factions, and a new Constitutional Union Party appeared. In the face of an opposition, the newly created Republican Party secured a majority of the electoral votes. The 1860 presidential election marked the end of the Souths political dominance over the nation, moreover, since 1791, Southerners had comprised a majority of the Supreme Court. The 1860 presidential election conventions were unusually tumultuous, due in particular to a split in the Democratic Party that led to rival conventions, three other candidates, Isaac Toucey from Connecticut, James Pearce from Maryland, and Jefferson Davis from Mississippi also received votes. Douglas, a moderate on the slavery issue who favored “popular sovereignty”, was ahead on the first ballot, on the 57th ballot, Douglas was still ahead, but 51.5 votes short of nomination. In desperation, the agreed on May 3 to stop voting. The Democrats convened again at the Front Street Theater in Baltimore, Maryland and this time,110 Southern delegates walked out when the convention would not adopt a resolution supporting extending slavery into territories whose voters did not want it. Some considered Horatio Seymour a compromise candidate for the National Democratic nomination at the convention in Baltimore. Seymour wrote a letter to the editor of his local newspaper declaring unreservedly that he was not a candidate for either spot on the ticket, after two ballots, the remaining Democrats nominated the ticket of Stephen A. Douglas from Illinois for president. Benjamin Fitzpatrick from Alabama was nominated for president, but he refused the nomination. That nomination ultimately went instead to Herschel Vespasian Johnson from Georgia, Breckinridge, Vice President of the United States Daniel S. When the Democrats reconvened in Baltimore, they rejoined and this larger group met immediately in Baltimore’s Institute Hall, with Cushing again presiding. They adopted the pro-slavery platform rejected at Charleston, and nominated Vice President John C, Breckinridge for President, and Senator Joseph Lane from Oregon for Vice President. Yancey and some of the bolters, almost entirely from the Lower South, met on June 28 in Richmond, along with the South Carolina and this convention affirmed the nominations of Breckinridge and Lane. Besides the Democratic Parties in the states, the Breckinridge/Lane ticket was also supported by the Buchanan administration
25.
John Bell (Tennessee politician)
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John Bell was an American politician, attorney, and planter. One of Tennessees most prominent antebellum politicians, he served in the House of Representatives from 1827 to 1841 and he was Speaker of the House for the 23rd Congress, and briefly served as Secretary of War during the administration of William Henry Harrison. In 1860, he ran for president as the candidate for the Constitutional Union Party, initially an ally of Andrew Jackson, Bell turned against Jackson in the mid-1830s and aligned himself with the Whig Party, a shift which earned him the nickname, The Great Apostate. He consistently battled Jacksons allies, namely James K. Polk, over such as the national bank. Following the death of Hugh Lawson White in 1840, Bell became the leader of Tennessees Whigs. After the Battle of Fort Sumter in April 1861, Bell abandoned the Union cause, John Bell was born in Mill Creek, a hamlet near Nashville, Tennessee. He was one of nine children of farmer and blacksmith Samuel Bell. His paternal grandfather, Robert Bell, had served in the American Revolution under Nathanael Greene and he graduated from Cumberland College in 1814 and studied law. He was admitted to the bar in 1816 and established a practice in Franklin. Entering politics, he ran for the Tennessee Senate in 1817. As a state senator, he supported judicial and state constitutional reform, after serving a single term, Bell declined to run for reelection and instead moved to Nashville, where he established a law partnership with Henry Crabb. In 1827, Bell ran for Tennessees 7th District seat in the U. S. House of Representatives, Bell and his opponent, Felix Grundy, engaged in a bitter campaign in which both claimed to support the initiatives of Andrew Jackson. Although Jackson eventually endorsed Grundy, Bell was more popular with younger voters, like many southern congressmen, Bell opposed the Tariff of 1828. He also opposed funding for improvements to the Cumberland Road. Congressmen from eastern states rejected this, however, stating that Tennessees mismanagement of its land resources was not the governments fault. During Bells second term, he was chairman of the House Committee on Indian Affairs, as such, he wrote the Indian Removal Act, which was submitted by the committee in February 1830, and signed by President Jackson later that year. This act led to the removal of the Cherokee and other tribes to Oklahoma, via the Trail of Tears, one of the bills most vocal opponents was Massachusetts congressman Edward Everett, Bells future running mate. Following the shake-up of Jacksons cabinet in the wake of the Petticoat affair in 1831, Senator Hugh Lawson White recommended Bell for Secretary of War, Bell nevertheless remained a staunch Jackson ally through his third term, opposing nullification and supporting the Force Bill
26.
John C. Breckinridge
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John Cabell Breckinridge was a lawyer, politician, and soldier from the U. S. state of Kentucky. He represented the state in both houses of Congress and became the 14th and youngest-ever Vice President of the United States and he served in the U. S. Senate during the outbreak of the American Civil War, but was expelled after joining the Confederate Army. He remains the only Senator of the United States convicted of treason against the United States of America by the Senate and he was appointed Confederate Secretary of War late in the war. Elected to the U. S. House of Representatives in 1851, after reapportionment in 1854 made his re-election unlikely, he declined to run for another term. The Democrats won the election, but Breckinridge had little influence with Buchanan and, as presiding officer of the Senate, in 1859, he was elected to succeed U. S. Senator John J. Crittenden at the end of Crittendens term in 1861, as vice president, Breckinridge joined with Buchanan in supporting the pro-slavery Lecompton Constitution for Kansas, which led to a split in the Democratic Party. The Southern wing was led by Breckinridge, doughfaced Northerner Buchanan, and the northern wing, a third party, the Constitutional Union Party, nominated John Bell. Taking his seat in the Senate, he urged compromise to preserve the Union although seven states had already seceded, Unionists took control of the state legislature when Kentuckys neutrality was breached. After this occurred, Breckinridge fled behind Confederate battle lines where he was commissioned a brigadier general, following the Battle of Shiloh in April 1862, he was promoted to major general, and in October he was assigned to the Army of Mississippi under General Braxton Bragg. After participating in Jubal Earlys 1864 campaigns in the Shenandoah Valley, Breckinridge was charged with defending Confederate supplies in Tennessee, in February 1865, Confederate President Jefferson Davis appointed him Secretary of War. Concluding that the war was hopeless, he urged Davis to arrange a national surrender, after the fall of the Confederate capital at Richmond, he ensured the preservation of Confederate military and governmental records. He traveled south from Richmond and managed to capture by Federal forces. He then fled to Cuba, Great Britain, and finally, in exile, he toured Europe from August 1866 to June 1868. When President Andrew Johnson extended amnesty to all former Confederates in late 1868, he returned to Kentucky, War injuries sapped his health, and after two operations, he died on May 17,1875. John Cabell Breckinridge was born at Thorn Hill, his familys estate near Lexington, Kentucky, the fourth of six children born to Joseph Cabell and Mary Clay Breckinridge, he was their only son. His mother was the daughter of Samuel Stanhope Smith, who founded Hampden–Sydney College in 1775, and granddaughter of John Witherspoon, having previously served as Speaker of the Kentucky House of Representatives, his father had been appointed Kentuckys Secretary of State just prior to his sons birth. In February, the family moved with Governor John Adair to the Governors Mansion in Frankfort, in August 1823, an illness referred to as the prevailing fever struck Frankfort, and Cabell Breckinridge took his children to stay with his mother in Lexington. On his return, both he and his wife fell ill, he died, but she survived and his assets were not enough to pay his debts, and his wife joined the children in Lexington, supported by her mother-in-law
27.
