1.
National Register of Historic Places
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The National Register of Historic Places is the United States federal governments official list of districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects deemed worthy of preservation. The passage of the National Historic Preservation Act in 1966 established the National Register, of the more than one million properties on the National Register,80,000 are listed individually. The remainder are contributing resources within historic districts, each year approximately 30,000 properties are added to the National Register as part of districts or by individual listings. For most of its history the National Register has been administered by the National Park Service and its goals are to help property owners and interest groups, such as the National Trust for Historic Preservation, coordinate, identify, and protect historic sites in the United States. While National Register listings are mostly symbolic, their recognition of significance provides some financial incentive to owners of listed properties, protection of the property is not guaranteed. During the nomination process, the property is evaluated in terms of the four criteria for inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places, the application of those criteria has been the subject of criticism by academics of history and preservation, as well as the public and politicians. Occasionally, historic sites outside the proper, but associated with the United States are also listed. Properties can be nominated in a variety of forms, including individual properties, historic districts, the Register categorizes general listings into one of five types of properties, district, site, structure, building, or object. National Register Historic Districts are defined geographical areas consisting of contributing and non-contributing properties, some properties are added automatically to the National Register when they become administered by the National Park Service. These include National Historic Landmarks, National Historic Sites, National Historical Parks, National Military Parks/Battlefields, National Memorials, on October 15,1966, the Historic Preservation Act created the National Register of Historic Places and the corresponding State Historic Preservation Offices. Initially, the National Register consisted of the National Historic Landmarks designated before the Registers creation, approval of the act, which was amended in 1980 and 1992, represented the first time the United States had a broad-based historic preservation policy. To administer the newly created National Register of Historic Places, the National Park Service of the U. S. Department of the Interior, hartzog, Jr. established an administrative division named the Office of Archeology and Historic Preservation. Hartzog charged OAHP with creating the National Register program mandated by the 1966 law, ernest Connally was the Offices first director. Within OAHP new divisions were created to deal with the National Register, the first official Keeper of the Register was William J. Murtagh, an architectural historian. During the Registers earliest years in the late 1960s and early 1970s, organization was lax and SHPOs were small, understaffed, and underfunded. A few years later in 1979, the NPS history programs affiliated with both the U. S. National Parks system and the National Register were categorized formally into two Assistant Directorates. Established were the Assistant Directorate for Archeology and Historic Preservation and the Assistant Directorate for Park Historic Preservation, from 1978 until 1981, the main agency for the National Register was the Heritage Conservation and Recreation Service of the United States Department of the Interior. In February 1983, the two assistant directorates were merged to promote efficiency and recognize the interdependency of their programs, jerry L. Rogers was selected to direct this newly merged associate directorate
2.
National Historic Landmark
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A National Historic Landmark is a building, district, object, site, or structure that is officially recognized by the United States government for its outstanding historical significance. Of over 85,000 places listed on the countrys National Register of Historic Places, a National Historic Landmark District may include contributing properties that are buildings, structures, sites or objects, and it may include non-contributing properties. Contributing properties may or may not also be separately listed, prior to 1935, efforts to preserve cultural heritage of national importance were made by piecemeal efforts of the United States Congress. The first National Historic Site designation was made for the Salem Maritime National Historic Site on March 17,1938. In 1960, the National Park Service took on the administration of the data gathered under this legislation. Because listings often triggered local preservation laws, legislation in 1980 amended the procedures to require owner agreement to the designations. On October 9,1960,92 properties were announced as designated NHLs by Secretary of the Interior Fred A. Seaton, more than 2,500 NHLs have been designated. Most, but not all, are in the United States, there are NHLs in all 50 states and the District of Columbia. Three states account for nearly 25 percent of the nations NHLs, three cities within these states all separately have more NHLs than 40 of the 50 states. In fact, New York City alone has more NHLs than all but five states, Virginia, California, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, there are 74 NHLs in the District of Columbia. Some NHLs are in U. S. commonwealths and territories, associated states, and foreign states. There are 15 in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and other U. S. commonwealths and territories,5 in U. S. -associated states such as Micronesia, over 100 ships or shipwrecks have been designated as NHLs. About half of the National Historic Landmarks are privately owned, the National Historic Landmarks Program relies on suggestions for new designations from the National Park Service, which also assists in maintaining the landmarks. A friends group of owners and managers, the National Historic Landmark Stewards Association, works to preserve, protect, if not already listed on the National Register of Historic Places, an NHL is automatically added to the Register upon designation. About three percent of Register listings are NHLs, american Water Landmark List of U. S
3.
New Haven, Connecticut
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New Haven, in the U. S. state of Connecticut, is the principal municipality in Greater New Haven, which had a total population of 862,477 in 2010. It is located on New Haven Harbor on the shore of Long Island Sound in New Haven County, Connecticut. It is the second-largest city in Connecticut, with a population of 129,779 people as of the 2010 United States Census, according to a census of 1 July 2012, by the Census Bureau, the city had a population of 130,741. New Haven was founded in 1638 by English Puritans, and a year later eight streets were laid out in a four-by-four grid, the central common block is the New Haven Green, a 16-acre square, and the center of Downtown New Haven. The Green is now a National Historic Landmark and the Nine Square Plan is recognized by the American Planning Association as a National Planning Landmark, New Haven is the home of Yale University. The university is an part of the citys economy, being New Havens biggest taxpayer and employer. Health care, professional services, financial services, and retail trade also help to form a base for the city. The city served as co-capital of Connecticut from 1701 until 1873, New Haven has since billed itself as the Cultural Capital of Connecticut for its supply of established theaters, museums, and music venues. New Haven is also the birthplace of George W. Bush, New Haven had the first public tree planting program in America, producing a canopy of mature trees that gave New Haven the nickname The Elm City. The area was visited by Dutch explorer Adriaen Block in 1614. Dutch traders set up a trading system of beaver pelts with the local inhabitants, but trade was sporadic. In 1637 a small party of Puritans reconnoitered the New Haven harbor area, the Quinnipiacs, who were under attack by neighboring Pequots, sold their land to the settlers in return for protection. By 1640, the theocratic government and nine-square grid plan were in place. However, the north of New Haven remained Quinnipiac until 1678. The settlement became the headquarters of the New Haven Colony, at the time, the New Haven Colony was separate from the Connecticut Colony, which had been established to the north centering on Hartford. Economic disaster struck the colony in 1646, however, when the town sent its first fully loaded ship of goods back to England. This ship never reached the Old World, and its disappearance stymied New Havens development in the face of the rising power of Boston. In 1660, founder John Davenports wishes were fulfilled, and Hopkins School was founded in New Haven with money from the estate of Edward Hopkins, in 1661, the judges who had signed the death warrant of Charles I of England were pursued by Charles II
4.
Connecticut
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Connecticut is the southernmost state in the New England region of the northeastern United States. Connecticut is also often grouped along with New York and New Jersey as the Tri-State Area and it is bordered by Rhode Island to the east, Massachusetts to the north, New York to the west, and Long Island Sound to the south. Its capital city is Hartford, and its most populous city is Bridgeport, the state is named for the Connecticut River, a major U. S. river that approximately bisects the state. The word Connecticut is derived from various anglicized spellings of an Algonquian word for long tidal river, Connecticut is the third smallest state by area, the 29th most populous, and the fourth most densely populated of the 50 United States. It is known as the Constitution State, the Nutmeg State, the Provisions State, and it was influential in the development of the federal government of the United States. Connecticuts center of population is in Cheshire, New Haven County, Connecticuts first European settlers were Dutch. They established a small, short-lived settlement in present-day Hartford at the confluence of the Park, initially, half of Connecticut was a part of the Dutch colony New Netherland, which included much of the land between the Connecticut and Delaware rivers. The first major settlements were established in the 1630s by England, the Connecticut and New Haven Colonies established documents of Fundamental Orders, considered the first constitutions in North America. In 1662, the three colonies were merged under a charter, making Connecticut a crown colony. This colony was one of the Thirteen Colonies that revolted against British rule in the American Revolution, the Connecticut River, Thames River, and ports along the Long Island Sound have given Connecticut a strong maritime tradition which continues today. The state also has a history of hosting the financial services industry, including insurance companies in Hartford. As of the 2010 Census, Connecticut features the highest per-capita income, Human Development Index, and median household income in the United States. Landmarks and Cities of Connecticut Connecticut is bordered on the south by Long Island Sound, on the west by New York, on the north by Massachusetts, and on the east by Rhode Island. The state capital and third largest city is Hartford, and other cities and towns include Bridgeport, New Haven, Stamford, Waterbury, Norwalk, Danbury, New Britain, Greenwich. Connecticut is slightly larger than the country of Montenegro, there are 169 incorporated towns in Connecticut. The highest peak in Connecticut is Bear Mountain in Salisbury in the northwest corner of the state, the highest point is just east of where Connecticut, Massachusetts, and New York meet, on the southern slope of Mount Frissell, whose peak lies nearby in Massachusetts. At the opposite extreme, many of the towns have areas that are less than 20 feet above sea level. Connecticut has a maritime history and a reputation based on that history—yet the state has no direct oceanfront
5.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
6.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
7.
Georgian architecture
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Georgian architecture is the name given in most English-speaking countries to the set of architectural styles current between 1714 and 1830. It is eponymous for the first four British monarchs of the House of Hanover—George I, George II, George III, and George IV—who reigned in continuous succession from August 1714 to June 1830. The style of Georgian buildings is very variable, but marked by a taste for symmetry and proportion based on the architecture of Greece and Rome. Ornament is also normally in the tradition, but typically rather restrained. In towns, which expanded greatly during the period, landowners turned into property developers, even the wealthy were persuaded to live in these in town, especially if provided with a square of garden in front of the house. There was an amount of building in the period, all over the English-speaking world. The period saw the growth of a distinct and trained architectural profession, before the mid-century the high-sounding title and this contrasted with earlier styles, which were primarily disseminated among craftsmen through the direct experience of the apprenticeship system. Authors such as the prolific William Halfpenny published editions in America as well as Britain, mail-order kit homes were also popular before World War II. The architect James Gibbs was a figure, his earlier buildings are Baroque, reflecting the time he spent in Rome in the early 18th century. Other prominent architects of the early Georgian period include James Paine, Robert Taylor, and John Wood, the styles that resulted fall within several categories. In the mainstream of Georgian style were both Palladian architecture—and its whimsical alternatives, Gothic and Chinoiserie, which were the English-speaking worlds equivalent of European Rococo. John Nash was one of the most prolific architects of the late Georgian era known as The Regency style, greek Revival architecture was added to the repertory, beginning around 1750, but increasing in popularity after 1800. Leading exponents were William Wilkins and Robert Smirke, regularity of housefronts along a street was a desirable feature of Georgian town planning. In Britain brick or stone are almost invariably used, brick is often disguised with stucco, in America and other colonies wood remained very common, as its availability and cost-ratio with the other materials was more favourable. Versions of revived Palladian architecture dominated English country house architecture, Houses were increasingly placed in grand landscaped settings, and large houses were generally made wide and relatively shallow, largely to look more impressive from a distance. The height was usually highest in the centre, and the Baroque emphasis on corner pavilions often found on the continent generally avoided, in grand houses, an entrance hall led to steps up to a piano nobile or mezzanine floor where the main reception rooms were. A single block was typical, with a perhaps a small court for carriages at the front marked off by railings and a gate, but rarely a stone gatehouse, or side wings around the court. Windows in all types of buildings were large and regularly placed on a grid, this was partly to minimize window tax and their height increasingly varied between the floors, and they increasingly began below waist-height in the main rooms, making a small balcony desirable
8.
