1.
Piston
–
A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the component that is contained by a cylinder and is made gas-tight by piston rings. In an engine, its purpose is to force from expanding gas in the cylinder to the crankshaft via a piston rod and/or connecting rod. In a pump, the function is reversed and force is transferred from the crankshaft to the piston for the purpose of compressing or ejecting the fluid in the cylinder, in some engines, the piston also acts as a valve by covering and uncovering ports in the cylinder wall. An internal combustion engine is acted upon by the pressure of the combustion gases in the combustion chamber space at the top of the cylinder. This force then acts downwards through the rod and onto the crankshaft. The connecting rod is attached to the piston by a swivelling gudgeon pin and this pin is mounted within the piston, unlike the steam engine, there is no piston rod or crosshead. The pin itself is of hardened steel and is fixed in the piston, a few designs use a fully floating design that is loose in both components. All pins must be prevented from moving sideways and the ends of the pin digging into the cylinder wall, gas sealing is achieved by the use of piston rings. These are a number of iron rings, fitted loosely into grooves in the piston. The rings are split at a point in the rim, allowing them to press against the cylinder with a light spring pressure. Two types of ring are used, the rings have solid faces and provide gas sealing, lower rings have narrow edges. There are many proprietary and detail design features associated with piston rings, pistons are cast from aluminium alloys. For better strength and fatigue life, some racing pistons may be forged instead, early pistons were of cast iron, but there were obvious benefits for engine balancing if a lighter alloy could be used. To produce pistons that could survive engine combustion temperatures, it was necessary to develop new alloys such as Y alloy and Hiduminium, a few early gas engines had double-acting cylinders, but otherwise effectively all internal combustion engine pistons are single-acting. During World War II, the US submarine Pompano was fitted with a prototype of the infamously unreliable H. O. R, although compact, for use in a cramped submarine, this design of engine was not repeated. Media related to Internal combustion engine pistons at Wikimedia Commons Trunk pistons are long relative to their diameter and they act both as a piston and cylindrical crosshead. As the connecting rod is angled for much of its rotation, a longer piston helps to support this
2.
Crank (mechanism)
–
A crank is an arm attached at a right angle to a rotating shaft by which reciprocating motion is imparted to or received from the shaft. It is used to convert circular motion into reciprocating motion, or vice versa, the arm may be a bent portion of the shaft, or a separate arm or disk attached to it. Attached to the end of the crank by a pivot is a rod, the end of the rod attached to the crank moves in a circular motion, while the other end is usually constrained to move in a linear sliding motion. The term often refers to a crank which is used to manually turn an axle, as in a bicycle crankset or a brace. In this case a persons arm or leg serves as the connecting rod, there is usually a bar perpendicular to the other end of the arm, often with a freely rotatable handle or pedal attached. Familiar examples include, Mechanical pencil sharpener Fishing reel and other reels for cables, wires, ropes, manually operated car window The carpenters brace is a compound crank. The crank set that drives a handcycle through its handles, the crankset that drives a bicycle via the pedals. Treadle sewing machine Almost all reciprocating engines use cranks to transform the motion of the pistons into rotary motion. The cranks are incorporated into a crankshaft, the displacement of the end of the connecting rod is approximately proportional to the cosine of the angle of rotation of the crank, when it is measured from top dead center. The mechanical advantage of a crank, the ratio between the force on the rod and the torque on the shaft, varies throughout the cranks cycle. The relationship between the two is approximately, τ = F r sin where τ is the torque and F is the force on the connecting rod. But in reality, the torque is maximum at crank angle of less than α = 90° from TDC for a force on the piston. One way to calculate this angle is to find out when the Connecting rod smallend speed becomes the fastest in downward direction given a steady crank rotational velocity. 17615° after TDC. Then, using the sine law, it is found that the crank to connecting rod angle is 88. 21738°. When the crank is driven by the rod, a problem arises when the crank is at top dead centre or bottom dead centre. At these points in the cycle, a force on the connecting rod causes no torque on the crank. Therefore, if the crank is stationary and happens to be at one of two points, it cannot be started moving by the connecting rod. The eccentrically mounted handle of the rotary handmill which appeared in 5th century BC Celtiberian Spain, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland
3.
Crankshaft
–
A crankshaft—related to crank—is a mechanical part able to perform a conversion between reciprocating motion and rotational motion. In a reciprocating engine, it translates reciprocating motion of the piston into rotational motion, whereas in a reciprocating compressor, a Roman iron crank of yet unknown purpose dating to the 2nd century AD was excavated in Augusta Raurica, Switzerland. The 82.5 cm long piece has fitted to one end a 15 cm long bronze handle, the accompanying inscription is in Greek. The crank and connecting rod mechanisms of the other two archaeologically attested sawmills worked without a gear train, al-Jazari described a crank and connecting rod system in a rotating machine in two of his water-raising machines. His twin-cylinder pump incorporated a crankshaft, though the device was unnecessarily complex, the Italian physician Guido da Vigevano, planning for a new crusade, made illustrations for a paddle boat and war carriages that were propelled by manually turned compound cranks and gear wheels. In Renaissance Italy, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting-rod is found in the sketch books of Taccola. A sound grasp of the motion involved is demonstrated a little later by Pisanello. One of the drawings of the Anonymous of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. Crankshafts were also described by Konrad Kyeser, Leonardo da Vinci and his wind-powered sawmill used a crankshaft to convert a windmills circular motion into a back-and-forward motion powering the saw. Corneliszoon was granted a patent for his crankshaft in 1597, large engines are usually multicylinder to reduce pulsations from individual firing strokes, with more than one piston attached to a complex crankshaft. Many small engines, such as found in mopeds or garden machinery, are single cylinder and use only a single piston. A crankshaft is subjected to stresses, potentially equivalent of several tonnes of force. The crankshaft is connected to the fly-wheel, the block, using bearings on the main journals. An engine loses up to 75% of its energy in the form of friction, noise and vibration in the crankcase. The remaining losses occur in the heat and blow by. The crankshaft has a linear axis about which it rotates, typically with several bearing journals riding on replaceable bearings held in the engine block. As the crankshaft undergoes a great deal of sideways load from each cylinder in an engine, it must be supported by several such bearings. This was a factor in the rise of V8 engines, with their shorter crankshafts, the long crankshafts of the latter suffered from an unacceptable amount of flex when engine designers began using higher compression ratios and higher rotational speeds
4.