Stephen A. Douglas
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Stephen Arnold Douglas was an American politician from Illinois and the designer of the Kansas–Nebraska Act. He was a U. S. representative, a U. S. senator, Douglas had previously defeated Lincoln in a Senate contest, noted for the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858. He was nicknamed the Little Giant because he was short in physical stature, Douglas was well known as a resourceful party leader, and an adroit, ready, skillful tactician in debate and passage of legislation. He was a champion of the Young America movement which sought to modernize politics and replace the agrarian, as chairman of the Committee on Territories, Douglas dominated the Senate in the 1850s. Opposition to this led to the formation of the Republican Party, Douglas initially endorsed the Dred Scott decision of 1857. But during the 1858 Senate campaign, he argued its effect could be negated by popular sovereignty and he also opposed the efforts of President James Buchanan and his Southern allies to enact a Federal slave code and impose the Lecompton Constitution on Kansas. In 1860, the conflict over slavery led to the split in the Democratic Party in the 1860 Convention, hardline pro-slavery Southerners rejected Douglas, and nominated their own candidate, Vice President John C. Breckinridge, while the Northern Democrats nominated Douglas, Douglas deeply believed in democracy, arguing the will of the people should always be decisive. When civil war came in April 1861, he rallied his supporters to the Union cause with all his energies and he was born Stephen Arnold Douglass in Brandon, Vermont, to Stephen Arnold Douglass and Sarah Fisk. Douglas dropped the s from his name some years later. His father, a physician and Middlebury College graduate, died suddenly when Stephen was just a few months old and he grew up with his mother and was educated in the local schools. As a teenager, he was apprenticed to a cabinetmaker in Middlebury and his mother remarried in 1830 and moved to western New York. Although he wished to attend Middlebury College like his father, his family couldnt support his continued formal education, instead, he began to teach school while studying law with Walter and Levi Hubbell. While studying law he became friendly with Henry B, payne, a law student in another attorneys office. Payne later became a prominent businessman and politician in Cleveland, Ohio, in 1833 Douglas migrated first to Cleveland, and then to Winchester, Illinois, where he served as an itinerant teacher and opened a school for three months at three dollars a pupil. He then settled in Jacksonville, Illinois, where he was admitted to the bar, Douglas became a member of the Masonic fraternity in Springfield Lodge No.4 in Springfield, Illinois in 1839. He was a member of several Masonic organizations in Springfield, in March 1847 he married Martha Martin, the 21-year-old daughter of wealthy Colonel Robert Martin of North Carolina. The year after their marriage, her father died and bequeathed Martha a 2, 500-acre cotton plantation with 100 slaves on the Pearl River in Lawrence County, Mississippi
28.
Abraham Lincoln
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Abraham Lincoln was an American politician and lawyer who served as the 16th President of the United States from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln led the United States through its Civil War—its bloodiest war and perhaps its greatest moral, constitutional, in doing so, he preserved the Union, abolished slavery, strengthened the federal government, and modernized the economy. Born in Hodgenville, Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the frontier in Kentucky. Largely self-educated, he became a lawyer in Illinois, a Whig Party leader, elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1846, Lincoln promoted rapid modernization of the economy through banks, tariffs, and railroads. Reentering politics in 1854, he became a leader in building the new Republican Party, in 1860, Lincoln secured the Republican Party presidential nomination as a moderate from a swing state. Though he gained little support in the slaveholding states of the South. Subsequently, on April 12,1861, a Confederate attack on Fort Sumter inspired the North to enthusiastically rally behind the Union. Politically, Lincoln fought back by pitting his opponents against each other, by carefully planned political patronage and his Gettysburg Address became an iconic endorsement of the principles of nationalism, republicanism, equal rights, liberty, and democracy. Lincoln initially concentrated on the military and political dimensions of the war and his primary goal was to reunite the nation. He suspended habeas corpus, leading to the ex parte Merryman decision. Lincoln closely supervised the war effort, especially the selection of top generals, including his most successful general, Lincoln tried repeatedly to capture the Confederate capital at Richmond, each time a general failed, Lincoln substituted another, until finally Grant succeeded. As the war progressed, his moves toward ending slavery included the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863. On April 14,1865, five days after the surrender of Confederate commanding general Robert E. Lee, Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth, a Confederate sympathizer. Secretary of War Edwin Stanton launched a manhunt for Booth, and 12 days later on April 26, Lincoln has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as among the greatest U. S. presidents. Abraham Lincoln was born February 12,1809, the child of Thomas and Nancy Hanks Lincoln, in a one-room log cabin on the Sinking Spring Farm near Hodgenville. He was a descendant of Samuel Lincoln, an Englishman who migrated from Hingham, Norfolk to its namesake of Hingham, samuels grandson and great-grandson began the familys western migration, which passed through New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Virginia. Lincolns paternal grandfather and namesake, Captain Abraham Lincoln, moved the family from Virginia to Jefferson County, Captain Lincoln was killed in an Indian raid in 1786. His children, including eight-year-old Thomas, the presidents father
29.