Douglas Orr
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Douglas William Orr was an American architect based in New Haven, Connecticut. Born in Meriden, Connecticut, he was prolific and designed many public and commercial buildings and he was president of the American Institute of Architects from 1947 to 1949. In 1949, he helped to renovate the White House. He died in 1966 in Stony Creek, Connecticut and his portfolio included many other academic projects, among them buildings at Mt. Holyoke and Hollins Colleges and memorial chapels at the Coast Guard and Merchant Marine Academies. He was a member of the U. S. Orr was also an academician of the American Architectural Foundation, a fellow of the American Institute of Architects, and a member of the National Academy of Design. Late in his career, Orr established a partnership with architects William deCossy and Frank Winder, the firm was then called Douglas Orr, deCossy, Winder, Orr worked in art deco and colonial revival as well as more modern styles. World War I memorial flagpole, New Haven Green,1928 The Eli, art deco masterpiece on the National Register. New Haven Lawn Club The Farnam Guest House,616 Prospect Street, New Haven, georgian revival built for Henry W. Farnam. Willoughby Wallace Memorial Library, Stony Creek, Connecticut,1958, robert A. Taft Memorial and Carillon, Washington, DC,1959 One Church Street, New Haven,1961. Interior lobbies faced with Stony Creek granite, Laboratory of Epidemiology and Public Health, Yale University,1964 Lippard Laboratory of Clinical Investigation, Yale-New Haven Hospital,1965 Community Services Building, New Haven,1965
9.
Old Campus (Yale University)
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The Old Campus is the oldest area of the Yale University campus in New Haven, Connecticut. It is the residence of Yale College freshmen and also contains offices for the academic departments of Classics, English, Comparative Literature. Fourteen buildings—including eight dormitories and two chapels—surround a 4-acre courtyard with an entrance from the New Haven Green known as Phelps Gate. The Old Campus comprised most of Yale Colleges grounds between its arrival in New Haven in 1718 and its 20th-century expansion and it was joined by Connecticut Hall in 1750, a student dormitory and Yales only surviving building from the colonial era. A linear building plan established in 1792, known as Old Brick Row, was the first campus plan in the United States, after 1870, the original plan gave way to the current quadrangle of dormitories, academic buildings, and chapels. Although the current buildings have been renovated and their uses changed during the twentieth century, when Yale College moved to New Haven in 1718, the town constructed its first building, the College House, at the corner of College and Chapel Streets, where Bingham Hall now stands. The wood-framed structure contained all the functions of the college, student rooms, a library, falling into disrepair, this building was torn down in stages from 1775 to 1782. Beginning in 1750 with the construction of Connecticut Hall, a student dormitory. A chapel, later known as the Atheneum, joined the dormitory in 1761, trumbulls drawings chose Stiles linear pattern, interleaving narrow, steepled buildings between long student dormitories. By 1824, Old Brick Row included four student dormitories, then known as colleges, around the Brick Row at this time were a chemical laboratory, a mineralogical building, and the Second Presidents House, replacing one north of Elm Street. The college gradually purchased parcels of land until it controlled the whole block by 1857, properties owned by Amos Doolittle and Benjamin Franklin were consolidated and demolished, as were the town jail and poorhouse. On newly acquired land surrounding Old Brick Row, administrators built the Trumbull Gallery, Divinity College, the College Library, of the fourteen Yale buildings completed by 1850, only two, Connecticut Hall and the College Library, would stand fifty years later, and both survive today. In 1870, Yale President Noah Porter announced the gradual abandoment and removal of the present buildings of the Brick Row, where before it had been most pretegious to live off campus, the new dormitories became fashionable as the preserve of seniors. When Yales residential colleges were opened in 1933, the Old Campus transitioned to a home for the common Freshman Year, in 1833, a picket fence encircling the campus was replaced with a rail fence, causing a major shift in the social patterns of the Old Campus. The Yale Fence, a fence with square posts and round rails that ran three sides of Old Brick Row, was the colleges primary gathering place thereafter. Students would claim sections by class year, with seniors taking choice seats along Chapel Street, however, as the modern quadrangle took form, the fence was gradually uprooted. In 1888, the displacement of its last section for Osborn Hall caused 2,100 alumni to write in protest, the Yale Fence Club, an undergraduate fraternal organization, was named in its memory. The fence currently lining the Old Campus interior courtyard is modeled after the old fence, Old Campus houses freshmen from ten of Yale Colleges twelve residential colleges
10.
Yale University
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Yale University is an American private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Founded in 1701 in Saybrook Colony to train Congregationalist ministers, it is the third-oldest institution of education in the United States. The Collegiate School moved to New Haven in 1716, and shortly after was renamed Yale College in recognition of a gift from British East India Company governor Elihu Yale. Originally restricted to theology and sacred languages, the curriculum began to incorporate humanities and sciences by the time of the American Revolution. In the 19th century the school introduced graduate and professional instruction, awarding the first Ph. D. in the United States in 1861 and organizing as a university in 1887. Yale is organized into fourteen constituent schools, the undergraduate college, the Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. While the university is governed by the Yale Corporation, each schools faculty oversees its curriculum, the universitys assets include an endowment valued at $25.4 billion as of June 2016, the second largest of any U. S. educational institution. The Yale University Library, serving all constituent schools, holds more than 15 million volumes and is the third-largest academic library in the United States, Yale College undergraduates follow a liberal arts curriculum with departmental majors and are organized into a social system of residential colleges. Almost all faculty teach courses, more than 2,000 of which are offered annually. Students compete intercollegiately as the Yale Bulldogs in the NCAA Division I – Ivy League, Yale has graduated many notable alumni, including five U. S. Presidents,19 U. S. Supreme Court Justices,20 living billionaires, and many heads of state. In addition, Yale has graduated hundreds of members of Congress,57 Nobel laureates,5 Fields Medalists,247 Rhodes Scholars, and 119 Marshall Scholars have been affiliated with the University. Yale traces its beginnings to An Act for Liberty to Erect a Collegiate School, passed by the General Court of the Colony of Connecticut on October 9,1701, the Act was an effort to create an institution to train ministers and lay leadership for Connecticut. Soon thereafter, a group of ten Congregationalist ministers, Samuel Andrew, Thomas Buckingham, Israel Chauncy, Samuel Mather, the group, led by James Pierpont, is now known as The Founders. Originally known as the Collegiate School, the institution opened in the home of its first rector, Abraham Pierson, the school moved to Saybrook, and then Wethersfield. In 1716 the college moved to New Haven, Connecticut, the feud caused the Mathers to champion the success of the Collegiate School in the hope that it would maintain the Puritan religious orthodoxy in a way that Harvard had not. Cotton Mather suggested that the school change its name to Yale College, meanwhile, a Harvard graduate working in England convinced some 180 prominent intellectuals that they should donate books to Yale. The 1714 shipment of 500 books represented the best of modern English literature, science, philosophy and it had a profound effect on intellectuals at Yale. Undergraduate Jonathan Edwards discovered John Lockes works and developed his original theology known as the new divinity
11.
Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences
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The Yale Graduate School of Arts and Sciences is the graduate school of Yale University. Founded in 1847, it is the oldest graduate school in North America, while doctoral programs are also available in five of Yales professional schools, students are enrolled through the graduate school, which confers their degrees. The school is administered in four divisions—Humanities, Social Sciences, and Biological and Physical Sciences—and its faculty are divided into 52 departments, nineteen of these programs terminate with the master’s degree. The Graduate School enrolls approximately 2,800 students, one-third of whom come from outside the United States, approximately 900 faculty are involved with the graduate students as teachers, mentors, and advisors. Most of these faculty also teach in Yale College, the school of the university. The Department was also the precursor of the Sheffield Scientific School, the program offered seminars in chemistry and metallurgy, agricultural science, Greek and Latin literature, mathematics, philology, and Arabic. Following the model of German research universities, the Scientific School faculty established a Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1860. At Commencement in July 1861, the awarded the first three Ph. D. s in North America to Eugene Schuyler, Arthur Williams Wright. NYUs School of Practical and Analytical Chemistry, the University of Pennsylvania, Harvard University, in 1892, seven years after Yale organized as a university, the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences was officially formed, and Arthur Twining Hadley was appointed dean. Hadley became Yales 13th president in 1899, in 1920, the Graduate School was assigned its own governing board, and under Dean Wilbur Lucius Cross, it attracted a large and distinguished scholarly faculty. Beginning in the nineteenth century, race and gender restrictions on graduate admissions were gradually relaxed. In 1876 Edward Alexander Bouchet received a doctorate in Physics, becoming the first African American to earn a Ph. D. in the United States, women were admitted into the Graduate School in 1892. A Hall of Graduate Studies for the school was completed in 1932, in 1996, the McDougal Graduate Student Center was established in the Hall of Graduate Studies. It now has professional staff to head offices of Teaching Fellow Preparation and Development, Graduate Career Services, the Graduate Student Assembly was established in 1997. Most Graduate School faculty are members of the Yale Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the largest faculty of the universitys schools and the same faculty body that governs the Yale College curriculum. The Faculty of Arts and Sciences is organized into 40 departments, which administer the Graduate Schools four divisions, Humanities, Social Sciences, Biological Sciences, some members of Yales professional school faculties are also members of the Graduate School faculty, which permits them to advise doctoral candidates. A Dean of the Graduate School, appointed by the Yale Corporation, is the chief administrator. The position is held by geneticist Lynn Cooley
12.
Colonial colleges
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The colonial colleges are nine institutions of higher education chartered in the American Colonies before the United States of America became a sovereign nation after the American Revolution. These nine have long been considered together, notably in the survey of their origins in the 1907 The Cambridge History of English and American Literature. Seven of the nine colonial colleges are part of the Ivy League athletic conference, Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Columbia, University of Pennsylvania, Brown, and Dartmouth. The two colonial colleges not in the Ivy League are now both public universities—the College of William & Mary in Virginia and Rutgers University in New Jersey, William & Mary was a royal institution from 1693 until the American Revolution. Between the Revolution and the American Civil War, William & Mary was a private institution and it suffered significant damage during the Civil War and began to receive public support in the 1880s. William & Mary officially became a college in 1906. Seven of the nine colonial colleges began their histories as institutions of higher learning de novo, Dartmouth College began operating in 1768 as the collegiate department of Moors Charity School, a secondary school started in 1754 by Dartmouth founder Eleazar Wheelock. Dartmouth considers its founding date to be 1769, when it was granted a collegiate charter, listed below are the founding dates of the schools which served as predecessor entities and the years in which they were chartered to operate an institution of higher learning. First university in the United States
13.
Yale College
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Yale College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Yale University. Founded in 1701, it is the school of the university. Originally established to train Congregationalist ministers, the college began teaching humanities, at the same time, students began organizing extracurricular organizations, first literary societies, and later publications, sports teams, and singing groups. By the mid-19th century, it was the largest college in the United States, in 1847, it was joined by another undergraduate degree-granting school at Yale, the Sheffield Scientific School, which was absorbed into the college in the mid-20th century. The most distinctive feature of life is the schools system of residential colleges, established in 1932. All undergraduates live in these colleges after their year, when most live on the schools Old Campus. The Collegiate School was founded in 1701 by a charter drawn by ten congregationalist ministers led by James Pierpont, originally situated in Abraham Piersons home in Killingworth, Connecticut, the college moved to New Haven in 1718 and was renamed for Elihu Yale, an early benefactor. Founded as a school to train ministers, original curriculum included only coursework in theology, later in the century, William Graham Sumner, the first professor of sociology in the United States, introduced studies in the social sciences. The relaxation of curriculum came in tandem with expansion in the extracurriculum, participation and leadership in these groups was an important social signifier and a route to induction into prestigious senior societies. Thus extracurricular participation became central to student life and social advancement, by 1870, Yale was the largest undergraduate institution in the country. Two additional colleges were built by 1940, and two more in the 1960s, for most of its history, study at Yale was almost exclusively restricted to white Protestant men, often the children of alumni. Documented exceptions to this paradigm include Hawaiian native Henry ʻŌpūkahaʻia, who became a student of Yale President Timothy Dwight in 1809, pennington, who was allowed to audit theology courses in 1837. Moses Simons, a descendent of a slave-holding South Carolinian family, has suggested to be the first Jew to graduate from Yale. Though his maternal ancestry is disputed, he may have also been the first person of African American descent to graduate from any American college. In the early 20th century, the student body was predominately old-stock, high-status Protestants, especially Episcopalians, Congregationalists, by the 1970s it was much more diversified. Enrollment at Yale only became competitive in the early 20th century, as late as the 1950s, tests and demographic questionnaires for admission to the college worked to exclude non-Christian men, especially Jews, as well as non-white men. By the mid-1960s these processes were becoming more meritocratic, focusing on recruitment of a racially, economically and geographically diverse student body and this meritocratic transition encouraged the university to establish the first need-blind admissions policy in the United States. After several decades of debate about coeducation, Yale College admitted its first class of women in 1969, in recent years, the college has focused on international recruitment, quadrupling the fraction of international students admitted between 1993 and 2013
14.