Reciprocating engine
–
A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is typically a heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating pistons to convert pressure into a rotating motion. This article describes the features of all types. The main types are, the combustion engine, used extensively in motor vehicles, the steam engine, the mainstay of the Industrial Revolution. There may be one or more pistons, the hot gases expand, pushing the piston to the bottom of the cylinder. This position is known as the Bottom Dead Center, or where the piston forms the largest volume in the cylinder. The piston is returned to the top by a flywheel. This is where the forms the smallest volume in the cylinder. In most types the expanded or exhausted gases are removed from the cylinder by this stroke, the exception is the Stirling engine, which repeatedly heats and cools the same sealed quantity of gas. The stroke is simply the distance between the TDC and the BDC, or the greatest distance that the piston can travel in one direction, in some designs the piston may be powered in both directions in the cylinder, in which case it is said to be double-acting. In most types, the movement of the piston is converted to a rotating movement via a connecting rod. A flywheel is used to ensure smooth rotation or to store energy to carry the engine through an un-powered part of the cycle. The more cylinders an engine has, generally, the more vibration-free it can operate. The power of an engine is proportional to the volume of the combined pistons displacement. A seal must be made between the piston and the walls of the cylinder so that the high pressure gas above the piston does not leak past it. This seal is provided by one or more piston rings. These are rings made of a metal, and are sprung into a circular groove in the piston head. The rings fit tightly in the groove and press against the wall to form a seal. Cylinder capacities may range from 10 cm³ or less in model engines up to several thousand cubic centimetres in ships engines, the compression ratio affects the performance in most types of reciprocating engine
5.
Automotive engine
–
As of 2013 there were a wide variety of propulsion systems available or potentially available for automobiles and other vehicles. Options included internal combustion engines fueled by petrol, diesel, propane, or natural gas, hybrid vehicles, plug-in hybrids, fuel cell vehicles fueled by hydrogen, fueled vehicles seemed to have the short term advantage due to the limited range and high cost of batteries. Some options required construction of a network of fueling or charging stations, with no compelling advantage for any particular option car makers pursued parallel development tracks using a variety of options. Reducing the weight of vehicles was one strategy being employed, the chief characteristic of an automotive engine is a high power-to-weight ratio. This is achieved by using a rotational speed. However, automotive engines are modified for marine use, forming a marine automobile engine. In the early years, steam engines and electric motors were tried, in the 20th century, the internal combustion engine became dominant. In 2015, the combustion engine remains the most widely used
6.
Steam engine
–
A steam engine is a heat engine that performs mechanical work using steam as its working fluid. Steam engines are combustion engines, where the working fluid is separate from the combustion products. Non-combustion heat sources such as power, nuclear power or geothermal energy may be used. The ideal thermodynamic cycle used to analyze this process is called the Rankine cycle, in the cycle, water is heated and transforms into steam within a boiler operating at a high pressure. When expanded through pistons or turbines, mechanical work is done, the reduced-pressure steam is then exhausted to the atmosphere, or condensed and pumped back into the boiler. Specialized devices such as hammers and steam pile drivers are dependent on the steam pressure supplied from a separate boiler. The use of boiling water to mechanical motion goes back over 2000 years. The Spanish inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained the first patent for an engine in 1606. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam pump that used steam in direct contact with the water being pumped, Saverys steam pump used condensing steam to create a vacuum and draw water into a chamber, and then applied pressurized steam to further pump the water. Thomas Newcomens atmospheric engine was the first commercial steam engine using a piston. In 1781 James Watt patented an engine that produced continuous rotary motion. Watts ten-horsepower engines enabled a range of manufacturing machinery to be powered. The engines could be sited anywhere that water and coal or wood fuel could be obtained, by 1883, engines that could provide 10,000 hp had become feasible. The stationary steam engine was a key component of the Industrial Revolution, the aeolipile described by Hero of Alexandria in the 1st century AD is considered to be the first recorded steam engine. Torque was produced by steam jets exiting the turbine, in the Spanish Empire, the great inventor Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont obtained a patent for the first steam engine in history in 1603. Thomas Savery, in 1698, patented the first practical, atmospheric pressure and it had no piston or moving parts, only taps. It was an engine, a kind of thermic syphon, in which steam was admitted to an empty container. The vacuum thus created was used to water from the sump at the bottom of the mine
7.
Steam locomotive
–
A steam locomotive is a railway locomotive that produces its pulling power through a steam engine. These locomotives are fueled by burning combustible material—usually coal, wood, the steam moves reciprocating pistons which are mechanically connected to the locomotives main wheels. Both fuel and water supplies are carried with the locomotive, either on the locomotive itself or in wagons pulled behind, the first steam locomotive, made by Richard Trevithick, first operated on 21 February 1804, three years after the road locomotive he made in 1801. The first practical steam locomotive was built in 1812-13 by John Blenkinsop, Steam locomotives were first developed in Great Britain during the early 19th century and used for railway transport until the middle of the 20th century. From the early 1900s they were superseded by electric and diesel locomotives, with full conversions to electric. The majority of locomotives were retired from regular service by the 1980s, though several continue to run on tourist. The earliest railways employed horses to draw carts along railway tracks, in 1784, William Murdoch, a Scottish inventor, built a small-scale prototype of a steam road locomotive. An early working model of a rail locomotive was designed and constructed by steamboat pioneer John Fitch in the US during 1794. His steam locomotive used interior bladed wheels guided by rails or tracks, the model still exists at the Ohio Historical Society Museum in Columbus. The authenticity and date of this locomotive is disputed by some experts, accompanied by Andrew Vivian, it ran with mixed success. The design incorporated a number of important innovations that included using high-pressure steam which reduced the weight of the engine, Trevithick visited the Newcastle area in 1804 and had a ready audience of colliery owners and engineers. The visit was so successful that the railways in north-east England became the leading centre for experimentation. Trevithick continued his own steam propulsion experiments through another trio of locomotives, Four years later, the successful twin-cylinder locomotive Salamanca by Matthew Murray for the edge railed rack and pinion Middleton Railway debuted in 1812. Another well known early locomotive was Puffing Billy built 1813–14 by engineer William Hedley and it was intended to work on the Wylam Colliery near Newcastle upon Tyne. This locomotive is the oldest preserved, and is on display in the Science Museum. George Stephenson built Locomotion No.1 for the Stockton and Darlington Railway, north-east England, in 1829, his son Robert built in Newcastle The Rocket which was entered in and won the Rainhill Trials. This success led to the company emerging as the pre-eminent builder of locomotives used on railways in the UK, US. The Liverpool and Manchester Railway opened a year later making exclusive use of power for passenger
8.