Ordinance of Secession
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The Ordinance of Secession was the document drafted and ratified in 1860 and 1861 by each of the southern states formally seceding from the United States of America. Each state ratified its own ordinance of secession, typically by means of a special convention delegation or by a general referendum, the seceded states formed the Confederate States of America. During the Civil War, the states of Missouri and Kentucky had competing confederate, missouris ordinance was approved by a legislative session called by Claiborne Fox Jackson, the pro-confederate governor. Kentuckys was approved by a convention of 200 people representing 65 counties of the state, the Confederacy officially ceded both of these states in 1862, though they were contested throughout the war. Virginias ordinance was approved by a referendum but rejected by 26 counties in the north and west of the state, georgia, Mississippi, South Carolina, and Texas also issued separate declarations of causes, in which they explained their reasons for secession. Virginias Ordinance of Secession Text and original document from the Library of Virginia, virginias Ordinance of Secession Text and original documents from the Library of Virginia and National Archives. Texas Declaration of Causes, Feb.2,1861 Text of Declaration of Causes from Texas archives
30.
States' rights
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The balance of federal powers and those powers held by the states as defined in the Supremacy Clause of the U. S. Constitution was first addressed in the case of McCulloch v. Maryland, the Supremacy Clause of the U. S. The Articles gave the government very little, if any. Gutzman argued that Governor Edmund Randolph designed the protest in the name of moderation, Gutzman argues that in 1798, Madison espoused states rights to defeat national legislation that he maintained was a threat to republicanism. During 1831–33, the South Carolina Nullifiers quoted Madison in their defense of states rights, the most vociferous supporters of states rights, such as John Randolph of Roanoke, were called Old Republicans into the 1820s and 1830s. Tate undertook a literary criticism of a book by John Taylor of Caroline. Tate argues it is structured as a forensic historiography modeled on the techniques of 18th-century Whig lawyers, Taylor believed that evidence from American history gave proof of state sovereignty within the union, against the arguments of nationalists such as U. S. Another states rights dispute occurred over the War of 1812, at the Hartford Convention of 1814–15, New England Federalists voiced opposition to President Madisons war, and discussed secession from the Union. One major and continuous strain on the union, from roughly 1820 through the Civil War, was the issue of trade, heavily dependent upon international trade, the almost entirely agricultural and export-oriented South imported most of its manufactured goods from Europe or obtained them from the North. The North, by contrast, had a growing industrial economy that viewed foreign trade as competition. Trade barriers, especially protective tariffs, were viewed as harmful to the Southern economy, in 1828, the Congress passed protective tariffs to benefit trade in the northern states, but that were detrimental to the South. Southerners vocally expressed their opposition in documents such as the South Carolina Exposition and Protest in 1828. Exposition and Protest was the work of South Carolina senator and former vice president John C, calhoun, formerly an advocate of protective tariffs and internal improvements at federal expense. South Carolinas Nullification Ordinance declared that both the tariff of 1828 and the tariff of 1832 were null and void within the borders of South Carolina. This action initiated the Nullification Crisis, over the following decades, another central dispute over states rights moved to the forefront. In contrast, opponents of slavery argued that the rights were violated both by that decision and by the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850. Exactly which—and whose—states rights were the casus belli in the Civil War remain in controversy, a major Southern argument in the 1850s was that banning slavery in the territories discriminated against states that allowed slavery, making them second-class states. In 1857 the Supreme Court sided with the states rights supporters, Southern states sometimes argued against states rights
31.
Governor of Kentucky
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The Governor of the Commonwealth of Kentucky is the head of the executive branch of government in the Commonwealth of Kentucky. Fifty-seven men and one woman have served as Governor of Kentucky, the governors term is four years in length, since 1992, incumbents have been able to seek re-election once before becoming ineligible for four years. Throughout the states history, four men have served two terms as governor, and two others have served two consecutive terms. Kentucky is one of only five U. S. states that hold gubernatorial elections in odd-numbered years immediately before the United States Presidential Election, the current governor is Matt Bevin, who was first elected in 2015. The governors powers are enumerated in the state constitution, there have been four constitutions of Kentucky—adopted in 1792,1799,1850, and 1891, respectively—and each has enlarged the governors authority. Among the powers appropriated to the governor in the constitution are the ability to grant pardons, veto legislation, the governor serves as commander-in-chief of the states military forces and is empowered to enforce all laws of the state. Because Kentuckys governor controls so many appointments to commissions, the office has been considered one of the most powerful state executive positions in the United States. The history of the office of Governor is largely one of long periods of domination by a single party, Federalists were rare among Kentuckians during the period of the First Party System, and Democratic Republicans won every gubernatorial election in the state until 1828. The Second Party System began when the Democratic-Republicans split into Jacksonian Democrats, beginning with the election of Thomas Metcalfe in 1828, the Whigs dominated the governorship until 1851, with John Breathitt being the only Democrat elected during that period. Since 1931, only four Republicans have served as governor of Kentucky, current governor Matt Bevin, in all four Kentucky constitutions, the first power enumerated to the governor is to serve as commander-in-chief of the states militia and military forces. In 1799, a stipulation was added that the governor would not personally lead troops on the battlefield unless advised to do so by a resolution of the General Assembly. Such a case occurred in 1813 when Governor Isaac Shelby, a veteran of the Revolutionary War, was asked to lead a band of Kentucky troops to aid William Henry Harrison at the Battle of the Thames. For his service, Shelby received the Thanks of Congress and the Congressional Gold Medal, the 1891 constitution further required that, with each application for a pardon, the governor file a statement of the reasons for his decision thereon, which. Shall always be open to public inspection and this requirement was first proposed by a delegate to the 1850 constitutional convention, but it was rejected at that time. The power of the governor to adjourn the General Assembly for a period of up to four months if the two houses cannot agree on a time to adjourn appears in all four constitutions, the governor is also empowered to convene the General Assembly on extraordinary occasions. This was an important provision in the days of the Commonwealth. Taylor claimed a state of insurrection existed in the capital, the 1891 constitution added a provision that the governor must specify the reason for any specially-called legislative session, and that no other business could be considered during the session. There is, however, no requirement that the legislature conduct any business during the called session
32.