Thomas Clap
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Thomas Clap, also spelled Thomas Clapp, was an American academic and educator, a Congregational Minister, and college administrator. He was both the rector and the earliest official to be called President of Yale College. He is best known for his reform of Yale in the 1740s. He convinced the Connecticut Assembly to exempt Yale from paying taxes and he opened a second college house, and doubled the size of the college, Yale graduated more students than Harvard beginning in 1756. He introduced Enlightenment math and science and Johnsons moral philosophy into the curriculum and he also helped found the Linonian Society in 1753, a literary and debating society and one of Yales oldest secret societies. He personally built the first Orrery in America, a milestone of American science and his educational accomplishments were marred by many political, theological, and polity conflicts, with first the New Light faction in Connecticut, then the Anglicans, then the Old Light faction. He fought with the Connecticut Assembly, the Yale board, and finally, with his own tutors and he was forced to resign as President of Yale in 1765, and died soon after. He entered Harvard University at age 15, graduating in 1722 and he was elected Rector of Yale College following Elisha Williamss resignation, largely because the Trustees believed he would oppose Arminianism at Yale, and was inducted in 1740. His administration was to become known for its orthodoxy, pugnaciousness, authoritarianism, in 1743, his nephew Nathan Whiting, whom he and his wife Mary had raised after the death of his parents, graduated from Yale. He was learned both in theology and in science, and constructed the first orrery in America, after the death of his first wife he married, on February 5, 1740/1, Mary Haynes. He was known as a rigid, “dogmatic and obstinate” leader who used “autocratic methods” to impose discipline at the college and it was not long before a student, David Brainerd, did so, saying that Tutor Whittelsey had no more grace than a chair, and was expelled. Jonathan Edwards, Rev. Aaron Burr, and Jonathan Dickinson unsuccessfully appealed for Brainerds reinstatement, Clap campaigned for laws to inhibit itinerant preachers and lay exhorters, and to stop the disintegration of churches by separation. Religious disputation continued to fragment to student body, who refused to submit to discipline, avoided religious instruction from the Old Lights, in 1742, Clap closed the college, sending the students home. He was supported by the General Assembly, and many of the more ardent students transferred to other institutions when Yale reopened in 1743, while he was feuding with the New Lights, Clap was partnering with the Anglicans. Beginning in 1740, he worked with the Rev. Samuel Johnson of Stratford, Connecticut and he brought math and science into Yales curriculum, and undergraduate studies in divinity were replaced by Johnsons non-denominational moral philosophy. Clap was sworn in as Yales first President on June 1,1745 and his formulation of a new code of laws for Yale in Latin became, in 1745, the first book printed in New Haven. In 1746, Clap expelled Samuel Cooke from the Yale Corporation for his role in setting up the separatist congregation in New Haven, Clap, meanwhile, was concerned by the poor preaching of Joseph Noyes, and by the initiation of Anglican services in New Haven. Both the Old Lights and the Episcopalians objected to this, in 1753, Rev. Clap agreed to let the Anglican students attend their own church
15.
Connecticut Colony
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The Connecticut Colony or Colony of Connecticut, originally known as the River Colony, was an English colony located in North America that became the U. S. state of Connecticut. It was organized on March 3,1636 as a settlement for a Puritan congregation, after early struggles with the Dutch, the English permanently gained control of the region in 1637. The colony was later the scene of a war between the English and Pequot Indians known as the Pequot War. Two other English settlements in the state of Connecticut were merged into the Colony of Connecticut, Saybrook Colony in 1644. Governor John Haynes of the Massachusetts Bay Colony led 100 people to present-day Hartford in 1636 and he and Thomas Hooker, a prominent Puritan minister, are often considered the founders of the Connecticut colony. Hooker delivered a sermon to his congregation on May 31,1638, on the principles of government, the Rev. John Davenport and merchant Theophilus Eaton led the founders of the New Haven Colony, which was absorbed into Connecticut Colony in the 1660s. In the colonys early years, the governor could not serve consecutive terms, thus, for twenty years, the governorship often rotated between John Haynes and Edward Hopkins, both of whom were from Hartford. George Wyllys, Thomas Welles, and John Webster, also Hartford men, Winthrop was also instrumental in obtaining the colonys 1662 charter, which incorporated New Haven into Connecticut. His son Fitz-John Winthrop also governed the colony for ten years, major John Mason was the military leader of the early colony, the commander in the Pequot War, a magistrate, founder of Windsor, Saybrook, and Norwich, and Deputy Governor under Winthrop. Roger Ludlow was an Oxford-educated lawyer and former Deputy Governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony who petitioned the General Court for rights to settle the area, Ludlow led the March Commission in settling disputes over land rights. He is credited as drafting the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut in collaboration with Hooker, Winthrop, Ludlow was the first Deputy Governor of Connecticut. William Leete of Guilford served as governor of New Haven Colony before the merger into Connecticut. He is the man to serve as governor of both New Haven and Connecticut. Robert Treat of Milford served as governor of the colony, both prior to and after its inclusion in Sir Edmund Andross Dominion of New England and his father Richard Treat was one of the original patentees of the colony. The original colonies along the Connecticut River and in New Haven were established by separatist Puritans who were connected with the Massachusetts and they held Calvinist religious beliefs similar to the English Puritans, but they maintained that their congregations needed to be separated from the English state church. They had emigrated to New England during the Great Migration, the American Revolution cut off imports from Britain, and stimulated a manufacturing sector that made heavy use of the entrepreneurship and mechanical skills of the people. In the second half of the 18th century, difficulties arose from the shortage of farmland, periodic money problems. In agriculture there was a shift from grain to animal products, Connecticuts domestic architecture included a wide variety of house forms
16.
Privateer
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A privateer was a private person or ship that engaged in maritime warfare under a commission of war. Captured ships were subject to condemnation and sale under prize law, a percentage share usually went to the issuer of the commission. Since robbery under arms was common to trade, all merchant ships were already armed. During war, naval resources were auxiliary to operations on land so privateering was a way of subsidizing state power by mobilizing armed ships, the letter of marque of a privateer would typically limit activity to one particular ship, and specified officers. Typically, the owners or captain would be required to post a performance bond, in the United Kingdom, letters of marque were revoked for various offences. Some crews were treated as harshly as naval crews of the time, some crews were made up of professional merchant seamen, others of pirates, debtors, and convicts. Some privateers ended up becoming pirates, not just in the eyes of their enemies, william Kidd, for instance, began as a legitimate British privateer but was later hanged for piracy. The investors would arm the vessels and recruit large crews, much larger than a merchantman or a vessel would carry. Privateers generally cruised independently, but it was not unknown for them to form squadrons, a number of privateers were part of the English fleet that opposed the Spanish Armada in 1588. Privateers generally avoided encounters with warships, as such encounters would be at best unprofitable, for instance, in 1815 Chasseur encountered HMS St Lawrence, herself a former American privateer, mistaking her for a merchantman until too late, in this instance, however, the privateer prevailed. The United States used mixed squadrons of frigates and privateers in the American Revolutionary War, the practice dated to at least the 13th century but the word itself was coined sometime in the mid-17th century. England, and later the United Kingdom, used privateers to great effect and these privately owned merchant ships, licensed by the crown, could legitimately take vessels that were deemed pirates. The increase in competition for crews on armed merchant vessels and privateers was due, in a large part, because of the chance for a considerable payoff. Whereas a seaman who shipped on a vessel was paid a wage and provided with victuals. This proved to be a far more attractive prospect and privateering flourished as a result, during Queen Elizabeths reign, she encouraged the development of this supplementary navy. Over the course of her rule, she had allowed Anglo-Spanish relations to deteriorate to the point where one could argue that a war with the Spanish was inevitable. By using privateers, if the Spanish were to take offense at the plundering of their ships, some of the most famous privateers that later fought in the Anglo-Spanish War included the Sea Dogs. In the late 16th century, English ships cruised in the Caribbean and off the coast of Spain, at this early stage the idea of a regular navy was not present, so there is little to distinguish the activity of English privateers from regular naval warfare
17.
Connecticut General Assembly
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The Connecticut General Assembly is the state legislature of the U. S. state of Connecticut. It is a body composed of the 151-member House of Representatives. It meets in the capital, Hartford. There are no limits for either chamber. During even-numbered years, the General Assembly is in session from February to May, in odd-numbered years, when the state budget is completed, session lasts from January to June. During the first half of session, the House and Senate typically meet on Wednesdays only, though by the end of the session, they meet daily due to increased workload and deadlines. The three settlements that would become Connecticut were established in 1633, and were governed by the Massachusetts Bay Company under terms of a commission for settlement. Although the magistrates and deputies sat together, they voted separately, the Charter of 1662 changed the name to the General Assembly, while replacing the six magistrates with twelve assistants and reducing the number of deputies per town to no more than two. In 1698, the General Assembly divided itself into its current bicameral form, with the assistants as the Council. The modern form of the General Assembly was incorporated in the 1818 constitution, members of the General Assembly, regardless of chamber, serve two-year terms, there are no term limits imposed on them. The 2017–18 House is made up of 72 Republicans and 79 Democrats, while the 2017–18 Senate has 17 Republicans and 17 Democrats, special elections are scheduled for February 28,2017, to fill the two vacant seats. Political scientists consider the General Assembly to be a part-time, professionally run state legislature, most legislators have jobs aside from their political positions, and aside from leadership, few are present at the Capitol Monday through Friday. All legislators are expected to be present for session, or days when their chambers are in session, the Speaker of the House is Democrat Rep. Brendan Sharkey of Hamden and the President Pro Tempore is Sen. Martin M. Looney of Hamden. The Speaker or one of his Deputies officiates over all House proceedings, while the Lieutenant Governor, legislation is introduced before each chamber by the majority or minority leader. Traditionally, the majority and minority leaders represent urban or large suburban areas, in the current House, the majority leader is Democrat Rep. Joe Aresimowicz of Berlin, the minority leader is Republican Themis Klarides of Derby. In the Senate, the majority leader is Democrat Bob Duff of Norwalk, most of the General Assemblys committee and caucus meetings are held in the modern Legislative Office Building, while the House and Senate sessions are held in the State Capitol. The two buildings are connected via a tunnel known as the Concourse, which stretches underneath an off-ramp of Interstate 84. Most offices for legislators and their aides are also housed in the LOB, each committee has its own office space, with most being located in the LOB
18.