Hierapolis sawmill
–
The Hierapolis sawmill is believed to be a Roman water-powered stone sawmill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor. Some archaeologists believe that the watermill is evidenced by a relief on the sarcophagus of a certain Marcus Aurelius Ammianos. On the pediment a waterwheel fed by a race is shown powering via a gear train two frame saws cutting rectangular blocks by the way of connecting rods and, through mechanical necessity. The accompanying inscription is in Greek and attributes the mechanism to Ammianos skills with wheels, further Roman crank and connecting rod mechanisms, without gear train, are archaeologically attested for the 6th century AD water-powered stone sawmills at Gerasa, Jordan, and Ephesus, Turkey. A fourth sawmill possibly existed at Augusta Raurica, Switzerland, where a metal crankshaft from the 2nd century AD has been excavated, literary references to water-powered marble saws in Trier, now Germany, can be found in Ausonius late 4th century AD poem Mosella. About the same time, they seem to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia. 138–163 Grewe, Klaus, Die Reliefdarstellung einer antiken Steinsägemaschine aus Hierapolis in Phrygien und ihre Bedeutung für die Technikgeschichte. A Sixth Century Water-powered Sawmill at Jerash, Annual of the Department of Antiquities of Jordan,26, pp. 205–213 Roman sawmill at Ephesos Mangartz, Fritz, 113–124 Seigne, J. Water-powered Stone Saws in Late Antiquity. The Precondition for Industrialisation. in Wiplinger, G. Cura Aquarum in Ephesos, congress on the History of Water Management and Hydraulic Engineering in the Mediterranean Region, Ephesus/Selçuk, Turkey, October 2-10,2004, Vol.1, Babesch suppl. 12, Leiden, Peeters, pp. 136–157, ISBN 978-0-19-518731-1 Wilson, Andrew, Machines, Power and the Ancient Economy, The Journal of Roman Studies,92, pp. 1–32, doi,10
9.
Anatolia
–
Anatolia, in geography known as Asia Minor, Asian Turkey, Anatolian peninsula, or Anatolian plateau, is the westernmost protrusion of Asia, which makes up the majority of modern-day Turkey. The region is bounded by the Black Sea to the north, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Sea of Marmara forms a connection between the Black and Aegean Seas through the Bosphorus and Dardanelles straits and separates Anatolia from Thrace on the European mainland. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line between the Gulf of Alexandretta and the Black Sea to the Armenian Highlands, thus, traditionally Anatolia is the territory that comprises approximately the western two-thirds of the Asian part of Turkey. The Turkification of Anatolia began under the Seljuk Empire in the late 11th century, however, various non-Turkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in Anatolia today, including Kurdish, Assyrian, Armenian, Arabic, Laz, Georgian, and Greek. Traditionally, Anatolia is considered to extend in the east to a line running from the Gulf of Alexandretta to the Black Sea. This traditional geographical definition is used, for example, in the latest edition of Merriam-Websters Geographical Dictionary, under this definition, Anatolia is bounded to the east by the Armenian Highlands, and the Euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter Mesopotamia. To the southeast, it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the Orontes valley in Syria, the first name the Greeks used for the Anatolian peninsula was Ἀσία, presumably after the name of the Assuwa league in western Anatolia. As the name of Asia came to be extended to areas east of the Mediterranean. The name Anatolia derives from the Greek ἀνατολή meaning “the East” or more literally “sunrise”, the precise reference of this term has varied over time, perhaps originally referring to the Aeolian, Ionian and Dorian colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor. In the Byzantine Empire, the Anatolic Theme was a theme covering the western, the modern Turkish form of Anatolia is Anadolu, which again derives from the Greek name Aνατολή. The Russian male name Anatoly and the French Anatole share the same linguistic origin, in English the name of Turkey for ancient Anatolia first appeared c. It is derived from the Medieval Latin Turchia, which was used by the Europeans to define the Seljuk controlled parts of Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert. Human habitation in Anatolia dates back to the Paleolithic, neolithic Anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the Indo-European language family, although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the Black Sea. However, it is clear that the Anatolian languages, the oldest branch of Indo-European, have spoken in Anatolia since at least the 19th century BC. The earliest historical records of Anatolia stem from the southeast of the region and are from the Mesopotamian-based Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon of Akkad in the 24th century BC, scholars generally believe the earliest indigenous populations of Anatolia were the Hattians and Hurrians. The region was famous for exporting raw materials, and areas of Hattian-, one of the numerous cuneiform records dated circa 20th century BC, found in Anatolia at the Assyrian colony of Kanesh, uses an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines. They were speakers of an Indo-European language, the Hittite language, originating from Nesa, they conquered Hattusa in the 18th century BC, imposing themselves over Hattian- and Hurrian-speaking populations. According to the most widely accepted Kurgan theory on the Proto-Indo-European homeland, however, the Hittites adopted the cuneiform script, invented in Mesopotamia
10.
Asia (Roman province)
–
The Roman province of Asia or Asiana, in Byzantine times called Phrygia, was an administrative unit added to the late Republic. It was a Senatorial province governed by a proconsul, the arrangement was unchanged in the reorganization of the Roman Empire in 211. Antiochus III the Great had to give up Asia when the Romans crushed his army at the battle of Magnesia. After the Treaty of Apamea, the territory was surrendered to Rome. Asia province originally consisted of Mysia, the Troad, Aeolis, Lydia, Ionia, Caria, aegean islands except Crete, were part of the Insulae of Asiana. Part of Phrygia was given to Mithridates V Euergetes before it was reclaimed as part of the province in 116 BC, lycaonia was added before 100 BC while the area around Cibyra was added in 82 BC. The southeast region of Asia province was later reassigned to the province of Cilicia, during, the empire, Asia province was bounded by Bithynia to the north, Lycia to the south, and Galatia to the east. With no apparent heir, Attalus III of Pergamum having been an ally of Rome. Upon Attalus’s passing in 133 BC, Attalid pretender Eumenes III staged a rebellion and he defeated one of the consuls of 131 BC, Crassus Mucianus. The following consul Marcus Perperna, however, soon brought the war to a close and he defeated Eumenes in the first engagement, and followed up his victory by laying siege to Stratonikeia, whither Eumenes had fled. The town was compelled by famine to surrender, and the king fell into the consuls hands. Manius Aquillius formally established the region as Asia province, the bequest of the Attalid kingdom to Rome presented serious implications for neighboring territories. It was during this period that Pontus rose in status under the rule of Mithridates VI and he would prove to be a formidable foe to Rome’s success in Asia province and beyond. Rome had always been reluctant to involve itself in matters to the east. It typically relied on allies to arbitrate in the case of a conflict, very rarely would Rome send delegations to the east, much less have a strong governmental presence. This apathy did not change even after the gift from Attalus in 133 BC. In fact, parts of the Pergamene kingdom were voluntarily relinquished to different nations, for example, Great Phrygia was given to Mithridates V of Pontus. While the Senate was hesitant in involving itself in Asian affairs, others had no such reluctance, a law passed by Gaius Gracchus in 123 BC gave the right to collect taxes in Asia to members of the equestrian order
11.