Beriah Magoffin
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Beriah Magoffin was the 21st Governor of Kentucky, serving during the early part of the Civil War. Personally, Magoffin adhered to a states rights position, including the right of a state to secede from the Union, and he sympathized with the Confederate cause. Nevertheless, when the Kentucky General Assembly adopted a position of neutrality in the war, Magoffin ardently held to it, in special elections held in June 1861, Unionists captured nine of Kentuckys ten congressional seats and obtained two-thirds majorities in both houses of the state legislature. Despite Magoffins strict adherence to the policy of neutrality, the Unionist legislature did not trust him, unable to provide effective leadership due to a hostile legislature, Magoffin agreed to resign as governor in 1862, provided he could choose his successor. Lieutenant governor Linn Boyd had died in office, and Magoffin refused to allow Speaker of the Senate John F. Fisk to succeed him as governor, accordingly, Fisk resigned and the Kentucky Senate elected Magoffins choice, James F. Robinson, as speaker. Magoffin then resigned, Robinson ascended to the governorship, and Fisk was re-elected as Speaker of the Senate, after the war, he encouraged acceptance of the Union victory and passage of the Thirteenth Amendment. Magoffin County, Kentucky was named in his honor, Beriah Magoffin was born on April 18,1815 in Harrodsburg, Kentucky. He was the son of Beriah and Jane Magoffin and his father was an immigrant from County Down, Ireland, and his mother was the daughter of Samuel McAfee, a prominent pioneer in early Kentucky. Magoffins early education was obtained in the schools of Harrodsburg. In 1835, he graduated from Centre College in Danville, Kentucky, afterward, he moved to Jackson, Mississippi where he began his legal career. From 1838 to 1839, he served as Reading Clerk for the Mississippi state senate, Magoffin returned to Kentucky in 1839 due to an illness. He continued his practice in Harrodsburg, and was appointed police judge of Harrodsburg by Governor Robert P. Letcher in 1840. On April 21,1840, he married Anna Nelson Shelby, Shelby was the granddaughter of Kentuckys first and fifth governor, Isaac Shelby. Ten of the children survived infancy. Magoffin became active in the Democratic Party, serving as an elector in 1844,1848,1852, and 1856 and as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in 1848,1856,1860. He served one term in the Kentucky Senate in 1850, in 1855 was the Democratic nominee for lieutenant governor, running on a ticket with Beverly L. Clarke, who was defeated by Know Nothing candidate Charles S. Morehead. Magoffin was elected governor of Kentucky by a vote of 76,187 to 67,283 over Joshua Fry Bell and he supported states rights and the institution of slavery. Although he believed in the right of states to secede from the union, to that end, he wrote a circular letter to the governors of the slave states on December 9,1860 detailing a plan to save the Union
33.
Fugitive slave laws
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The fugitive slave laws were laws passed by the United States Congress in 1793 and 1850 to provide for the return of slaves who escaped from one state into another state or territory. The idea of the slave law was derived from the Fugitive Slave Clause which is in the United States Constitution. The Articles of Confederation of the New England Confederation of 1643 contained a clause that provided for the return of fugitive slaves, both Africans and Native Americans were slaves in the New England colonies even in the 18th century. As the colonies grew and settlers expanded into areas, slavery continued in the English territories and in former Dutch territories like New Amsterdam. Serious attempts at formulating a uniform policy for the recapture of escaped slaves began under the Articles of Confederation of the United States in 1785. There were two attempts at implementing a fugitive slave law in the Congress of the Confederation in order to provide slave owners with a way of recapturing escaped slaves. The Ordinance of 1784 was drafted by a Congressional committee headed by Thomas Jefferson and this was removed prior to final enactment of the ordinance on 23 April 1784. The unsuccessful resolution was the first attempt to include a fugitive slave provision in U. S. legislation. While the original 1784 ordinance applied to all U. S. territory that was not a part of any existing state, Congress made a further attempt to address the concerns of slave owners over runaway slaves in 1787 by passing the Northwest Ordinance of 1787. They correctly predicted that slavery would be permitted south of the Ohio River under the Southwest Ordinance of 1790, in terms of the actual law, it did not ban slavery in practice, and it continued almost until the start of the Civil War. Kings phrasing from the 1785 attempt was incorporated in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 when it was enacted on 13 July 1787, article 6 has the provision for runaway slaves, Art. Article IV of the Constitution required the government to go after runaway slaves. Section 3 is the part that deals with fugitive or runaway slaves, the said fugitive from labor to the State or Territory from which he or she fled. Section 4 makes assisting runaways and fugitives a crime and outlines the punishment for those who assisted runaway slaves,4. That any person who shall knowingly and willingly obstruct or hinder such claimant. shall. forfeit and pay the sum of five hundred dollars. In 1840, New York and Vermont extended the right of trial by jury to fugitives, both the fact of the escape and the identity of the fugitive were determined on purely ex parte testimony. If a slave was brought in and returned to the master, the personal liberty laws forbade justices and judges to take cognizance of claims, extended the Habeas corpus act and the privilege of jury trial to fugitives, and punished false testimony severely. In 1854, the Supreme Court of Wisconsin went so far as to declare the Fugitive Slave Law unconstitutional and these state laws were one of the grievances that South Carolina would later use to justify its secession from the Union. Attempts to carry into effect the law of 1850 aroused much bitterness, the arrests of Thomas Sims and of Shadrach Minkins in Boston in 1851, of Jerry M
34.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
35.
Kentucky General Assembly
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The Kentucky General Assembly, also called the Kentucky Legislature, is the state legislature of the U. S. state of Kentucky. The General Assembly meets annually in the capitol building in Frankfort, Kentucky. In even-numbered years, sessions may not last more than 60 legislative days, in odd-numbered years, sessions may not last more than 30 legislative days, and cannot extend beyond March 30. Special sessions may be called by the Governor of Kentucky at any time for any duration, the first meeting of the General Assembly occurred in 1792, shortly after Kentucky was granted statehood. Legislators convened in Lexington, the temporary capital. Among the first orders of business was choosing a permanent state capital, after women gained suffrage in Kentucky, Mary Elliott Flanery was elected to the Kentucky House of Representative from the 89th District representing Boyd County, Kentucky. When Flanery took her seat in January 1922, she was the first female legislator elected in Kentucky. Operation Boptrot lead to the conviction of more than a dozen legislators between 1992 and 1995, the investigation also led to reform legislation being passed in 1993. Officially, Kentucky remained neutral during the Civil War, however, the majority of the General Assembly had strong Union sympathies. A group of Confederate sympathizers met in Russellville to establish a Confederate government for the state, the group decided to establish the Confederate state capital in Bowling Green, but never successfully displaced the elected General Assembly in Frankfort. The General Assembly played a role in the disputed gubernatorial election of 1900. Initial vote tallies had Republican William S. Taylor leading Democrat William Goebel by a scant 2,383 votes, the General Assembly, however, wielded the final authority in election disputes. With a majority in both houses, the Democrats attempted to invalidate enough votes to give the election to Goebel, during the contentious days that followed, an unidentified assassin shot Goebel as he approached the state capitol. As Goebel hovered on the brink of death, chaos ensued in Frankfort, the Republican minority naturally heeded the call and headed to London. Democrats predictably resisted the call, many retiring to Louisville instead, both factions claimed authority, but the Republicans were too few in number to muster a quorum. The General Assembly is bicameral, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives, the House and Senate chambers are on opposite ends of the third floor of the capitol building, and legislators have offices in the nearby Capitol Annex building. Section 33 of the Kentucky Constitution requires that the General Assembly divide the state into 38 Senate and 100 House districts, districts are required to be as nearly equal in population as possible. Districts can be formed by joining more than one county, districts must be reviewed every 10 years and be re-divided if necessary
36.