Harvard College
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Harvard College is the undergraduate liberal arts college of Harvard University. Founded in 1636 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is the oldest institution of learning in the United States. The school came into existence in 1636 by vote of the Great and General Court of the Massachusetts Bay Colony—though without a single building, in 1638, the college became home for North Americas first known printing press, carried by the ship John of London. Three years later, the college was renamed in honor of deceased Charlestown minister John Harvard who had bequeathed to the school his entire library, Harvards first instructor was schoolmaster Nathaniel Eaton, in 1639, he also became its first instructor to be dismissed, for overstrict discipline. The schools first students were graduated in 1642, in 1665, Caleb Cheeshahteaumuck from the Wampanoag … did graduate from Harvard, the first Indian to do so in the colonial period. The colleges of Englands Oxford and Cambridge Universities are communities within the university, each an association of scholars sharing room. The Indian College was active from 1640 to no later than 1693, the body known as The President and Fellows of Harvard College retains its traditional name despite having governance of the entire University. Radcliffe College originally paid Harvard faculty to repeat their lectures for women students, since the 1970s, Harvard has been responsible for undergraduate governance matters for women, women were still formally admitted to and graduated from Radcliffe until a final merger in 1999. About 2,000 students are admitted each year, representing between five and ten percent of those applying, of those admitted, approximately three-quarters choose to attend and these figures make Harvard perhaps the most selective and sought-after college in the world. Midway through the year, most undergraduates join one of fifty standard fields of concentration. Joint concentrations and special concentrations are also possible, a smaller number receive the Scientiarum Baccalaureus. There are also special programs, such as a five-year program leading to both a Harvard undergraduate degree and a Master of Arts from the New England Conservatory of Music. In 2012, dozens of students were disciplined for cheating on an exam in one course. The university instituted a code beginning in the fall of 2015. The total annual cost of attendance, including tuition and room and board, under financial aid guidelines adopted in 2012, families with incomes below $65,000 no longer pay anything for their children to attend, including room and board. Families with incomes between $65,000 to $150,000 pay no more than 10% of their annual income, grants total 88% of Harvards aid for undergraduate students, with aid also provided by loans and work-study. Each house is presided over by a senior-faculty Faculty Dean, while its Allston Burr Resident Dean supervises undergraduates day-to-day academic, many tutors reside in the House, as do the Faculty Dean and Resident Dean. The way in which students come to live in particular Houses has changed greatly over time, under the original draft system, Masters negotiated privately over the assignment of rising sophomores considered most—or least—promising
19.
Massachusetts Hall (Harvard University)
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As such, it possesses great significance not only in the history of American education but also in the story of the developing English Colonies of the 18th century. Massachusetts Hall was designed by Harvard Presidents John Leverett and his successor Benjamin Wadsworth and it was erected between 1718 and 1720 in Harvard Yard. It was originally a dormitory containing 32 chambers and 64 small private studies for the 64 students it was designed to house, during the siege of Boston,640 American soldiers took quarters in the hall. Much of the woodwork and hardware, including brass doorknobs. While designed as a residence for students, the building has served many purposes through the years, after Thomas Hollis donated a quadrant and a 24-foot telescope in 1722, for example, the building housed an informal observatory. Currently, the President of the University, Provost, Treasurer, freshmen reside in the fourth floor. Massachusetts Hall, as Harvards oldest extant dormitory, has housed many influential people, founding fathers who lived in Massachusetts Hall include John Adams, John Hancock, Samuel Adams, Elbridge Gerry, and James Otis. Members of the Wigglesworth, Weld, Thayer, Eliot, and Lowell families, whose names now grace other dormitories, more recent notable residents of Massachusetts Hall include Alan Jay Lerner, Elliot Richardson and John Harbison
20.
Gambrel
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A gambrel or gambrel roof is a usually symmetrical two-sided roof with two slopes on each side. The upper slope is positioned at an angle, while the lower slope is steep. This design provides the advantages of a roof while maximizing headroom inside the buildings upper level. The name comes from the Medieval Latin word gamba, meaning horses hock or leg, the term gambrel is of American origin, the older, European name being a curb roof. Europeans historically did not distinguish between a gambrel roof and a roof but called both types a mansard. The cross-section of a roof is similar to that of a mansard roof. A gambrel roof overhangs the façade, whereas a mansard normally does not, gambrel is a Norman English word, sometimes spelled gambol such as in the 1774 Boston carpenters price book. Other spellings include gamerel, gamrel, gambril, gameral, gambering, cambrel, cambering, butchers gambrels, later made of metal, resembled the two-sloped appearance of a gambrel roof when in use. Gambrel is also a term for the joint in the part of a horses hind leg. In 1858, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr. Websters Dictionary also confusingly used the term hip in the definition of this roof, the term is also used for a single mansard roof in France and Germany. In Dutch the term two-sided mansard roof is used for gambrel roofs, the origin of the gambrel roof form in North America is unknown. The oldest known gambrel roof in America was on the second Harvard Hall at Harvard University built in 1677, possibly the oldest surviving house in the U. S. with a gambrel roof is the c. Note that the oldest surviving framed house in America, the Fairbanks House, has an ell with a gambrel roof, in Indonesia, they saw dwellings with a roof style where the end of a roof started as a hip and finished as a gable end at the ridge. The gable end was an opening, to smoke to dissipate from the cooking fires. This roof design was brought back to Europe and the American Colonies, and adapted to local conditions
21.
Grosvenor Atterbury
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Grosvenor Atterbury was an American architect, urban planner and writer. Much of Atterbury’s early work consisted of houses for wealthy industrialists. Atterbury was given the commission for the housing community of Forest Hills Gardens which began in 1909 under the sponsorship of the Russell Sage Foundation. For Forest Hills, Atterbury developed a construction method, each house was built from approximately 170 standardized precast concrete panels, fabricated off-site. In this way Atterbury can be considered a progenitor of the Modern Movement, Atterbury was elected to the National Academy of Design in 1918 as an Associate member, and became a full member in 1940. Childrens Village of the Hartford Orphan Asylum,1680 Albany Ave. Hartford, Connecticut Shore Road Historic District, cold Spring Harbor, New York Atterbury Hill, Southampton
22.
Theodore Dwight Woolsey
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Theodore Dwight Woolsey was an American academic, author and President of Yale College from 1846 through 1871. Theodore Dwight Woolsey was born October 31,1801 in New York City and his mother was Elizabeth Dwight and father was William Walton Woolsey. He graduated from Yale College in 1820, spent a year in study in Philadelphia. For some time, he was a tutor at Yale, then went abroad to study Greek in Leipzig, Bonn, from 1831 to 1846 he was professor of Greek at Yale. His mothers brother Timothy Dwight had been president of Yale 1795–1817, jeremiah Day was the only president Yale had in between the family members. He was elected an Associate Fellow of the American Academy of Arts, after being chosen as president of Yale, he instructed students of history, political economy, political science, and especially international law. He resigned as president of Yale in 1871, after Noah Porter served as president, the office was back in the family as his cousin once removed Timothy Dwight V, was selected in 1886. During his 25 years as president, Yale advanced in wealth and influence, on September 5,1833 he married Martha Salisbury, who was born November 30,1812 and died November 3,1852. Their children were, Edward Salisbury Woolsey was born June 10,1834, Elizabeth Woolsey was born November 30,1835, but died in the same scarlet fever epidemic on the same day as her two brothers. Agnes Woolsey was born June 30,1838, married Edgar Lain Heermance, had three children and died in 1915, William Walton Woolsey was born June 12,1840, and died in the 1843 scarlet fever epidemic. Laura Woolsey was born June 22,1842 but died of fever on March 23,1861. Catherine Woolsey was born January 17,1845 but died June 7,1854, Martha Woolsey was born July 7,1847 but died December 6,1870. Helen Woolsey was born August 7,1849 but died December 8,1870, Theodore Salisbury Woolsey was born October 22,1852 and died April 24,1929. On September 6,1854 he married Sarah Sears Prichard, who was born March 3,1824 and their children were, Mary Pritchard Woolsey born September 1,1855, married Alfred Terry Bacon and died in 1931. John Muirson Woolsey was born February 13,1858 but died from typhoid fever March 13,1861, george Woolsey was born May 2,1861 Edith Woolsey was born July 2,1864. Dwight died July 1,1889 in New Haven, the statue erected in his memory, now displayed on Yales Old Campus, has a golden toe from being rubbed for good luck. New England Dwight family This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Gilman. Thurston, H. T. Colby, F. M. eds, Theodore Dwight Woolsey at the Database of Classical Scholars Kelley, Brooks Mather
23.
Computer cluster
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A computer cluster consists of a set of loosely or tightly connected computers that work together so that, in many respects, they can be viewed as a single system. Unlike grid computers, computer clusters have each set to perform the same task. The components of a cluster are usually connected to each other through fast local area networks and they have a wide range of applicability and deployment, ranging from small business clusters with a handful of nodes to some of the fastest supercomputers in the world such as IBMs Sequoia. The desire to get more computing power and better reliability by orchestrating a number of low-cost commercial off-the-shelf computers has given rise to a variety of architectures, the computer clustering approach usually connects a number of readily available computing nodes via a fast local area network. g. Via a single system image concept, Computer clustering relies on a centralized management approach which makes the nodes available as orchestrated shared servers. It is distinct from other such as peer to peer or grid computing which also use many nodes. A computer cluster may be a simple system which just connects two personal computers, or may be a very fast supercomputer. A basic approach to building a cluster is that of a Beowulf cluster which may be built with a few computers to produce a cost-effective alternative to traditional high performance computing. An early project that showed the viability of the concept was the 133-node Stone Soupercomputer, the developers used Linux, the Parallel Virtual Machine toolkit and the Message Passing Interface library to achieve high performance at a relatively low cost. Although a cluster may consist of just a few personal computers connected by a simple network, greg Pfister has stated that clusters were not invented by any specific vendor but by customers who could not fit all their work on one computer, or needed a backup. Pfister estimates the date as some time in the 1960s, the first production system designed as a cluster was the Burroughs B5700 in the mid-1960s. This allowed up to four computers, each with one or two processors, to be tightly coupled to a common disk storage subsystem in order to distribute the workload. Unlike standard multiprocessor systems, each computer could be restarted without disrupting overall operation, the first commercial loosely coupled clustering product was Datapoint Corporations Attached Resource Computer system, developed in 1977, and using ARCnet as the cluster interface. Clustering per se did not really take off until Digital Equipment Corporation released their VAXcluster product in 1984 for the VAX/VMS operating system, the ARC and VAXcluster products not only supported parallel computing, but also shared file systems and peripheral devices. The idea was to provide the advantages of parallel processing, while maintaining data reliability, two other noteworthy early commercial clusters were the Tandem Himalayan and the IBM S/390 Parallel Sysplex. Within the same frame, while computer clusters used parallelism outside the computer on a commodity network. Following the success of the CDC6600 in 1964, the Cray 1 was delivered in 1976, while early supercomputers excluded clusters and relied on shared memory, in time some of the fastest supercomputers relied on cluster architectures. Computer clusters may be configured for different purposes ranging from general purpose business needs such as web-service support, in either case, the cluster may use a high-availability approach
24.