Turkey
–
Turkey, officially the Republic of Turkey, is a transcontinental country in Eurasia, mainly in Anatolia in Western Asia, with a smaller portion on the Balkan peninsula in Southeast Europe. Turkey is a democratic, secular, unitary, parliamentary republic with a cultural heritage. The country is encircled by seas on three sides, the Aegean Sea is to the west, the Black Sea to the north, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. The Bosphorus, the Sea of Marmara, and the Dardanelles, Ankara is the capital while Istanbul is the countrys largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Approximately 70-80% of the countrys citizens identify themselves as ethnic Turks, other ethnic groups include legally recognised and unrecognised minorities. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority group, making up approximately 20% of the population, the area of Turkey has been inhabited since the Paleolithic by various ancient Anatolian civilisations, as well as Assyrians, Greeks, Thracians, Phrygians, Urartians and Armenians. After Alexander the Greats conquest, the area was Hellenized, a process continued under the Roman Empire. The Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm ruled Anatolia until the Mongol invasion in 1243, the empire reached the peak of its power in the 16th century, especially during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. During the war, the Ottoman government committed genocides against its Armenian, Assyrian, following the war, the conglomeration of territories and peoples that formerly comprised the Ottoman Empire was partitioned into several new states. Turkey is a member of the UN, an early member of NATO. Turkeys growing economy and diplomatic initiatives have led to its recognition as a regional power while her location has given it geopolitical, the name of Turkey is based on the ethnonym Türk. The first recorded use of the term Türk or Türük as an autonym is contained in the Old Turkic inscriptions of the Göktürks of Central Asia, the English name Turkey first appeared in the late 14th century and is derived from Medieval Latin Turchia. Similarly, the medieval Khazar Empire, a Turkic state on the shores of the Black. The medieval Arabs referred to the Mamluk Sultanate as al-Dawla al-Turkiyya, the Ottoman Empire was sometimes referred to as Turkey or the Turkish Empire among its European contemporaries. The Anatolian peninsula, comprising most of modern Turkey, is one of the oldest permanently settled regions in the world, various ancient Anatolian populations have lived in Anatolia, from at least the Neolithic period until the Hellenistic period. Many of these peoples spoke the Anatolian languages, a branch of the larger Indo-European language family, in fact, given the antiquity of the Indo-European Hittite and Luwian languages, some scholars have proposed Anatolia as the hypothetical centre from which the Indo-European languages radiated. The European part of Turkey, called Eastern Thrace, has also been inhabited since at least forty years ago. It is the largest and best-preserved Neolithic site found to date, the settlement of Troy started in the Neolithic Age and continued into the Iron Age
12.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
13.
Sawmill
–
A sawmill or lumber mill is a facility where logs are cut into lumber. Prior to the invention of the sawmill, boards were rived and planed, the earliest known mechanical mill is the Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor dating back to the 3rd century AD. Other water-powered mills followed and by the 11th century they were widespread in Spain and North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, the circular motion of the wheel was converted to a reciprocating motion at the saw blade. Generally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand, an early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to move the log steadily through the saw blade. Scrap lumber from the mill provided a source of fuel for firing the boiler, the arrival of railroads meant that logs could be transported to mills rather than mills being built besides navigable waterways. Besides the sawn timber, use is made of all the by-products including sawdust, bark, wood chips, a sawmills basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago, a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end. After trees are selected for harvest, the step in logging is felling the trees. Branches are cut off the trunk, logs are taken by logging truck, rail or a log drive to the sawmill. Logs are scaled either on the way to the mill or upon arrival at the mill, debarking removes bark from the logs. Decking is the process for sorting the logs by species, size, a sawyer uses a head saw to break the log into cants and flitches. Trimming squares the ends at typical lumber lengths, drying removes naturally occurring moisture from the lumber. This can be done with kilns or air-dried, planing smooths the surface of the lumber leaving a uniform width and thickness. Shipping transports the lumber to market. The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis and it is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism. Water-powered stone sawmills working with cranks and connecting rods, but without gear train, are attested for the 6th century AD at the Eastern Roman cities Gerasa. The earliest literary reference to a working sawmill comes from a Roman poet, at one point in the poem he describes the shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble. Marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia around 370/390 AD, sawmills became widespread in medieval Europe again, as one was sketched by Villard de Honnecourt in c. They are claimed to have introduced to Madeira following its discovery in c.1420
14.
Ephesus
–
Ephesus was an ancient Greek city on the coast of Ionia, three kilometres southwest of present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in the 10th century BC on the site of the former Arzawan capital by Attic, during the Classical Greek era it was one of the twelve cities of the Ionian League. The city flourished after it came under the control of the Roman Republic in 129 BC, the city was famed for the nearby Temple of Artemis, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Among many other buildings are the Library of Celsus. Ephesus was one of the seven churches of Asia that are cited in the Book of Revelation, the Gospel of John may have been written here. The city was the site of several 5th century Christian Councils, the city was destroyed by the Goths in 263, and although rebuilt, the citys importance as a commercial centre declined as the harbour was slowly silted up by the Küçükmenderes River. It was partially destroyed by an earthquake in 614 AD, the area surrounding Ephesus was already inhabited during the Neolithic Age, as was revealed by excavations at the nearby höyük of Arvalya and Cukurici. Excavations in recent years have unearthed settlements from the early Bronze Age at Ayasuluk Hill, according to Hittite sources, the capital of the Kingdom of Arzawa was Apasa. Some scholars suggest that this is the later Greek Ephesus, in 1954, a burial ground from the Mycenaean era with ceramic pots was discovered close to the ruins of the basilica of St. John. This was the period of the Mycenaean Expansion when the Achaioi settled in Asia Minor during the 14th and 13th centuries BC, Ephesus was founded as an Attic-Ionian colony in the 10th century BC on the Ayasuluk Hill, three kilometers from the centre of ancient Ephesus. The mythical founder of the city was a prince of Athens named Androklos, according to the legend, he founded Ephesus on the place where the oracle of Delphi became reality. Androklos drove away most of the native Carian and Lelegian inhabitants of the city and he was a successful warrior, and as a king he was able to join the twelve cities of Ionia together into the Ionian League. During his reign the city began to prosper and he died in a battle against the Carians when he came to the aid of Priene, another city of the Ionian League. Androklos and his dog are depicted on the Hadrian temple frieze, later, Greek historians such as Pausanias, Strabo and Herodotos and the poet Kallinos reassigned the citys mythological foundation to Ephos, queen of the Amazons. The Greek goddess Artemis and the great Anatolian goddess Kybele were identified together as Artemis of Ephesus, Pausanias mentions that the temple was built by Ephesus, son of the river god Caystrus, before the arrival of the Ionians. Of this structure, scarcely a trace remains, about 650 BC, Ephesus was attacked by the Cimmerians who razed the city, including the temple of Artemis. After the Cimmerians had been away, the city was ruled by a series of tyrants. Following a revolt by the people, Ephesus was ruled by a council and his signature has been found on the base of one of the columns of the temple
15.