Peace Conference of 1861
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The Peace Conference of 1861 was a meeting of 131 leading United States politicians in February 1861, at the Willards Hotel in Washington, D. C. on the eve of the American Civil War. The success of President Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party in the elections of 1860 led to a flurry of political activity. In much of the South, elections were held to select delegates to special conventions empowered to consider secession from the Union. In Congress, efforts were made in both the House of Representatives and the Senate to reach compromise over the issues relating to slavery that were dividing the nation, the conference was the final effort by the individual states to resolve the crisis. In December 1860 the final session of the Thirty-sixth Congress met, in the House, the Committee of Thirty-Three, led by Ohio Republican Thomas Corwin, was formed in order to reach a compromise to preserve the Union. In the Senate, former Kentucky Whig John J. Crittenden, elected as a Unionist candidate, hopes were high, especially in the Border States, that the lame duck Congress could reach a successful resolution before the new Republican administration took office. Crittendens proposals were debated by a specially selected Committee of Thirteen, Lincoln made known his objections, and the Compromise was rejected by the committee on December 22 by a vote of 7–6. Crittenden later brought the issue to the floor of the Senate as a proposal to have his compromise made subject to a national referendum, a version of their work was rejected by the House on January 7. This latter proposal would result in a de facto extension of the Missouri Compromise line for all existing territories below the line, a fourth avenue towards compromise came from the state of Virginia. Later Tyler was a delegate to the Virginia convention called to consider whether or not to follow the deep South states out of the Union. Thomas Corwin agreed to hold off any final vote on his House plan pending the final actions of the Peace Conference, no delegates were sent by the Deep South states, or by Arkansas, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, California, and Oregon. Fourteen free states and seven states were represented. Many of the came in the belief that they could be successful. Because many of the 131 delegates qualified as senior statesmen, the meeting was frequently referred to derisively as the Old Gentlemans Convention, on February 6 a separate committee charged with drafting a proposal for the entire convention to consider was formed. The committee consisted of one representative from state and was headed by James Guthrie. The entire convention met for three weeks, and its product was a proposed seven point constitutional amendment that differed little from the Crittenden Compromise. The key issue, slavery in the territories, was addressed simply by extending the Missouri Compromise line to the Pacific coast with no provision for newly acquired territory and this section barely passed by a 9–8 vote of the states. Key sections of this amendment could only be amended with the concurrence of all of the states
37.
Washington, D.C.
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Washington, D. C. formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D. C. is the capital of the United States. The signing of the Residence Act on July 16,1790, Constitution provided for a federal district under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Congress and the District is therefore not a part of any state. The states of Maryland and Virginia each donated land to form the federal district, named in honor of President George Washington, the City of Washington was founded in 1791 to serve as the new national capital. In 1846, Congress returned the land ceded by Virginia, in 1871. Washington had an population of 681,170 as of July 2016. Commuters from the surrounding Maryland and Virginia suburbs raise the population to more than one million during the workweek. The Washington metropolitan area, of which the District is a part, has a population of over 6 million, the centers of all three branches of the federal government of the United States are in the District, including the Congress, President, and Supreme Court. Washington is home to national monuments and museums, which are primarily situated on or around the National Mall. The city hosts 176 foreign embassies as well as the headquarters of international organizations, trade unions, non-profit organizations, lobbying groups. A locally elected mayor and a 13‑member council have governed the District since 1973, However, the Congress maintains supreme authority over the city and may overturn local laws. D. C. residents elect a non-voting, at-large congressional delegate to the House of Representatives, the District receives three electoral votes in presidential elections as permitted by the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1961. Various tribes of the Algonquian-speaking Piscataway people inhabited the lands around the Potomac River when Europeans first visited the area in the early 17th century, One group known as the Nacotchtank maintained settlements around the Anacostia River within the present-day District of Columbia. Conflicts with European colonists and neighboring tribes forced the relocation of the Piscataway people, some of whom established a new settlement in 1699 near Point of Rocks, Maryland. 43, published January 23,1788, James Madison argued that the new government would need authority over a national capital to provide for its own maintenance. Five years earlier, a band of unpaid soldiers besieged Congress while its members were meeting in Philadelphia, known as the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783, the event emphasized the need for the national government not to rely on any state for its own security. However, the Constitution does not specify a location for the capital, on July 9,1790, Congress passed the Residence Act, which approved the creation of a national capital on the Potomac River. The exact location was to be selected by President George Washington, formed from land donated by the states of Maryland and Virginia, the initial shape of the federal district was a square measuring 10 miles on each side, totaling 100 square miles. Two pre-existing settlements were included in the territory, the port of Georgetown, Maryland, founded in 1751, many of the stones are still standing
38.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
39.