American colonial architecture
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These styles are associated with the houses, churches and government buildings of the period from about 1600 through the 19th century. Several relatively distinct regional styles of architecture are recognized in the United States. Building styles in the 13 colonies were influenced by techniques and styles from England, in New England, 17th-century colonial houses were built primarily from wood, following styles found in the southeastern counties of England. In the Delaware Valley, Swedish colonial settlers introduced the log cabin to America, a style sometimes called Pennsylvania colonial appeared later and incorporates Georgian architectural influences. A Pennsylvania Dutch style is recognized in parts of southeastern Pennsylvania that were settled by German immigrants in the 18th century, early buildings in some other areas of the United States reflect the architectural traditions of the colonial powers that controlled these regions. These buildings typically included details including steep roofs, small casement leaded glass windows, rich ornamentation, to maximize natural light in northern climes, early houses faced southeast, regardless of a buildings alignment to the road. Conversely, in colonies, houses faced northwest to minimize the suns heat. Developed in French-settled areas of North America beginning with the founding of Quebec in 1608 and New Orleans, Louisiana in 1718, the early French Colonial house type of the Mississippi River Valley region was the poteaux-en-terre, constructed of heavy upright cedar logs set vertically into the ground. These basic houses featured double-pitched hipped roofs and were surrounded by porches to handle the hot summer climate, by 1770, the basic French Colonial house form evolved into the briquette-entre-poteaux style familiar in the historic areas of New Orleans and other areas. These homes featured double-louvred doors, flared hip roofs, dormers, the early type of dwelling in Spanish Florida was the board house, a small one-room cottage constructed of pit-sawn softwood boards, typically with a thatched roof. During the 18th century, the houses were whitewashed in lime mortar with an oyster shell aggregate. Typically two-story, the houses included cooling porches to accommodate the Florida climate, the style developed in the Southwest with Pueblo design influences from the indigenous Puebloan peoples architecture. Ranchos were typically built of adobe, developed from around 1630 with the arrival of Dutch colonists to New Amsterdam and the Hudson River Valley in what is now New York and in Bergen in what is now New Jersey. Initially the settlers built small, one room cottages with stone walls, by 1670 or so, two-story gable-end homes were common in New Amsterdam. In the countryside of the Hudson Valley, the Dutch farmhouse evolved into a home with straight-edged gables moved to the end walls. Developed after about 1675, when the Delaware River Valley area was settled by immigrants from Sweden, Finland, Scotland, Ireland, Germany and several other northern European nations. The early colonists to this region adapted the style of construction then popular in Europe. The bank house was a form of home during this period, typically constructed into a hillside for protection during the cold winters
25.
Miami University
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Miami University, is a public research university located on a 2, 138-acre campus in Oxford, Ohio,35 miles north of Cincinnati. Founded in 1809, although classes were not held until 1824, Miami University is the 10th oldest public university, the university also has regional campuses in Hamilton, Middletown and West Chester, as well as the Dolibois European Center in Luxembourg. Miami University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a university with a high research activity. It is affiliated to the University System of Ohio, in its 2017 edition, U. S. News & World Report ranked the university 79th among national universities and the 30th top public university in the United States. Additionally, Miami University is ranked 2nd best national university for undergraduate teaching, Miami University is considered one of the original eight Public Ivy schools that provide a quality of education comparable to those of the Ivy League. Miami University has a tradition of Greek life, five social Greek-letter organizations were founded at the university earning Miami the nickname “Mother of Fraternities. ”Today, Miami University hosts over 50 fraternity and sorority chapters. Miami is renowned for its campus beauty, having been called The most beautiful campus that ever there was by Pulitzer Prize-winning poet Robert Frost, additionally, Forbes ranked the city of Oxford first on its 2016 list of the best college towns in the United States. Miamis athletic teams compete in Division I of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and are known as the Miami RedHawks. They compete in the Mid-American Conference in all varsity sports except ice hockey, the land was located within the Symmes Purchase, Judge John Cleves Symmes, the owner of the land, purchased the land from the government with the stipulation that he lay aside land for an academy. The Ohio Legislature appointed three surveyors in August of the year to search for a suitable township, and they selected a township off of Four Mile Creek. The Legislature passed An Act to Establish the Miami University on February 2,1809, and a board of trustees was created by the state, the township originally granted to the university was known as the College Township, and was renamed Oxford, Ohio, in 1810. The University temporarily halted due to the War of 1812. Cincinnati tried to move Miami to the city in 1822 and to divert its income to a Cincinnati college, Miami created a grammar school in 1818 to teach frontier youth, but, it was disbanded after five years. Robert Hamilton Bishop, a Presbyterian minister and professor of history, was appointed to be the first President of Miami University in 1824, the first day of classes at Miami was on November 1,1824. At its opening, there were 20 students and two faculty members in addition to Bishop, the curriculum included Greek, Latin, Algebra, Geography, and Roman history, the University offered only a Bachelor of Arts. An English Scientific Department was started in 1825, which studied modern languages, applied mathematics and it offered a certificate upon completion of coursework, not a full diploma. Miami students purchased a press, and in 1827 published their first periodical. It promptly failed, but it laid the foundation for the weekly Literary Register, the current Miami Student, founded in 1867, traces its foundation back to the Literary Register and claims to be the oldest college newspaper in the United States
26.
Horace Bushnell
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Horace Bushnell was an American Congregational minister and theologian. Bushnell was born in the village of Bantam, township of Litchfield and he attended Yale College where he roomed with future magazinist Nathaniel Parker Willis. Willis credited Bushnell with teaching him the technique for sharpening a razor. After graduating in 1827, he was editor of the New York Journal of Commerce from 1828–1829. Here he initially studied law, but in 1831 he entered the department of Yale College. In May,1833 Bushnell was ordained pastor of the North Congregational church in Hartford and he married Mary Apthorp in 1833 and the couple had three children. Bushnell remained in Hartford until 1859 when, due to extended poor health he resigned his pastorate, thereafter he held no appointed office, but, until his death at Hartford in 1876, he was a prolific author and occasionally preached. While in California in 1856, for the restoration of his health, he took an active interest in the organization, at Oakland, of the College of California, as a preacher, Dr Bushnell was very effective. Though not an orator, he was original, thoughtful. His theological position may be said to have one of qualified revolt against the Calvinistic orthodoxy of his day. He criticized prevailing conceptions of the Trinity, the atonement, conversion, and the relations of the natural, above all, he broke with the prevalent view which regarded theology as essentially intellectual in its appeal and demonstrable by processes of exact logical deduction. To his thinking its proper basis is to be found in the feelings and he was not exact, but he put God and humanity and the world into a relation that thought can accept while it goes on to state it more fully with ever growing knowledge. Other thinkers were moving in the direction, he led the movement in New England. It was a work of superb courage, hardly a theologian in his denomination stood by him, and nearly all pronounced against him. That he did not deny the divinity of Christ he proved in The Character of Jesus, forbidding his possible Classification within Men. An edition of his works, in volumes, appeared in 1876. New editions of his Nature and the Supernatural, Sermons for this New Life, Bushnell was greatly interested in the civic interests of Hartford, and was the chief agent in procuring the establishment of the first public park in the United States. It was named Bushnell Park in his honor by that city, the Bushnell Center for the Performing Arts, and a residence hall at the University of Hartford are also named for him
27.
Congregational church
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Congregational or Congregationalist churches are Protestant churches practicing congregationalist church governance, in which each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Congregationalism is often considered to be a part of the wider Reformed tradition, ideas of nonconforming Protestants during the Puritan Reformation of the Church of England laid foundation for these churches. Congregationalists also differed with the Reformed churches using episcopalian church governance, within the United States, the model of Congregational churches was carried by migrating settlers from New England into New York, then into the Old North West, and further. With their insistence on independent local bodies, they became important in social reform movements, including abolitionism, temperance. Congregationalist tradition has a presence in the United States, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and it has been introduced either by immigrant dissenter Protestants or by missionary organization such as the London Missionary Society. Congregationalists believe their model of church governance fulfils the description of the early church, Congregationalism is more easily identified as a movement than a single denomination, given its distinguishing commitment to the complete autonomy of the local congregation. The early Congregationalists shared with Anabaptist theology the ideal of a pure church and they believed the adult conversion experience was necessary for an individual to become a full member in the church, unlike other Reformed churches. As such, the Congregationalists were an influence on the Baptists. They differed in counting the children of believers in some members of the church. On the other hand, the Baptists required each member to experience conversion, in England, the Anglican system of church government was taken over by King Henry VIII. It declared the sovereign of England to be the only supreme head on earth of the Church in England. In the reign of Elizabeth I, this title was changed to Supreme Governor of the Church of England, an act still in effect. Robert Browne, Henry Barrow, John Greenwood, John Penry, William Brewster, Thomas Jollie, the underground churches in England and exiles from Holland provided about 35 out of the 102 passengers on the Mayflower, which sailed from London in July 1620. They became known in history as the Pilgrim Fathers, the early Congregationalists sought to separate themselves from the Anglican church in every possible way and even eschewed having church buildings. They met in homes for many years, in 1639 William Wroth, then Rector of the parish church at Llanvaches in Monmouthshire, established the first Independent Church in Wales according to the New England pattern, i. e. Congregational. The Tabernacle United Reformed Church at Llanvaches survives to this day, during the English Civil War, those who supported the Parliamentary cause were invited by Parliament to discuss religious matters. This government would last until 1660 when the monarch was restored, in 1658 the Congregationalists created their own version of the Westminster Confession, called the Savoy Declaration, which remains the principal subordinate standard of Congregationalism. The work in South America began in 1921 when four Argentine churches urgently requested that denominational recognition be given to George Geier, the Illinois Conference licensed Geier, who worked among Germans from Russia who were very similar to their kin in the United States and in Canada
28.
Nathan Hale
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Nathan Hale was an American soldier and spy for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He volunteered for a mission in New York City but was captured by the British. His last words before being hanged were reported to be, I only regret that I have, Hale has long been considered an American hero and, in 1985, he was officially designated the state hero of Connecticut. Nathan Hale was born in Coventry, Connecticut, in 1755 to Richard Hale, in 1768, when he was fourteen years old, he was sent with his brother Enoch, who was sixteen, to Yale College. Nathan was a classmate of fellow patriot spy Benjamin Tallmadge, the Hale brothers belonged to the Linonian Society of Yale, which debated topics in astronomy, mathematics, literature, and the ethics of slavery. Nathan graduated with honors in 1773 at age 18 and became a teacher, first in East Haddam. After the Revolutionary War began in 1775, he joined a Connecticut militia and was elected first lieutenant within five months and his militia unit participated in the Siege of Boston, but Hale remained behind. On July 4,1775, Hale received a letter from his classmate and friend Benjamin Tallmadge and he wrote to Hale, Was I in your condition, I think the more extensive service would be my choice. Our holy Religion, the honor of our God, a glorious country, tallmadges letter was so inspiring that, several days later, Hale accepted a commission as first lieutenant in the 7th Connecticut Regiment under Colonel Charles Webb of Stamford. In the following spring, the moved to Manhattan Island to prevent the British from taking over New York City. In September, General Washington was desperate to determine the location of the imminent British invasion of Manhattan Island, to that end, Washington needed a spy behind enemy lines, and Hale was the only volunteer. The Battle of Long Island led to British victory and the capture of New York City via a flanking move from Staten Island across Long Island, Hale volunteered on September 8,1776, to go behind enemy lines and report on British troop movements. He was ferried across on September 12 and it was an act of spying that was immediately punishable by death and posed a great risk to Hale. During his mission, New York City fell to British forces on September 15, on September 21, a quarter of the lower portion of Manhattan burned in the Great New York Fire of 1776. The fire was widely thought to have been started by American saboteurs to keep the city from falling into British hands, though Washington. It has also speculated that the fire was the work of British soldiers acting without orders. In the fires aftermath, more than 200 American partisans were rounded up by the British, an account of Nathan Hales capture was written by Consider Tiffany, a Connecticut shopkeeper and Loyalist, and obtained by the Library of Congress. In Tiffanys account, Major Robert Rogers of the Queens Rangers saw Hale in a tavern, after luring Hale into betraying himself by pretending to be a patriot himself, Rogers and his Rangers apprehended Hale near Flushing Bay in Queens, New York
29.