Gerasa
–
Jerash, the Gerasa of Antiquity, is the capital and largest city of Jerash Governorate, which is situated in the north of Jordan,48 kilometres north of the capital Amman towards Syria. Jerash Governorates geographical features vary from cold mountains to fertile valleys from 250 to 300 metres above sea level, the 749 Galilee earthquake destroyed large parts of Jerash, while subsequent earthquakes along with wars and turmoil contributed to additional destruction. Then after, the Crusaders abandoned Jerash for Sakib the eastern border of the Kingdom of Jerusalem with Seljuk Empire and they initiated a re-treatment of the eastern border of settlement. This, however, was not yet permanent, since Jerash re-appeared on Ottoman tax registers of the 16th century, most of the ruins of Jerash remained buried in the soil for hundreds of years until they were discovered by German Orientalist Ulrich Jasper Seetzen in 1806. Subsequently, a community of people from Syria came to the area by the time of the Emirate of Transjordan, evidence of settlements dating to the Bronze Age have been found in the region. Jerash is the site of the ruins of the Greco-Roman city of Gerasa and this took place during the spring of 331 BC, when Alexander left Egypt, crossed Syria and then went to Mesopotamia. After the Roman conquest in 63 BC, Jerash and the land surrounding it were annexed to the Roman province of Syria, in AD90, Jerash was absorbed into the Roman province of Arabia, which included the city of Philadelphia. The Romans ensured security and peace in this area, which enabled its people to devote their efforts and time to economic development, Jerash is considered one of the most important and best preserved Roman cities in the Near East. Jerash was the birthplace of the mathematician Nicomachus of Gerasa, in the second half of the 1st century AD, the city of Jerash achieved great prosperity. In AD106, the Emperor Trajan constructed roads throughout the province, the Emperor Hadrian visited Jerash in AD 129–130. The triumphal arch was built to celebrate his visit, a remarkable Latin inscription records a religious dedication set up by members of the imperial mounted bodyguard wintering there. The city finally reached a size of about 800,000 square meters within its walls, the Persian invasion in AD614 caused the rapid decline of Jerash. Despite its decline, the city continued to flourish during the Umayyad period, in AD749, a major earthquake destroyed much of Jerash and its surroundings. During the period of the Crusades, some of the monuments were converted to fortresses, small settlements continued in Jerash during the Ayyubid, Mamluk Sultanate, and Ottoman periods. Most of these monuments were built by donations of the wealthy citizens. The south theatre has a focus in the centre of the pit in front of the stage, marked by a distinct stone, and from which normal speaking can be heard easily throughout the auditorium. From AD350, a large Christian community lived in Jerash, a cathedral was built in the 4th century. An ancient synagogue with detailed mosaics, including the story of Noah, was found beneath a church, the use of water power to saw wood or stone is well known in the Greek and Roman world, the invention in Greece occurring in the 3rd century BC
16.
Roman Syria
–
Syria was an early Roman province, annexed to the Roman Republic in 64 BC by Pompey in the Third Mithridatic War, following the defeat of Armenian King Tigranes the Great. Following the partition of the Herodian Kingdom into tetrarchies in 6 AD, it was absorbed into Roman provinces, with Roman Syria annexing Iturea. Later, in 135 AD, in the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt, Syrian province was merged with Judea province, one province During the early empire, the Roman army in Syria accounted for three legions with auxiliaries, they defended the border with Parthia. Syrian province forces were engaged in the Great Jewish Revolt of 66–70 AD. In 66 AD, Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, brought the Syrian army, based on XII Fulminata, reinforced by troops, to restore order in Judaea. The legion, however, was ambushed and destroyed by Jewish rebels at the Battle of Beth Horon, the future emperor Vespasian was put in charge of subduing the Jewish revolt. In the summer of 69, Vespasian, with the Syrian units supporting him, the governor of Syria retained the civil administration of the whole large province undiminished, and held for long alone in all Asia a command of the first rank. It was Severus who at length withdrew the first place in the Roman military hierarchy from the Syrian governor, the emperor Septimius Severus divided up Roman Syria in the fashion it would remain until the rule of the Tetrarchs. From the later 2nd century, the Roman senate included several notable Syrians, Syria was of crucial strategic importance during the crisis of the third century. In 244 AD, Rome was ruled by a native Syrian from Philippopolis in the province of Arabia Petraea, the emperor was Marcus Iulius Philippus, more commonly known as Philip the Arab. Philip became the 33rd emperor of Rome upon its millennial celebration, in 259/260 a similar event happened when Shapur I again defeated a Roman field army and captured the Roman emperor, Valerian, alive at the battle of Edessa. Again Roman Syria suffered as cities were captured, sacked and pillaged, from 268 to 273, Syria was part of the breakaway Palmyrene Empire. Following the reforms of Diocletian, Syria Coele became part of the Diocese of Oriens, after c.415 Syria Coele was further subdivided into Syria I, with the capital remaining at Antioch, and Syria II or Syria Salutaris, with capital at Apamea on the Orontes. In 528, Justinian I carved out the coastal province Theodorias out of territory from both provinces. The region remained one of the most important provinces of the Byzantine Empire and it was occupied by the Sassanids between 609 and 628, then recovered by the emperor Heraclius, but lost again to the advancing Muslims after the battle of Yarmouk and the fall of Antioch. The city of Antioch was recovered in 963 AD along with other parts of the country. A reconquest undertaken by the Fatimad caliphate in the 970s retook most parts of Syria from the Byzantines, however, the Byzantine emperor Basil II reconquered all of Syria from Muslims by 1000 AD. Frequent rebellions, however, weakened Byzantine control over Syria, by 1045 only the city of Antioch remained Byzantine
17.
Artuqids
–
The Artquids or Artuqid dynasty was a Turkmen dynasty that ruled in Eastern Anatolia, Northern Syria and Northern Iraq in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. The Artuqid dynasty took its name from its founder, Zaheer-ul-Daulah Artuk Bey, the Artuqid rulers viewed the state as the common property of the dynasty members. Artuqid rulers commissioned many buildings, such as mosques, bazaars, bridges, hospitals. They left an important cultural heritage by contributing to literature and the art of metalworking, the door and door handles of the great Mosque of Cizre are unique examples of Artuqid metal working craftsmanship, which can be seen in the Turkish and Islamic Arts Museum in Istanbul, Turkey. The dynasty was founded by Artuk Bey, son of Eksük, Tutush appointed Artuq governor of Jerusalem in 1086. Artuq died in 1091, and his sons Sökmen and Ilghazi were expelled from Jerusalem by the Fatimid vizier al-Afdal Shahanshah in 1098, the Fatimids lost the city to the crusaders the following year. Sokman and Ilghazi set themselves up in Diyarbakır, Mardin, and Hasankeyf in the Jezirah, Sokman, bey of Mardin, defeated the crusaders at the Battle of Harran in 1104. Ilghazi succeeded Sokman in Mardin and imposed his control over Aleppo at the request of the qadi Ibn al-Khashshab in 1118, in 1119 Ilgazi defeated the crusader Principality of Antioch at the Battle of Ager Sanguinis. In 1121 a Seljuq-Artuqid alliance, commanded by Mehmed I of Great Seljuq, Ilghazi died in 1122, and although his nephew Balak nominally controlled Aleppo, the city was really controlled by Ibn al-Khashshab. Al-Kashshab was assassinated in 1125, and Aleppo fell under the control of Zengi of Mosul, after the death of Balak, the Artuqids were split between Harput, Hasankeyf and Mardin. Sokmans son Davud, bey of Hasankeyf, died in 1144, Kara Aslan allied with Joscelin II of Edessa against the Zengids, and while Joscelin was away in 1144, Zengi recaptured Edessa, the first of the Crusader states to fall. Hasankeyf became a vassal of Zengi as well, Kara Aslans son Nur ad-Din Muhammad allied with the Ayyubid sultan Saladin against the Sultan of Rum Kilij Arslan II, whose daughter had married Nur ad-Din Muhammad. In the peace settlement with Kilij Arslan, Saladin gained control of the Artuqid territory, even though the Artuqids were still technically vassals of Mosul, with Artuqid support, however, Saladin eventually took control of Mosul as well. The Artuklu dynasty remained in command of upper Mesopotamia. The Hasankeyf branch conquered Diyarbakır in 1198 and its center was moved here, the Harput branch was destroyed by the Sultanate of Rum due to following a slippery policy between the Ayyubids and Seljuqs. The Mardin branch survived for longer, but as a vassal of the Ayyubids, Sultanate of Rum, Il-Khanate, karakoyunlu captured Mardin and finally put an end to Artuklu rule in 1409. Despite their constant preoccupation with war, members of the Artuklu dynasty left many architectural monuments and they made the most significant additions to Diyarbakır City Walls. Urfa Gate was rebuilt by Muhammad, son of Kara Arslan, a large caravanserai in Mardin as well as the civil engineering feat of Malabadi Bridge are still in regular use in our day
18.