Crittenden Compromise
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The Crittenden Compromise was an unsuccessful proposal introduced by United States Senator John J. Crittenden on December 18,1860. It aimed to resolve the crisis of 1860–1861 by addressing the fears. The compromise proposed six amendments and four Congressional resolutions. Crittenden introduced the package on December 18 and it was tabled on December 31. It guaranteed the permanent existence of slavery in the states and addressed Southern demands in regard to fugitive slaves. It proposed extending the Missouri Compromise line to the west, with slavery prohibited north of the 36° 30′ parallel, the compromise included a clause that it could not be repealed or amended. The opposition of their partys leader, President-elect Abraham Lincoln, was crucial, Republicans said the compromise would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and Tierra del Fuego. The only territories south of the line were parts of New Mexico Territory, there was considerable agreement on both sides that slavery would never flourish in New Mexico. The South refused the House Republicans proposal, approved by committee on December 29, however, not all opponents of the Crittenden Compromise also opposed further territorial expansion of the United States. The New York Times referred to the future growth of the Republic and all the Territory that can ever belong to the United States, — the whole of Mexico. Slavery would be prohibited in any territory of the United States now held, or hereafter acquired, in territories south of this line, slavery of the African race was hereby recognized and could not be interfered with by Congress. Furthermore, property in African slaves was to be protected by all the departments of the government during its continuance. States would be admitted to the Union from any territory with or without slavery as their constitutions provided, Congress was forbidden to abolish slavery in places under its jurisdiction within a slave state such as a military post. Congress could not abolish slavery in the District of Columbia so long as it existed in the states of Virginia and Maryland. Compensation would be given to owners who refused consent to abolition, Congress could not prohibit or interfere with the interstate slave trade. Congress would provide compensation to owners of rescued fugitive slaves. No future amendment of the Constitution could change these amendments or authorize or empower Congress to interfere with slavery within any slave state and that fugitive slave laws were constitutional and should be faithfully observed and executed. That all state laws which impeded the operation of fugitive slave laws and that laws for the suppression of the African slave trade should be effectively and thoroughly executed
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John J. Crittenden
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John Jordan Crittenden was a politician from the U. S. state of Kentucky. He was also the 17th governor of Kentucky and served in the state legislature, although frequently mentioned as a potential candidate for the U. S. presidency, he never consented to run for the office. During his early career, Crittenden served in the Kentucky House of Representatives and was chosen as speaker on several occasions. With the advent of the Second Party System, he allied with the National Republican Party and was a fervent supporter of Henry Clay and opponent of Democrats Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren. He was returned to the Senate in 1842, serving until 1848, Taylor was elected, but Crittenden refused a post in his cabinet, fearing he would be charged with making a corrupt bargain, as Clay had been in 1825. Following Taylors death in 1850, Crittenden resigned the governorship and accepted Millard Fillmores appointment as attorney general, as the Whig Party crumbled in the mid-1850s, Crittenden joined the Know Nothing Party. After the expiration of his term as general, he was again elected to the U. S. Senate. In December 1860, he authored the Crittenden Compromise, a series of resolutions and constitutional amendments he hoped would avert the Civil War, one of Crittendens sons, George B. Crittenden, became a general in the Confederate Army, another son, Thomas Leonidas Crittenden, became a general in the Union Army. The elder Crittenden was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1861, however, he criticized many of the policies of President Abraham Lincoln and the U. S. Congress, including the Emancipation Proclamation and the admission of West Virginia to the Union. He continued to work for reconciliation of the states throughout his time in office and he declared his candidacy for re-election to the House in 1863, but died before the election took place. John Jordan Crittenden was born September 10,1787, near Versailles and he was the second child and first son of Revolutionary War veteran John Crittenden and his wife Judith Harris. John and Judith Crittenden had four sons and five daughters, all, on his fathers side, he was of Welsh ancestry, while his mothers family was French Huguenot. His father had surveyed land in Kentucky with George Rogers Clark, two of Crittendens brothers, Thomas and Robert, became lawyers, while the third, Henry, was a farmer. Crittenden began a college preparatory curriculum at Pisgah Academy in Woodford County and he was then sent to a boarding school in Jessamine County. Among his classmates were Thomas Alexander Marshall and Francis P. Blair, Crittenden became especially close friends with Blair, and later political differences did little to diminish their friendship. After a year at boarding school, Crittenden moved to the Lexington, Kentucky and he began his tertiary studies at Washington College in Lexington, Virginia. During his brief tenure there, he studied mathematics and belles-lettres, Crittenden was dissatisfied with the curriculum at Washington College and matriculated to the College of William and Mary
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Fort Sumter
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Fort Sumter is a sea fort in Charleston, South Carolina, notable for two battles of the American Civil War. It was one of a number of forts planned after the War of 1812, combining high walls and heavy masonry. Work started in 1829, but was incomplete by 1860, when South Carolina seceded from the Union, the First Battle of Fort Sumter opened on April 12,1861, when Confederate artillery fired on the Union garrison. These were the first shots of the war, and continued all day, the fort had been cut off from its supply line and surrendered the next day. The Second Battle of Fort Sumter was an attempt by the Union to retake the fort. Although the fort was reduced to rubble, it remained in Confederate hands until it was evacuated as General Sherman marched through South Carolina in February 1865, Fort Sumter is open for public tours as part of the Fort Sumter National Monument operated by the National Park Service. Named after General Thomas Sumter, Revolutionary War hero, Fort Sumter was built following the War of 1812, construction began in 1829, and the structure was still unfinished in 1861, when the Civil War began. Seventy thousand tons of granite were imported from New England to build up a bar in the entrance to Charleston Harbor. The fort was a brick structure,170 to 190 feet long, with walls five feet thick. It was designed to house 650 men and 135 guns in three tiers of gun emplacements, although it was never filled near its full capacity and he secretly relocated companies E and H of the 1st U. S. Artillery to Fort Sumter on his own initiative, without orders from his superiors and he thought that providing a stronger defense would delay an attack by South Carolina militia. The fort was not yet complete at the time and fewer than half of the cannons that should have been available were in place, due to military downsizing by President James Buchanan. Over the next few months repeated calls for evacuation of Fort Sumter from the government of South Carolina, artillery, and three hired tug boats with added protection against small arms fire to be used to tow troop and supply barges directly to Fort Sumter. By April 6,1861 the first ships began to set sail for their rendezvous off the Charleston Bar, the first to arrive was Harriet Lane, the evening of April 11,1861. On Thursday, April 11,1861, Beauregard sent three aides, Colonel James Chesnut, Jr, captain Stephen D. Lee, and Lieutenant A. R. Chisolm to demand the surrender of the fort. Anderson declined, and the returned to report to Beauregard. After Beauregard had consulted the Confederate Secretary of War, Leroy Walker, he sent the aides back to the fort, the aides waited for hours while Anderson considered his alternatives and played for time. The aides then left the fort and proceeded to the nearby Fort Johnson, There, Chesnut ordered the fort to open fire on Fort Sumter