American Revolutionary War
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From about 1765 the American Revolution had led to increasing philosophical and political differences between Great Britain and its American colonies. The war represented a culmination of these differences in armed conflict between Patriots and the authority which they increasingly resisted. This resistance became particularly widespread in the New England Colonies, especially in the Province of Massachusetts Bay. On December 16,1773, Massachusetts members of the Patriot group Sons of Liberty destroyed a shipment of tea in Boston Harbor in an event that became known as the Boston Tea Party. Named the Coercive Acts by Parliament, these became known as the Intolerable Acts in America. The Massachusetts colonists responded with the Suffolk Resolves, establishing a government that removed control of the province from the Crown outside of Boston. Twelve colonies formed a Continental Congress to coordinate their resistance, and established committees, British attempts to seize the munitions of Massachusetts colonists in April 1775 led to the first open combat between Crown forces and Massachusetts militia, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Militia forces proceeded to besiege the British forces in Boston, forcing them to evacuate the city in March 1776, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington to take command of the militia. Concurrent to the Boston campaign, an American attempt to invade Quebec, on July 2,1776, the Continental Congress formally voted for independence, issuing its Declaration on July 4. Sir William Howe began a British counterattack, focussing on recapturing New York City, Howe outmaneuvered and defeated Washington, leaving American confidence at a low ebb. Washington captured a Hessian force at Trenton and drove the British out of New Jersey, in 1777 the British sent a new army under John Burgoyne to move south from Canada and to isolate the New England colonies. However, instead of assisting Burgoyne, Howe took his army on a campaign against the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia. Burgoyne outran his supplies, was surrounded and surrendered at Saratoga in October 1777, the British defeat in the Saratoga Campaign had drastic consequences. Giving up on the North, the British decided to salvage their former colonies in the South, British forces under Lieutenant-General Charles Cornwallis seized Georgia and South Carolina, capturing an American army at Charleston, South Carolina. British strategy depended upon an uprising of large numbers of armed Loyalists, in 1779 Spain joined the war as an ally of France under the Pacte de Famille, intending to capture Gibraltar and British colonies in the Caribbean. Britain declared war on the Dutch Republic in December 1780, in 1781, after the British and their allies had suffered two decisive defeats at Kings Mountain and Cowpens, Cornwallis retreated to Virginia, intending on evacuation. A decisive French naval victory in September deprived the British of an escape route, a joint Franco-American army led by Count Rochambeau and Washington, laid siege to the British forces at Yorktown. With no sign of relief and the situation untenable, Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781, Whigs in Britain had long opposed the pro-war Tory majority in Parliament, but the defeat at Yorktown gave the Whigs the upper hand
30.
James Hillhouse
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James Hillhouse was an American lawyer, real estate developer, and politician from New Haven, Connecticut. He represented Connecticut in both the U. S. House and Senate, Hillhouse was born in Montville, Connecticut, the son of William Hillhouse and Sarah Hillhouse. At the age of seven, he was adopted by his childless uncle and aunt, James Abraham and he attended the Hopkins Grammar School in New Haven, Connecticut and graduated from Yale College in 1773. At Yale he was a member of the Linonian Society and he studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1775 and practiced law in New Haven. During the Revolutionary War, Hillhouse served as captain of the Second Company of the Governors Foot Guard, during the successful British invasion of New Haven on July 5,1779, he commanded troops alongside Aaron Burr with Yale student volunteers. Hillhouse was a member of the Connecticut House of Representatives from 1780 to 1785, during the Sixth Congress he was President pro tempore of the Senate. Hillhouse was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1813, in 1814-10 he was a Connecticut delegate to the Hartford Convention, and treasurer of Yale College from 1782 to 1832. Hillhouse made major contributions to the beautification of New Haven and he was active in the drive to plant the elm trees that gave New Haven the nickname of the Elm City. Hillhouse Avenue and James Hillhouse High School in New Haven are named for him and he died in New Haven on December 29,1832 and is interred at the Grove Street Cemetery, New Haven, Connecticut. He was a nephew of Matthew Griswold, and uncle of Thomas Hillhouse, biographical Directory of the United States Congress
31.
David Humphreys (soldier)
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A poet and author, he was one of the Hartford Wits. He was the youngest of five children of the Rev. Daniel, Humphreys father was parson of the church from 1733, the year after he graduated from Yale, to 1787—a run of 54 years. Daniel Humphreys was the husband of Sarah Riggs Bowers, known in Derby as Lady Humphreys for her dignity and refinement of character. As a boy, Humphreys was passionately fond of books and his father prepared both him and his brother, Daniel, for his own alma mater, Yale College, and entered both of them there. David was 15 years old when he entered the school and 19 when he graduated in 1771 with distinguished honors, while at Yale, he founded the Brothers in Unity, a debating society which came to prominence in the 1800s. Among his college friends were Timothy Dwight IV, who became one of Yales great presidents, John Trumbull, poet and lawyer. After graduation, Humphreys became principal at the school in Wethersfield. He then worked as a tutor for the youngest of the 11 children of Col. Frederick Philipse at the Philipse Manor house in what is now Yonkers, Philipse was a prominent and outspoken Tory—which only roused the tutors Patriot leanings. In 1774 Humphreys returned to New Haven, received a master of arts degree from Yale and was offered a position as an instructor and he instead taught part-time at a private school run by his brother, Daniel, in New Haven. In July 1776, Humphreys enlisted in the Continental Army as an adjutant in the 2nd Connecticut Regiment. The regiment consisted of companies of Derby men. He later saw action in the following the burning of Danbury, Connecticut and in a later raid on Sag Harbor. Humphreys was detailed to report the success directly to General Washington in New Jersey and it was probably the first meeting, between the two. Humphreys was promoted to captain and major and he served on the staffs of General Parsons, Israel Putnam and Nathanael Greene. On June 23,1780, Humphreys was appointed aide-de-camp of Washingtons headquarters staff, after the Battle of Yorktown, Washington entrusted the surrendered British colors, along with the generals report on the battle, to Humphreys and another aide for delivery to Congress. The sword was presented in 1786 by Gen. Henry Knox, Humphreys was also commissioned a lieutenant-colonel, with his commission backdated to his appointment as an aide to Washington. When Washington resigned his commission and presented himself before Congress, Humphreys was one of two aides who accompanied him into the chamber, Humphreys then traveled with Washington and Martha Washington back to Mount Vernon. Washington later recommended to Congress that it appoint Humphreys secretary of foreign affairs, after the war, Humphreys became an Original Member of the Connecticut Society of the Cincinnati
32.
Aide-de-camp
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An aide-de-camp is a personal assistant or secretary to a person of high rank, usually a senior military, police or government officer, a member of a royal family, or a head of state. This is not to be confused with an adjutant, who is the administrator of a military unit. The first aide-de-camp is typically the foremost personal aide, in some countries, the aide-de-camp is considered to be a title of honour, and participates at ceremonial functions. The badge of office for an aide-de-camp is usually the aiguillette, whether it is worn on the left or the right shoulder is dictated by protocol. A controversy was raised in 2006, when president Néstor Kirchner decided to promote his army aide-de-camp, Lieutenant Colonel Graham to colonel, upon taking office, former president Cristina Kirchner decided to have, for the first time, female officers as her aides-de-camp. In each of the forces, the chief of staff and other senior officers have their own adjutants, normally of the rank of major or lieutenant colonel. An aiguillette is worn on the shoulder by aides-de-camp and adjutants as a symbol of their position. In Belgium the title of Honorary Aide-de-camp to the King can be granted by the court for services rendered. Notable people include Major General Baron Édouard Empain, Count Charles John dOultremont, generals being field marshals, have four, lieutenant generals two, major generals one”. In British colonies and modern-day British overseas territories, the aide-de-camp is appointed to serve the governor, in 1973, the Governor of Bermuda, Sir Richard Sharples, and his aide-de-camp, Captain Hugh Sayers, were murdered on the grounds of Government House. On the last day of British rule in Hong Kong on 30 June 1997 and he then gave the Vice Regal Salute before proceeding, with the Pattens, to leave Government House for the last time. Prince Charles is a personal aide-de-camp to Queen Elizabeth II, Honorary aides-de-camp to the Governor-General or state governors are entitled to the post-nominal ADC during their appointment. Officers of and above the ranks of admiral, major general. Within the navy, an aide-de-camp is called a flag lieutenant, aides-de-camp in Canada are appointed to the Queen and some members of the royal family, the governor general, lieutenant governors, and to certain other appointments. All aides-de-camp also wear the cypher or badge of the principal to whom they are appointed, aides-de-camp to the governor general wear the governor generals badge and aides-de-camp to a lieutenant governor wear the lieutenant governors badge. They are appointed officers of the Canadian Forces. In certain instances, civilians may be appointed, non-uniformed civilians do not wear the aiguillette, but do wear their lieutenant governors badge as a symbol of their appointment. Aides-de-camp to royal and vice-regal personages wear the aiguillette on the right shoulder, aides-de-camp to all others wear their aiguillette on the left shoulder
33.
James Kent
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James Kent was an American jurist and legal scholar. He was the author of Commentaries on American Law, Kent was the son of Moss Kent, a lawyer from Dutchess County, New York and the first Surrogate of Rensselaer County, New York. In 1791 and 1792-93 Kent was a member from Dutchess County of the New York State Assembly, in 1793, he removed to New York City, where he was appointed a master in chancery for the city. Kent was the first professor of law in Columbia College in 1793-98, in 1797, he was appointed Recorder of New York City and in 1798, a justice of the New York Supreme Court, in 1804 Chief Justice, and in 1814 Chancellor of New York. Kent was also elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814, in 1821 he was a member of the New York State Constitutional Convention where he unsuccessfully opposed the raising of the property qualification for African American voters. Two years later, Chancellor Kent reached the age limit and retired from his office. Kent has been remembered for his Commentaries on American Law, highly respected in England. The Commentaries treated state, federal and international law, and the law of rights and of property. Kent rendered his most essential service to American jurisprudence while serving as chancellor, chancery, or equity law, had been very unpopular during the colonial period, and had received little development, and no decisions had been published. His judgments of this class cover a range of topics. His brother Moss Kent was a Congressman, Kent County, Michigan and Kent City, Michigan are named in his honor, probably because he represented Michigan Territory in its dispute with Ohio over the Toledo Strip. Chicago-Kent College of Law is named in his honor, students who have high honors status during any one of their years at Columbia Law School are called James Kent Scholars in honor of James Kents status as Columbias first professor of law. The Chancellor Kent Professorship at Yale Law School is also named after him, Kent Place School, an independent all-girls school in New Jersey, is located where his summer house was. James Kents original Summit Lodge is now incorporated into a mansion at 50 Kent Place Boulevard, Summit. Most of the architecture including the kitchen and long room still exist today. C. These statues are among sixteen representing men whose works have shaped human development, notes Sources This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Kent, James
34.
Jeremiah Mason
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Jeremiah Mason was a United States Senator from New Hampshire. Mason was born in Lebanon, Connecticut, the son of Jeremiah Mason and he graduated from Yale College in 1788, studied law, moved to Vermont, and was admitted to the bar in 1791. He moved to New Hampshire, practiced law, and was general of New Hampshire from 1802 to 1805. Mason was elected as a Federalist to the U. S. Senate to fill the vacancy in the term beginning March 4,1813, and served from June 10,1813, until June 16,1817, when he resigned. He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815 and he was a member of the New Hampshire House of Representatives in 1820-1821 and 1824, and was president of the Portsmouth branch of the United States Bank in 1828-1829. He married on November 6,1799 Mary Means, daughter of Robert Means and they were the parents of Robert Means Mason, who married on December 4,1843 Sarah Ellen Francis, daughter of Ebenezer Francis and wife Elizabeth Thorndike. Robert Means Mason had several children including Ellen Francis Mason and Ida Means Mason, Jeremiah Mason and Mary Means were also the parents of Elizabeth Mason, who married on June 1,1869 Robert Charles Winthrop, Jr. son of Robert Charles Winthrop and wife Elizabeth Cabot Blanchard. Mary Means was a sister of Elizabeth Means, wife of Jesse Appleton, son of Francis Appleton and wife Elizabeth Hubbard, parents of Jane Means Appleton, wife of Franklin Pierce, biographical Directory of the United States Congress. The Ancestors of Senator John Forbes Kerry
35.