Inventions in medieval Islam
–
Such innovations are listed below, in chronological order. 8th century Tin-glazing, The tin-glazing of ceramics was an imitation of white Chinese stoneware by local Islamic potters in 8th-century Basra, the first examples of this technique can be found as blue-painted ware in 8th-century Basra. The oldest fragments found to-date were excavated from the palace of Samarra about 80 kilometres north of Baghdad, 9th century Lusterware, Lustre decoration was invented during Roman and Coptic Egypt during the centuries preceding the rise of Islam. Lustre glazes were applied to pottery in Mesopotamia in the 9th century, earlier uses of lustre are known. Frequency analysis in cryptology, the first known recorded explanation of cryptanalysis was given by Al-Kindi and this treatise includes the first description of the method of frequency analysis. 10th century Vertical-axle windmill, A small wind wheel operating an organ is described as early as the 1st century AD by Hero of Alexandria, the first vertical-axle windmills were eventually built in Sistan, Persia as described by Muslim geographers. These windmills had long vertical driveshafts with rectangle shaped blades and they may have been constructed as early as the time of the second Rashidun caliph Umar, though some argue that this account may have been a 10th-century amendment. Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth material, these windmills were used to grind grains and draw up water, horizontal axle windmills of the type generally used today, however, were developed in Northwestern Europe in the 1180s. 11th century Mercuric chloride, used to disinfect wounds, elemental mercury was known to the ancient Greeks, Romans, Chinese, and Hindus before Arabs. 12th century Bridge mill, The bridge mill was a type of watermill that was built as part of the superstructure of a bridge. The earliest record of a mill is from Córdoba, Spain in the 12th century. Hybrid trebuchet, The term Al-Ghadban was applied to the hybrid trebuchet, though the usage of the term was not consistent, the first record of a counterweight trebuchet was in the 12th century from Mardi ibn Ali al-Tarsusi while talking of the conquests of Saladin. 13th century Rocket technology was adopted from China in the 13th century,1275, Hasan al-Rammah described. an egg which moves itself and burns. Fritware, It refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, beginning in the late 1st millennium, for which frit was a significant ingredient. A recipe for fritware dating to c.1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim reports that the ratio of quartz to frit-glass to white clay is 10,1,1 and this type of pottery has also been referred to as stonepaste and faience among other names. A 9th-century corpus of proto-stonepaste from Baghdad has relict glass fragments in its fabric, hispano-Moresque ware was distinguished from the pottery of Christendom by the Islamic character of its decoration. 15th century Coffee, The ancestors of todays Oromo people in a region of Kaffa in Ethiopia were believed to have been the first to recognize the energizing effect of the coffee plant and it was in Yemen that coffee beans were first roasted and brewed as they are today. From Mocha, coffee spread to Egypt and North Africa, and by the 16th century, it had reached the rest of the Middle East, Persia and Turkey
19.
Ismail al-Jazari
–
Badīʿ az-Zaman Abū l-ʿIzz ibn Ismāʿīl ibn ar-Razāz al-Jazarī was an Islamic polymath, a scholar, inventor, mechanical engineer, artisan, artist and mathematician. Nothing is known about early life. He is famed for authoring the Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical Devices, according to Mayr, the books style resembles that of a modern do-it-yourself book. Some of his devices were inspired by earlier devices, such as one of his water clocks. He also cites the influence of the Banū Mūsā brothers for his fountains, al-Saghani for the design of a candle clock, and Hibatullah ibn al-Husayn for musical automata. A camshaft, a shaft to which cams are attached, was introduced in 1206 by al-Jazari, the cam and camshaft also appeared in European mechanisms from the 14th century. The eccentrically mounted handle of the rotary quern-stone in fifth century BCE Spain that spread across the Roman Empire constitutes a crank, the earliest evidence of a crank and connecting rod mechanism dates to the 3rd century AD Hierapolis sawmill in the Roman Empire. The crank also appears in the century in several of the hydraulic devices described by the Banū Mūsā brothers in their Book of Ingenious Devices. In 1206, al-Jazari invented an early crankshaft, which he incorporated with a crank-connecting rod mechanism in his twin-cylinder pump and he used the crankshaft with a connecting rod in two of his water-raising machines, the crank-driven saqiya chain pump and the double-action reciprocating piston suction pump. His water pump also employed the first known crank-slider mechanism, al-Jazari invented a method for controlling the speed of rotation of a wheel using an escapement mechanism. According to Donald Hill, al-Jazari described several early mechanical controls, including a metal door, a combination lock. A segmental gear is a piece for receiving or communicating reciprocating motion from or to a cogwheel, consisting of a sector of a gear, or ring, having cogs on the periphery. It was in these machines that he introduced his most important ideas. The first known use of a crankshaft in a pump was in one of al-Jazaris saqiya machines. The concept of minimizing intermittent working is also first implied in one of al-Jazaris saqiya chain pumps, al-Jazari also constructed a water-raising saqiya chain pump which was run by hydropower rather than manual labour, though the Chinese were also using hydropower for chain pumps prior to him. Saqiya machines like the ones he described have been supplying water in Damascus since the 13th century up until modern times, and were in everyday use throughout the medieval Islamic world. This pump is driven by a wheel, which drives, through a system of gears. The pistons work in horizontally opposed cylinders, each provided with valve-operated suction, the delivery pipes are joined above the centre of the machine to form a single outlet into the irrigation system
20.