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Telegraphy
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Telegraphy is the long-distance transmission of textual or symbolic messages without the physical exchange of an object bearing the message. Thus semaphore is a method of telegraphy, whereas pigeon post is not, telegraphy requires that the method used for encoding the message be known to both sender and receiver. Such methods are designed according to the limits of the medium used. The use of signals, beacons, reflected light signals. In the 19th century, the harnessing of electricity led to the invention of electrical telegraphy, the advent of radio in the early 20th century brought about radiotelegraphy and other forms of wireless telegraphy. The word telegraph was first coined by the French inventor of the Semaphore line, Claude Chappe, a telegraph is a device for transmitting and receiving messages over long distances, i. e. for telegraphy. The word telegraph alone now generally refers to an electrical telegraph, Wireless telegraphy is also known as CW, for continuous wave, as opposed to the earlier radio technique of using a spark gap. Contrary to the definition used by Chappe, Morse argued that the term telegraph can strictly be applied only to systems that transmit. This is to be distinguished from semaphore, which transmits messages. Smoke signals, for instance, are to be considered semaphore, according to Morse, telegraph dates only from 1832 when Pavel Schilling invented one of the earliest electrical telegraphs. A telegraph message sent by a telegraph operator or telegrapher using Morse code was known as a telegram. A cablegram was a sent by a submarine telegraph cable. Later, a Telex was a sent by a Telex network. A wire picture or wire photo was a picture that was sent from a remote location by a facsimile telegraph. A diplomatic telegram, also known as a cable, is the term given to a confidential communication between a diplomatic mission and the foreign ministry of its parent country. These continue to be called telegrams or cables regardless of the used for transmission. Commercial electrical telegraphs were introduced from 1837, the first telegraphs came in the form of optical telegraph, including the use of smoke signals, beacons, or reflected light, which have existed since ancient times. Early proposals for a telegraph system were made to the Royal Society by Robert Hooke in 1684 and were first implemented on an experimental level by Sir Richard Lovell Edgeworth in 1767
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Southern United States
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The Southern United States, commonly referred to as the American South, Dixie, or simply the South, is a region of the United States of America. The South does not fully match the geographic south of the United States, arizona and New Mexico, which are geographically in the southern part of the country, are rarely considered part, while West Virginia, which separated from Virginia in 1863, commonly is. Some scholars have proposed definitions of the South that do not coincide neatly with state boundaries, while the states of Delaware and Maryland, as well as the District of Columbia permitted slavery prior to the start of the Civil War, they remained with the Union. However, the United States Census Bureau puts them in the South, usually, the South is defined as including the southeastern and south-central United States. The region is known for its culture and history, having developed its own customs, musical styles, and cuisines, the Southern ethnic heritage is diverse and includes strong European, African, and some Native American components. Since the late 1960s, black people have many offices in Southern states, especially in the coastal states of Virginia. Historically, the South relied heavily on agriculture, and was rural until after 1945. It has since become more industrialized and urban and has attracted national and international migrants, the American South is now among the fastest-growing areas in the United States. Houston is the largest city in the Southern United States, sociological research indicates that Southern collective identity stems from political, demographic, and cultural distinctiveness from the rest of the United States. The region contains almost all of the Bible Belt, an area of high Protestant church attendance and predominantly conservative, indeed, studies have shown that Southerners are more conservative than non-Southerners in several areas, including religion, morality, international relations and race relations. Apart from its climate, the experience in the South increasingly resembles the rest of the nation. The arrival of millions of Northerners and millions of Hispanics meant the introduction of cultural values, the process has worked both ways, however, with aspects of Southern culture spreading throughout a greater portion of the rest of the United States in a process termed Southernization. The question of how to define the subregions in the South has been the focus of research for nearly a century, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, the Southern region of the United States includes sixteen states. As of 2010, an estimated 114,555,744 people, or thirty-seven percent of all U. S. residents, lived in the South, the nations most populous region. Other terms related to the South include, The Old South, the New South, usually including the South Atlantic States. The Solid South, region largely controlled by the Democratic Party from 1877 to 1964, before that, blacks were elected to national office and many to local office through the 1880s, Populist-Republican coalitions gained victories for Fusionist candidates for governors in the 1890s. Includes at least all the 11 former Confederate States, Southeastern United States, usually including the Carolinas, the Virginias, Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida. The Deep South, various definitions, usually including Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, occasionally, parts of adjoining states are included
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Jackson Purchase
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Although officially part of Kentucky at its statehood in 1792, the land did not come under definitive U. S. control until 1818, when Andrew Jackson purchased it from the Chickasaw Indians. Historically, this region has been considered the most Southern of Kentucky, jacksons Purchase also included all of Tennessee west of the Tennessee River. However, in modern usage the term only to the Kentucky portion of the Jackson Purchase. The southern portion is simply called West Tennessee, the Purchase comprised what is now seven counties, with a combined land area of 3,394.8 square miles, about 6.03 percent of Kentuckys land area. Its 2010 census population was 196,365 inhabitants, equal to 4.53 percent of the states population, Paducah, the largest city and main economic center, has just over 25,000 residents. The regions other two largest cities, Murray and Mayfield, have about 18,000 and 10,000 residents respectively, the main educational institution is Murray State University. Together with the portion of the Tennessee River north of Kentucky Dam, for well over a century, it provided such overwhelming margins for Democratic candidates that Kentucky Democrats routinely called it the Gibraltar of Democracy. The most widely circulated newspaper and media outlet in the Purchase, due to changing demographics, most counties in the Purchase in the early 21st century have populations that are overwhelmingly white. Many African Americans left the area after the Civil War and in the Great Migration of the 20th century, during the Civil War, the Purchase was the area of strongest support for the Confederate cause. On May 29,1861, a group of Southern sympathizers from Kentucky, most records of the event were lost, possibly in an 1864 fire that destroyed the courthouse. After the War the region heightened its sense of being Southern, but, the surviving records of the meeting, authored by a Union sympathizer, make no mention of this resolution. Historian Berry Craig states that the believed the whole of Kentucky would eventually secede. The convention nominated Henry Burnett to represent Kentuckys First District in Congress, the Mayfield Convention was a precursor to the later Russellville Convention, which formed the provisional Confederate government of Kentucky. Since the late 20th century, the Purchase has voted for Republicans in national elections while giving higher percentages to candidates of the Democratic Party in state and this trend is similar to realignment among white conservatives in other parts of the South. As of 2004, however, the delegation in the Kentucky General Assembly included both Republican Party and Democratic Party representatives. For the first time in history, that year the region elected Republicans for both of its two state senators, the Purchase is within Kentuckys 1st congressional district. As of November 6,2012, 67% of all Purchase voters are registered Democrats, in keeping with the South generally, Purchase Democrats are more conservative than many in the national party. Notable people from the region include, Alben W. Barkley, Vice President of the United States, 1949-1953, United States Senate Majority Leader, the Jackson Purchase, A Dramatic Chapter in Southern Indian Policy and Relations