Noah Porter
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Rev. Noah Thomas Porter, III was an American academic, philosopher, author, lexicographer and President of Yale College. He was born to Rev. Noah Porter, Jr. and his wife, born Mehitable Meigs, in Farmington and his younger sister was Sarah Porter, founder of Miss Porters School, a college preparatory school for girls. He graduated in 1831 from Yale College, where he was a member of the Linonian Society, on April 13,1836, in New Haven, he married Mary Taylor, daughter of Rev. Nathaniel Taylor and his wife Rebecca Marie Hine. They had several children, and two daughters survived them and he was ordained as a Congregational minister in New Milford, Connecticut from 1836 to 1843. He served as pastor at a Congregational Church in Springfield, Massachusetts from 1843 to 1846 and he was elected professor of moral philosophy and metaphysics at Yale in 1846. Porter was inaugurated as President of Yale College on Wednesday, October 11,1871 and he continued to serve as head of the college until 1886. Porter edited several editions of Websters Dictionary, and wrote on education, influenced by the German refugee writer and philosopher Francis Lieber, Porter opposed slavery and integrated an antislavery position with religious liberalism. He was a frequent visitor to the Adirondack Mountains of New York, of great importance were two other works, Elements of Intellectual Science and Elements of Moral Science. He died on March 4,1892 in New Haven, and was buried in the Grove Street Cemetery there, ISBN 978-0-300-07843-5, OCLC810552 Levesque, George. “Noah Porter Revisited, ” History of Higher Education Annual,26, welch, Lewis Sheldon and Walter Camp. Yale, Her Campus, Class-rooms, and Athletics, OCLC2191518 This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Civil Liberty, A Sermon, from the Antislavery Literature Project The Human Intellect, With an Introduction upon Psychology, professor Porters Human Intellect, The Nation 8, 211–13
36.
John William Sterling
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John William Sterling was a founding partner of Shearman & Sterling LLP and major benefactor to Yale University. John William Sterling was born in Stratford, Connecticut, the son of Catherine Tomlinson and he graduated from Yale University with a B. A. in 1864 and was a member of Skull and Bones and president of Brothers in Unity during his senior year. He graduated from Columbia Law School as the valedictorian of the class of 1867 and was admitted to the bar in that year and he obtained an M. A. degree in 1874. He became a lawyer in New York City, and helped found the law firm of Shearman & Sterling in 1871, a firm that represented Jay Gould, Henry Ford, the Rockefeller family. After the estate appraisal was complete a later, the Yale bequest was about $18 million. In 2003, historian Jonathan Ned Katz uncovered evidence that Sterling lived for fifty years in a same-sex intimate partnership with cotton broker James O. Bloss. Sterling died July 5,1918 while staying at the lodge of Lord Mount Stephen in Causapscal, Quebec. Sterlings sister Cordelia donated the Sterling House and its surrounding estate —part of the Sterling Homestead—to Stratford, John William Sterling and James Orville Bloss from outhistory. org
37.
Noah Webster
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Noah Webster, Jr. was an American lexicographer, textbook pioneer, English-language spelling reformer, political writer, editor, and prolific author. He has been called the Father of American Scholarship and Education and his blue-backed speller books taught five generations of American children how to spell and read, secularizing their education. According to Ellis, he gave Americans a secular catechism to the nation-state, Webster was born in the Western Division of Hartford to an established family. His father Noah Sr. was a descendant of Connecticut Governor John Webster and his father was primarily a farmer, though he was also deacon of the local Congregational church, captain of the towns militia, and a founder of a local book society. After American independence, he was appointed a justice of the peace, Websters father never attended college, but he was intellectually curious and prized education. Websters mother spent long hours teaching her children spelling, mathematics, at age six, Webster began attending a dilapidated one-room primary school built by West Hartfords Ecclesiastical Society. Years later, he described the teachers as the dregs of humanity, Websters experiences there motivated him to improve the educational experience of future generations. At age fourteen, his church pastor began tutoring him in Latin, Webster enrolled at Yale just before his 16th birthday, studying during his senior year with Ezra Stiles, Yales president. His four years at Yale overlapped the American Revolutionary War and, because of shortages and threatened British invasions. Webster served in the Connecticut Militia and his father had mortgaged the farm to send Webster to Yale, but he was now on his own and had nothing more to do with his family. Webster lacked career plans after graduating from Yale in 1778, later writing that a liberal arts education disqualifies a man for business and he taught school briefly in Glastonbury, but the working conditions were harsh and the pay low. While studying law under future U. S. Supreme Court Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth, Webster also taught full-time in Hartford—which was grueling, and ultimately impossible to continue. He quit his studies for a year and lapsed into a depression, he then found another practicing attorney to tutor him. As the Revolutionary War was still going on, he could not find work as a lawyer and he received a masters degree from Yale by giving an oral dissertation to the Yale graduating class. Later that year, he opened a private school in western Connecticut that was a success. Nevertheless, he closed it and left town, probably because of a failed romance. He then founded a school catering to wealthy parents in Goshen, New York and, by 1785, he had written his speller, a grammar book. Proceeds from continuing sales of the popular blue-backed speller enabled Webster to spend years working on his famous dictionary
38.
Merriam-Webster
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Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, is an American company that publishes reference books, especially known for its dictionaries. In 1831, George and Charles Merriam founded the company as G & C Merriam Co. in Springfield, in 1843, after Noah Webster died, the company bought the rights to An American Dictionary of the English Language from Websters estate. All Merriam-Webster dictionaries trace their lineage to this source, in 1964, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. acquired Merriam-Webster, Inc. as a subsidiary. The company adopted its current name in 1982, in 1806, Webster published his first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. In 1807 Webster started two decades of work to expand his publication into a fully comprehensive dictionary, An American Dictionary of the English Language. To help him trace the etymology of words, Webster learned 26 languages, Webster hoped to standardize American speech, since Americans in different parts of the country used somewhat different vocabularies and spelled, pronounced, and used words differently. Webster completed his dictionary during his year abroad in 1825 in Paris and his 1820s book contained 70,000 words, of which about 12,000 had never appeared in a dictionary before. He also added American words, including skunk and squash, that did not appear in British dictionaries, at the age of 70 in 1828, Webster published his dictionary, it sold poorly, with only 2,500 copies putting him in debt. However, in 1840, he published the edition in two volumes with much greater success. He shows ways that American poetry inherited Websters ideas and draws on his lexicography to develop the language, in 1843, after Websters death, George Merriam and Charles Merriam secured publishing and revision rights to the 1840 edition of the dictionary. They published a revision in 1847, which did not change any of the text but merely added new sections. This began a series of revisions that were described as being unabridged in content, in 1884 it contained 118,000 words,3000 more than any other English dictionary. With the edition of 1890, the dictionary was retitled Websters International, the Collegiate Dictionary was introduced in 1898 and the series is now in its eleventh edition. Following the publication of Websters International in 1890, two Collegiate editions were issued as abridgments of each of their Unabridged editions, with the ninth edition, the Collegiate adopted changes which distinguish it as a separate entity rather than merely an abridgment of the Third New International. Some proper names were returned to the word list, including names of Knights of the Round Table, the most notable change was the inclusion of the date of the first known citation of each word, to document its entry into the English language. The eleventh edition includes more than 225,000 definitions, a CD-ROM of the text is sometimes included. This dictionary is preferred as a source for general matters of spelling by the influential The Chicago Manual of Style, the Chicago Manual states that it normally opts for the first spelling listed. Merriam overhauled the dictionary again with the 1961 Websters Third New International under the direction of Philip B, gove, making changes that sparked public controversy
39.
Eli Whitney
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Eli Whitney was an American inventor best known for inventing the cotton gin. This was one of the key inventions of the Industrial Revolution, Whitneys invention made upland short cotton into a profitable crop, which strengthened the economic foundation of slavery in the United States. Despite the social and economic impact of his invention, Whitney lost many profits in legal battles over patent infringement for the cotton gin, thereafter, he turned his attention into securing contracts with the government in the manufacture of muskets for the newly formed United States Army. He continued making arms and inventing until his death in 1825, Whitney was born in Westborough, Massachusetts, on December 8,1765, the eldest child of Eli Whitney Sr. a prosperous farmer, and his wife Elizabeth Fay, also of Westborough. Although the younger Eli, born in 1765, could technically be called a Junior and he was famous during his lifetime and afterward by the name Eli Whitney. His son, born in 1820, also named Eli, was known during his lifetime and afterward by the name Eli Whitney, Jr. Whitneys mother, Elizabeth Fay, died in 1777. At age 14 he operated a profitable nail manufacturing operation in his fathers workshop during the Revolutionary War, because his stepmother opposed his wish to attend college, Whitney worked as a farm laborer and school teacher to save money. He prepared for Yale at Leicester Academy and under the tutelage of Rev. Elizur Goodrich of Durham, Connecticut, he entered the class of 1789 and graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1792. Whitney expected to study law but, finding himself short of funds, instead of reaching his destination, he was convinced to visit Georgia. In the closing years of the 18th century, Georgia was a magnet for New Englanders seeking their fortunes, when he initially sailed for South Carolina, among his shipmates were the widow and family of the Revolutionary hero Gen. Nathanael Greene of Rhode Island. Mrs. Greene invited Whitney to visit her Georgia plantation, Mulberry Grove and her plantation manager and husband-to-be was Phineas Miller, another Connecticut migrant and Yale graduate, who would become Whitneys business partner. Whitney is most famous for two innovations which later divided the United States in the century, the cotton gin. In the South, the cotton gin revolutionized the way cotton was harvested and reinvigorated slavery, in the North the adoption of interchangeable parts revolutionized the manufacturing industry, and contributed greatly to the U. S. victory in the Civil War. The cotton gin is a device that removes the seeds from cotton. The word gin is short for engine, the cotton gin was a wooden drum stuck with hooks that pulled the cotton fibers through a mesh. The cotton seeds would not fit through the mesh and fell outside, a single cotton gin could generate up to 55 pounds of cleaned cotton daily. Whitney received a patent for his cotton gin on March 14,1794, Whitney and his partner, Miller, did not intend to sell the gins. Rather, like the proprietors of grist and sawmills, they expected to charge farmers for cleaning their cotton – two-fifths of the value, resentment at this scheme, the mechanical simplicity of the device and the primitive state of patent law, made infringement inevitable
40.
Interchangeable parts
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Interchangeable parts are parts that are, for practical purposes, identical. They are made to specifications that ensure that they are so nearly identical that they fit into any assembly of the same type. One such part can freely replace another, without any custom fitting and this interchangeability allows easy assembly of new devices, and easier repair of existing devices, while minimizing both the time and skill required of the person doing the assembly or repair. Additional innovations included jigs for guiding the machine tools, fixtures for holding the workpiece in the proper position, modern machine tools often have numerical control which evolved into CNC when microprocessors became available. Methods for industrial production of parts in the United States were first developed in the nineteenth century. The term American system of manufacturing was sometimes applied to them at the time, within a few decades such methods were in use in various countries, so American system is now a term of historical reference rather than current industrial nomenclature. Evidence of the use of parts can be traced back over two thousand years to Carthage in the First Punic War. Carthaginian ships had standardized, interchangeable parts that came with assembly instructions akin to tab a into slot b marked on them. In East Asia during the Warring States period and later the Qin Dynasty, bronze crossbow triggers and locking mechanisms were mass-produced and made to be interchangeable. One of the accomplishments of the system was that solid cast cannons were bored to precise tolerances, however, because cores were often off center, the wall thickness determined the size of the bore. Standardized boring allowed cannon to be shorter without sacrificing accuracy and range because of the fit of the shells. It also allowed standardization of the shells, before the 18th century, devices such as guns were made one at a time by gunsmiths, and each gun was unique. If one single component of a firearm needed a replacement, the entire firearm either had to be sent to a gunsmith for custom repairs. During the 18th and early 19th centuries, the idea of replacing these methods with a system of manufacture was gradually developed. The development took decades and involved many people, Gribeauval provided patronage to Honoré Blanc, who attempted to implement the Système Gribeauval at the musket level. By around 1778, Honoré Blanc began producing some of the first firearms with interchangeable flint locks, Blanc demonstrated in front of a committee of scientists that his muskets could be fitted with flint locks picked at random from a pile of parts. Muskets with interchangeable locks caught the attention of Thomas Jefferson through the efforts of Honoré Blanc when Jefferson was Ambassador to France in 1785. President George Washington approved of the idea, and by 1798 a contract was issued to Eli Whitney for 12,000 muskets built under the new system
41.