Italian Renaissance
–
The term Renaissance is in essence a modern one that came into currency in the 19th century, in the work of historians such as Jules Michelet and Jacob Burckhardt. The French word renaissance means Rebirth, and the era is best known for the renewed interest in the culture of classical antiquity after the period that Renaissance humanists labeled the Dark Ages. Though today perhaps best known for Italian Renaissance art and architecture, the period saw major achievements in literature, music, philosophy, Italy became the recognized European leader in all these areas by the late 15th century, and to varying degrees retained this lead until about 1600. This was despite a turbulent and generally disastrous period in Italian politics, the European Renaissance began in Tuscany, and centred in the city of Florence. It later spread to Venice, where the remains of ancient Greek culture were brought together, the Renaissance later had a significant effect on Rome, which was ornamented with some structures in the new allantico mode, then was largely rebuilt by humanist sixteenth-century popes. The Italian Renaissance peaked in the century as foreign invasions plunged the region into the turmoil of the Italian Wars. However, the ideas and ideals of the Renaissance endured and spread into the rest of Europe, setting off the Northern Renaissance, the Italian Renaissance is best known for its cultural achievements. Accounts of Renaissance literature usually begin with Petrarch and his friend, famous vernacular poets of the 15th century include the renaissance epic authors Luigi Pulci, Matteo Maria Boiardo, and Ludovico Ariosto. 15th century writers such as the poet Poliziano and the Platonist philosopher Marsilio Ficino made extensive translations from both Latin and Greek, the same is true for architecture, as practiced by Brunelleschi, Leon Battista Alberti, Andrea Palladio, and Bramante. Their works include Florence Cathedral, St. Peters Basilica in Rome, yet cultural contributions notwithstanding, some present-day historians also see the era as one of the beginning of economic regression for Italy. By the Late Middle Ages, Latium, the heartland of the Roman Empire. Rome was a city of ancient ruins, and the Papal States were loosely administered, and vulnerable to external interference such as that of France, and later Spain. The Papacy was affronted when the Avignon Papacy was created in southern France as a consequence of pressure from King Philip the Fair of France, in the south, Sicily had for some time been under foreign domination, by the Arabs and then the Normans. Sicily had prospered for 150 years during the Emirate of Sicily, in contrast Northern and Central Italy had become far more prosperous, and it has been calculated that the region was among the richest of Europe. The Crusades had built lasting trade links to the Levant, the main trade routes from the east passed through the Byzantine Empire or the Arab lands and onwards to the ports of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. Luxury goods bought in the Levant, such as spices, dyes, moreover, the inland city-states profited from the rich agricultural land of the Po valley. From France, Germany, and the Low Countries, through the medium of the Champagne fairs, land and river trade routes brought goods such as wool, wheat, and precious metals into the region. The extensive trade that stretched from Egypt to the Baltic generated substantial surpluses that allowed significant investment in mining, thus, while northern Italy was not richer in resources than many other parts of Europe, the level of development, stimulated by trade, allowed it to prosper
21.
Taccola
–
Mariano di Jacopo, called Taccola, was an Italian polymath, administrator, artist and engineer of the early Renaissance. Taccola is known for his technological treatises De ingeneis and De machinis, Taccola’s work was widely studied and copied by later Renaissance engineers and artists, among them Francesco di Giorgio, and possibly Leonardo da Vinci. Mariano Taccola was born in Siena in 1382, practically nothing is known of his early years of training or apprenticeship. As an adult, he pursued a career in Siena, working in such diverse jobs as notary, university secretary, sculptor, superintendent of roads. In the 1440s, Taccola retired from his positions, receiving a pension from the state. He is known to have joined the order of San Jacomo by 1453. Taccola left behind two treatises, the first being De ingeneis, work on its four books starting as early as 1419, having been completed in 1433, Taccola continued to amend drawings and annotations to De ingeneis until about 1449. In the same year, Taccola published his manuscript, De machinis. Notably, with perspective coming and going in his drawings, Taccola seemed to remain unaware of the ongoing revolution in perspective painting. This is the curious, since he is the only man known to have interviewed the father of linear perspectivity himself. Despite these graphic inconsistencies, Taccola’s style has been described as being forceful, authentic, being named as the Sienese Archimedes, Taccola’s work stands at the beginning of the tradition of Italian Renaissance artist-engineers, with a growing interest in technological matters of all kinds. Taccola’s drawings were copied and served as source of inspiration by such as Buonacorso Ghiberti, Francesco di Giorgio, frank D. Prager and Gustina Scaglia, eds. Mariano Taccola and His Book De ingeneis,230 pp.129 pls. Gustina Scaglia, ed. Mariano Taccola, De machinis, The Engineering Treatise of 1449,2 vols, secondary sources Lawrence Fane, The Invented World of Mariano Taccola, Leonardo, Vol.36, No. 2, pp. 135–143 Lon R. Shelby, Mariano Taccola and His Books on Engines and Machines, Technology and Culture, Vol.16, pp. 466–475 Media related to Taccola at Wikimedia Commons Institute and Museum of the History of Science – Online-Exposition about Taccolas drawings
22.
Pisanello
–
He was acclaimed by poets such as Guarino da Verona and praised by humanists of his time who compared him to such illustrious names as Cimabue, Phidias and Praxiteles. Pisanello is known for his resplendent frescoes in large murals, elegant portraits, small easel pictures and he is the most important commemorative portrait medallist in the first half of the 15th century, and can claim to have originated this important genre. He was employed by the Doge of Venice, the Pope in the Vatican and the courts of Verona, Ferrara, Mantua, Milan, Rimini and he stood in high esteem of the Gonzaga and Este families. Pisanello had many of his works wrongly ascribed to other such as Piero della Francesca, Albrecht Dürer and Leonardo da Vinci. While most of his paintings have perished, a many of his drawings. Pisanellos life is shrouded in mystery. He was born between 1380 and 1395 and died between 1450 and 1455 and he was a native of Pisa but spent his early years in San Vigilio sul Lago in the territory of Verona. He was probably given his training by a Veronese painter as his early style is in the tradition of Veronese painting. Between 1415 and 1420, Pisanello was the assistant of the painter and illuminator Gentile da Fabriano from whom he acquired his refined, delicate. Pisanello also acquired from him a taste for precious materials and beautiful fabrics that can be found in his later paintings. The frescoes in the Doges Palace at Venice, on which they worked together, have perished as well as the frescoes in the Basilica of St. John Lateran and the palaces of Mantua and Pavia. In 1422, Pisanello was reported to be in Mantua in the service of young Ludovico Gonzaga and he continued to work for the Gonzaga family till the 1440s. He must also have known Paolo Uccello, the painter of the Battle of San Romano with its many horses. Pisanellos love of drawing horses probably finds its origin in this relationship, but as there is so much unknown of his life, Pisanellos Madonna of the Quail, now in the Museo di Castelvecchio in Verona, is signed by Antonius Pisanus. It is tentatively dated at c, the style is a blend of the styles of Gentile da Fabriano and Stefano da Verona. This might show that Pisanello was also a pupil of the latter in Verona, Pisanello stayed again in Verona in 1424. However, according to scholars, he painted frescoes about hunting and fishing. These were commissioned by the Duke of Milan Filippo Maria Visconti, there is no trace of these frescoes left
23.