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Cumberland River
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The Cumberland River is a major waterway of the Southern United States. The 688-mile-long river drains almost 18,000 square miles of southern Kentucky, the river flows generally west from a source in the Appalachian Mountains to its confluence with the Ohio River near Paducah, Kentucky, and the mouth of the Tennessee River. Major tributaries include the Obey, Caney Fork, Stones, although the Cumberland River basin is predominantly rural, there are also some large cities on the river, including Nashville and Clarksville, both in Tennessee. In addition, the system has been extensively developed for flood control. Its headwaters are three separate forks that begin in Kentucky and converge in its Harlan County, Martins Fork starts in Hensley Settlement on Brush Mountain in Bell County and snakes its way north through the mountains to Baxter. Clover Fork starts on Black Mountain in Holmes Mill, near the Virginia border, poor Fork begins as a small stream on Pine Mountain in Letcher County near Flat Gap, Virginia. It flows southwest in parallel with Pine Mountain until it merges with the two forks in Baxter. From there, the river continues flowing west through the mountains of Kentucky. The 68-foot falls is one of the largest waterfalls in the southeastern United States and is one of the few places in the Western Hemisphere where a moonbow can be seen. Beyond Cumberland Falls, the river turns abruptly west once again and continues to grow as it converges with other creeks and it receives the Laurel and Rockcastle Rivers from the northeast and then the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River from the south. From here it flows into the man-made Lake Cumberland, formed by Wolf Creek Dam, the more than 100-mile reservoir is one of the largest artificial lakes in the eastern US. Near Celina, the river crosses south into Tennessee, where it is joined by the Obey River, northeast of Nashville, the river is dammed twice more, forming Cordell Hull Lake and Old Hickory Lake. After flowing through Nashville and picking up the Stones River, the river is dammed to form Cheatham Lake, finally, the river flows north and merges with the Ohio River at Smithland, northeast of Paducah. The explorer Thomas Walker of Virginia in 1758 named the river, the Cumberland River was called Wasioto by the Shawnee Native Americans, who lived in this area. French traders called it the Riviere des Chaouanons, or river of the Shawnee for this association, the river was also known as the Shawnee River for years after Walkers trip. Important first as a passage for hunters and settlers, the Cumberland River also supported later riverboat trade, villages, towns, and cities were located at landing points along its banks. Through the middle of the 19th century, settlers depended on rivers as the transportation routes for trading. In more recent history, a number of floods have struck various regions that the river flows through
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Tennessee River
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The Tennessee River is the largest tributary of the Ohio River. It is approximately 652 miles long and is located in the southeastern United States in the Tennessee Valley. The river was once known as the Cherokee River, among other names, as many of the Cherokee had their territory along its banks, especially in eastern Tennessee. Its current name is derived from the Cherokee village Tanasi, the Tennessee River is formed at the confluence of the Holston and French Broad rivers on the east side of present-day Knoxville, Tennessee. From Knoxville, it flows southwest through East Tennessee toward Chattanooga before crossing into Alabama and it loops through northern Alabama and eventually forms a small part of the states border with Mississippi, before returning to Tennessee. At this point, it defines the boundary between two of Tennessees Grand Divisions, Middle and West Tennessee and this waterway reduces the navigation distance from Tennessee, north Alabama, and northern Mississippi to the Gulf of Mexico by hundreds of miles. The final part of the Tennessees run is in Kentucky, where it separates the Jackson Purchase from the rest of the state and it flows into the Ohio River at Paducah, Kentucky. The river has been dammed numerous times, primarily in the 20th century by Tennessee Valley Authority projects since the 1930s, a navigation canal located at Grand Rivers, Kentucky, links Kentucky Lake and Lake Barkley. The canal allows for a trip for river traffic going from the Tennessee to most of the Ohio River. Maps from the early 18th century call it Cussate, Hogohegee, Callamaco, a 1755 British map showed the Tennessee River as the River of the Cherakees. By the late 18th century, it had come to be called Tennessee, the river was a major highway to transport goods and explorers in the years when Tennessee was not yet settled. Some major towns that still exist today, and major ports at them were established by those who rode down the river, and settled along it. The Tennessee River begins at mile post 652, where the French Broad River meets the Holston River, in the late 18th century, the mouth of the Little Tennessee River was considered to be the beginning of the Tennessee River. Through much of the 19th century, the Tennessee River was considered to start at the mouth of Clinch River, at various points since the early 19th century, Georgia has disputed its northern border with Tennessee. Georgia made several attempts to correct what Georgia felt was an erroneous survey line in the 1890s,1905,1915,1922,1941,1947 and 1971 to resolve the dispute. Crews Townsend, Joseph McCoin, Robert F. Parsley, Alison Martin and Zachary H. Greene, writing for the Tennessee Bar Journal, a publication of the Tennessee Bar Association, appearing on May 12,2008. In 2008, as a result of a drought and resulting water shortage. In a two-page resolution passed overwhelmingly by the senate, Georgia declared that it, not its neighbor to the north
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Election boycott
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An election boycott is the boycotting of an election by a group of voters, each of whom abstains from voting. In jurisdictions with compulsory voting, a boycott may amount to an act of disobedience, alternatively. Boycotting voters may belong to a regional or ethnic group. A particular political party or candidate may refuse to run in the election, in the case of a referendum, a boycott may be used as a voting tactic by opponents of the proposition. If the referendum requires a turnout to be valid, the boycott may prevent this quorum being reached. This tactic, however, can prove disastrous for the boycotting parties, in South Africa, the three largest independent social movements boycott the vote under the banner of the No Land. Other social movements in parts of the world also have similar campaigns or non-voting preferences. These include the Naxalites in India, the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Mexico, in Mexicos mid term 2009 elections there was strong support for Nulo—a campaign to vote for no one. In India poor peoples movements in Singur, Nandigram and Lalgarh have rejected parliamentary politics, abstention, an individual not voting Abstentionism, running in an election to a deliberative assembly but refusing to take any seats won
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