Cotton gin
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A cotton gin is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, allowing for much greater productivity than manual cotton separation. The fibers are then processed into various goods such as linens. Seeds may be used to grow cotton or to produce cottonseed oil. Handheld roller gins had been used in India and then other countries since at earliest 500 CE, the Indian worm-gear roller gin, invented some time around the sixteenth century, has, according to Lakwete, remained virtually unchanged up to the present time. The modern mechanical cotton gin was created by American inventor Eli Whitney in 1793, whitneys gin used a combination of a wire screen and balls to pull the cotton through, while brushes continuously removed the loose cotton lint to prevent jams. It revolutionized the industry in the United States, but also led to the growth of slavery in the American South as the demand for cotton workers rapidly increased. The invention has thus been identified as an inadvertent contributing factor to the outbreak of the American Civil War, modern automated cotton gins use multiple powered cleaning cylinders and saws, and offer far higher productivity than their hand-powered forebears. The original cotton gin was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793, Whitney began to work on this project after moving to Georgia in search of work. Given that farmers were desperately searching for a way to cotton farming profitable. Whitney created two cotton gins, a one that could be hand cranked and a large one that could be driven by a horse or water power. Thanks to the gin, the amount of raw cotton yielded doubled each decade after 1800. The creation of the cotton gin also led to the creation of machines designed to spin and weave the fabric, single roller cotton gin, The Ajanta caves of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century. This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins, the cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, more technically the wooden-worm-worked roller. This mechanical device was, in parts of India, driven by water power. Cotton fibers are produced in the pods of the cotton plant where the fibers in the bolls are tightly interwoven with seeds. To make the fibers usable, the seeds and fibers must first be separated, many simple seed-removing devices had been invented, but until the innovation of the cotton gin, most required significant operator attention and worked only on a small scale. The earliest versions of the cotton gin consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood, evidence for this type of gin has been found in Africa, Asia, and North America. These early gins were difficult to use and required a deal of skill
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National Park Service
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It was created on August 25,1916, by Congress through the National Park Service Organic Act and is an agency of the United States Department of the Interior. As of 2014, the NPS employs 21,651 employees who oversee 417 units, the National Park Service celebrated its centennial in 2016. National parks and national monuments in the United States were originally individually managed under the auspices of the Department of the Interior, the movement for an independent agency to oversee these federal lands was spearheaded by business magnate and conservationist Stephen Mather, as well as J. Horace McFarland. With the help of journalist Robert Sterling Yard, Mather ran a publicity campaign for the Department of the Interior and they wrote numerous articles that praised the scenic and historic qualities of the parks and their possibilities for educational, inspirational, and recreational benefits. This campaign resulted in the creation of a National Park Service, Mather became the first director of the newly formed NPS. On March 3,1933, President Herbert Hoover signed the Reorganization Act of 1933, the act would allow the President to reorganize the executive branch of the United States government. It wasnt until later that summer when the new President, Franklin D. Roosevelt, President Roosevelt agreed and issued two Executive orders to make it happen. In 1951, Conrad Wirth became director of the National Park Service, the demand for parks after the end of the World War II had left the parks overburdened with demands that could not be met. In 1952, with the support of President Dwight D. Eisenhower, he began Mission 66, New parks were added to preserve unique resources and existing park facilities were upgraded and expanded. In 1966, as the Park Service turned 50 years old, emphasis began to turn from just saving great and wonderful scenery, Director George Hartzog began the process with the creation of the National Lakeshores and then National Recreation Areas. Since its inception in 1916, the National Park Service has managed each of the United States national parks, Yellowstone National Park was the first national park in the United States. In 1872, there was no government to manage it. Yosemite National Park began as a park, the land for the park was donated by the federal government to the state of California in 1864 for perpetual conservation. Yosemite was later returned to federal ownership, at first, each national park was managed independently, with varying degrees of success. In Yellowstone, the staff was replaced by the U. S. Army in 1886. Due to the irregularities in managing these national treasures, Stephen Mather petitioned the government to improve the situation. In response, Secretary of the Interior Franklin K. Lane challenged him to lobby for creating a new agency, Mather was successful with the ratification of the National Park Service Organic Act in 1916. Later, the agency was given authority over other protected areas, the National Park System includes all properties managed by the National Park Service
43.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
44.
Heritage Documentation Programs
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These programs were established to document historic places in the United States. Records consist of measured drawings, archival photographs, and written reports, in 1933, NPS established the Historic American Buildings Survey following a proposal by Charles E. Peterson, a young landscape architect in the agency. It was founded as a constructive program for architects, draftsmen. Guided by field instructions from Washington, D. C. the first HABS recorders were tasked with documenting a representative sampling of Americas architectural heritage, by creating an archive of historic architecture, HABS provided a database of primary source material and documentation for the then-fledgling historic preservation movement. Earlier private projects included the White Pine Series of Architectural Monographs, notable HABS photographers include Jack Boucher, who worked for the project for over 40 years. The Historic American Engineering Record program was founded on January 10,1969, by NPS, HAER documents historic mechanical and engineering artifacts. Since the advent of HAER, the program is typically called HABS/HAER. Today much of the work of HABS/HAER is done by student teams during the summer, eric DeLony headed HAER from 1971 to 2003. In October 2000, NPS and the American Society of Landscape Architects established a sister program, a predecessor, the Historic American Landscape and Garden Project, recorded historic Massachusetts gardens between 1935 and 1940. That project was funded by the Works Progress Administration, but was administered by HABS, the permanent collection of HABS/HAER/HALS are housed at the Library of Congress, which was established in 1790 as the replacement reference library of the United States Congress. It has since expanded to serve as the National Library of the United States, U. S. publishers are required to deposit a copy of every copyrighted and published work, book monograph. As a branch of the United States Government, its works are in the public domain in the US. Many images, drawings, and documents are available through the Prints and Photographs Online Catalog, including proposed, demolished, and existing structures, locales, projects, and designs. Jack Boucher, former HABS/HAER photographer Jet Lowe, former HAER photographer National Register of Historic Places HAER,30 Years of Recording Our Technological Heritage, IA, The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology. Documenting Complexity, The Historic American Engineering Record and Americas Technological History, IA, The Journal of the Society for Industrial Archeology. National Park Service−NPS, official Heritage Documentation Programs website
45.
George Wilson Pierson
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George Wilson Pierson was an American academic, historian, author and Larned Professor of History at Yale University. He was the first official historian of the university, Pierson was a descendant of Yales first rector, Abraham Pierson, and he was related to the colleges first student. He was the son of Charles Wheeler Pierson, a New York lawyer who had been valedictorian of the Class of 1886, like his father, Pierson was at the top of his undergraduate class in 1926. In 1936, he brought a new bride to New Haven, in the early 1960s, he and his wife celebrated the marriage of two daughters, Laetitia and Nora. According to a granddaughter, he was a man with glittering eyes, Pierson earned a B. A. at Yale in 1926, and was awarded a Ph. D. in history from Yale in 1933. His dissertation was Two Frenchmen in America, 1831-1832, a study of the experiences of Alexis de Toqueville and it won the distinguished John Addison Porter Prize from the university for best work of scholarship that year. Piersons entire academic career unfolded at Yale, beginning in 1926, the value of this early scholarship assumed greater importance as general public interest in Tocquevilles writing has evolved. Pierson was named to a professorship in 1946. He remained active in teaching and as an administrator until his retirement in 1973, Pierson had climbed the academic ladder to become the chairman of the History Department in the late-1950s and early-1960s. Among his achievements was recruiting noted historians Arthur F. Wright and Mary C. Wright to teach Chinese history, in the foreword to Yale, A Short History, Pierson described Yale as at once a tradition, a company of scholars, a society of friends. Piersons published writings encompass 38 works in 53 publications in 2 languages and 3,904 library holdings and his works are widely studied and are used frequently in most collegiate level U. S. history courses. The M-factor in American History Tocqueville in America The Education of American Leaders, colleges and Universities The moving American Lettres dAmérique by Gustave de Beaumont, edited by George Pierson. 1974 — William Clyde DeVane medal, George Pierson,88, A Professor at Yale And Its Historian, New York Times. Cheerful Money, Me, My Family, And the Last Days of Wasp Splendor, New York, Little, Brown and Co
46.
Elihu Yale
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Yales ancestry can be traced back to the family estate at Plas yn Iâl near the village of Llandegla, Denbighshire, Wales. The name Yale is the English spelling of the Welsh place name Iâl, the Yale family left Boston and returned to England when Elihu was three years old and he grew up going to school in London. For 20 years Yale served the Honourable East India Company, in 1684 he became the first president of Fort St. George, the companys post at Madras, India. He succeeded a number of agents from Andrew Cogan to William Gyfford, Yale was instrumental in the development of the Government General Hospital, housed at Fort St. George. Yale amassed a fortune working for the company, largely through secret contracts with Madras merchants. By 1692, his repeated flouting of East India Company regulations, Yale returned to Britain in 1699. He spent the rest of his life at Plas Grono, a mansion bought by his father near Wrexham, Wales, or at his house in London, Yale married Catherine Hynmers, a widow, in 1680. The wedding took place at St. Marys Church, at Fort St. George, the marriage was the first registered at the church. Elihu Yale was re-appointed as president of the administration of Fort St George on 26 July 1687 and he then implemented an order dated 14 January 1685 which required the English at Fort St George to make all attempts at procurement of the town of St Thome on lease. To this effect, Chinna Venkatadri was sent to negotiate with the governor on 4 August 1687. The mission was successful and Chinna Venkatadri assumed sovereignty over St Thome for a period of three years, notwithstanding the vehement protests of the Portuguese inhabitants of St Thome, the English gained absolute control over all lands up to St Thomas Mount for a period of three years. In September 1688, the Mughal Emperor Aurangazeb took Golconda after a prolonged battle, the Mughals took Sultan of Golconda prisoner and annexed the state. Aurangazeb guaranteed the independence of Madras, but in return demanded that the English supply troops in the event of a war against the Marathas and it was around this time that Yales three-year-old son David Yale died and was interred in the Madras cemetery. The records of this period mention a flourishing trade in Madras. He enforced a law that at least ten slaves should be carried on every ship bound for Europe, in his capacity as judge he also on several occasions sentenced so-called black criminals to whipping and enslavement. When the demand began to rapidly, the English merchants even began to kidnap young children and deport them to distant parts of the world. The charter came into effect on 29 September 1688, and a Corporation was established comprising a Mayor,12 Aldermen, 60-100 Burgesses, Nathaniel Higginson, who was then the second member of the Council of Fort St George took office as the Mayor of Madras. In August 1689, a French fleet appeared near the coast of Ceylon compelling the Governor of Pulicat Lawrence Pitt who was on high seas to seek protection within the bastions of Fort St George
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