Renaissance
–
The Renaissance was a period in European history, from the 14th to the 17th century, regarded as the cultural bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe. This new thinking became manifest in art, architecture, politics, science, Early examples were the development of perspective in oil painting and the recycled knowledge of how to make concrete. Although the invention of movable type sped the dissemination of ideas from the later 15th century. In politics, the Renaissance contributed to the development of the customs and conventions of diplomacy, the Renaissance began in Florence, in the 14th century. Other major centres were northern Italian city-states such as Venice, Genoa, Milan, Bologna, the word Renaissance, literally meaning Rebirth in French, first appeared in English in the 1830s. The word also occurs in Jules Michelets 1855 work, Histoire de France, the word Renaissance has also been extended to other historical and cultural movements, such as the Carolingian Renaissance and the Renaissance of the 12th century. The Renaissance was a movement that profoundly affected European intellectual life in the early modern period. Renaissance scholars employed the humanist method in study, and searched for realism, however, a subtle shift took place in the way that intellectuals approached religion that was reflected in many other areas of cultural life. In addition, many Greek Christian works, including the Greek New Testament, were back from Byzantium to Western Europe. Political philosophers, most famously Niccolò Machiavelli, sought to describe life as it really was. Others see more competition between artists and polymaths such as Brunelleschi, Ghiberti, Donatello, and Masaccio for artistic commissions as sparking the creativity of the Renaissance. Yet it remains much debated why the Renaissance began in Italy, accordingly, several theories have been put forward to explain its origins. During the Renaissance, money and art went hand in hand, Artists depended entirely on patrons while the patrons needed money to foster artistic talent. Wealth was brought to Italy in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries by expanding trade into Asia, silver mining in Tyrol increased the flow of money. Luxuries from the Eastern world, brought home during the Crusades, increased the prosperity of Genoa, unlike with Latin texts, which had been preserved and studied in Western Europe since late antiquity, the study of ancient Greek texts was very limited in medieval Western Europe. One of the greatest achievements of Renaissance scholars was to bring this entire class of Greek cultural works back into Western Europe for the first time since late antiquity, Arab logicians had inherited Greek ideas after they had invaded and conquered Egypt and the Levant. Their translations and commentaries on these ideas worked their way through the Arab West into Spain and Sicily and this work of translation from Islamic culture, though largely unplanned and disorganized, constituted one of the greatest transmissions of ideas in history
24.
Agostino Ramelli
–
Ramelli was born in Ponte Tresa or Mesanzena, today in Switzerland. In 1588 Ramelli published Le diverse et artificiose machine del Capitano Agostino Ramelli, the book contains 195 designs, over 100 of which are water-raising machines, such as water pumps or wells. Other designs include bridges, mills, and a forerunner to the Wankel engine. The bookwheel is one of the most famous designs from this book, Le diverse et artificiose machine is still printed and sold. Leipzig Durch Henning Grossen den Jüngern,1620
25.
Beam engine
–
A beam engine is a type of steam engine where a pivoted overhead beam is used to apply the force from a vertical piston to a vertical connecting rod. This configuration, with the engine driving a pump, was first used by Thomas Newcomen around 1705 to remove water from mines in Cornwall. Beam engines were first used to pump out of mines or into canals. The rotative beam engine is a design of beam engine where the connecting rod drives a flywheel. These beam engines could be used to power the line-shafting in a mill. They also could be used to steam ships. The first beam engines were water-powered, and used to water from mines. A preserved example may be seen at Wanlockhead in Scotland, the first steam-related beam engine was developed by Thomas Newcomen. This was not, strictly speaking, steam powered, as the steam introduced below the piston was condensed to create a partial vacuum thus allowing atmospheric pressure to push down the piston and it was therefore called an Atmospheric Engine. The Newcomen atmospheric engine was adopted by many mines in Cornwall and elsewhere, technically this was still an atmospheric engine until he enclosed the upper part of the cylinder, introducing steam to also push the piston down. This made it a steam engine and arguably confirms him as the inventor of the steam engine. He also patented the centrifugal governor and the parallel motion, the latter allowed the replacement of chains round an arch head and thus allowed its use as a rotative engine. His patents remained in place until the start of the 19th Century, however, in reality development had been ongoing by others and at the end of the patent period there was an explosion of new ideas and improvements. Watts beam engines were used commercially in much larger numbers and many continued to run for 100 years or more, Watt held patents on key aspects of his engines design, but his rotative engine was equally restricted by the patent by an other of the simple crank. The beam engine went on to be improved and enlarged in the tin- and copper-rich areas of south west England. Consequently, the Cornish beam engines became world-famous, as they remain among the most massive beam engines ever constructed, in a rotative beam engine, the piston is mounted vertically, and the piston rod drives the beam as before. A connecting rod from the end of the beam, rather than driving a pump rod. Early Watt engines used Watts patent sun and planet gear, rather than a simple crank, once the patent had expired, the simple crank was employed universally
26.
Newcomen atmospheric engine
–
The atmospheric engine was invented by Thomas Newcomen in 1712, often referred to simply as a Newcomen engine. The engine operated by condensing steam drawn into the cylinder, thereby creating a partial vacuum and it was the first practical device to harness steam to produce mechanical work. Newcomen engines were used throughout Britain and Europe, principally to pump out of mines. Hundreds were constructed through the 18th century, James Watts later engine design was an improved version of the Newcomen engine that roughly doubled fuel efficiency. Many atmospheric engines were converted to the Watt design, for a price based on a fraction of the savings in fuel, as a result, Watt is today better known than Newcomen in relation to the origin of the steam engine. Prior to Newcomen a number of small devices of various sorts had been made. Around 1600 a number of experimenters used steam to power small fountains working like a coffee percolator, first a container was filled with water via a pipe, which extended through the top of the container to nearly the bottom. The bottom of the pipe would be submerged in the water, the container was then heated to make the water boil. These devices had limited effectiveness but illustrated the principles viability, in 1662 Edward Somerset, second Marquess of Worcester, published a book containing several ideas he had been working on. One was for a pump to supply water to fountains. A fresh charge of steam under pressure then drove the water from the container up another pipe to a header before that steam condensed. By working the two containers alternately, the rate to the header tank could be increased. In 1698 Thomas Savery patented a steam-powered pump he called the Miners Friend, essentially identical to Somersets design, the process of cooling and creating the vacuum was fairly slow, so Savery later added an external cold water spray to quickly cool the steam. Saverys invention cannot be regarded as the first steam engine since it had no moving parts. There were evidently high hopes for the Miners Friend, which led Parliament to extend the life of the patent by 21 years, unfortunately, Saverys device proved much less successful than had been hoped. This was insufficient to pump out of a mine. In Saverys pamphlet, he suggests setting the boiler and containers on a ledge in the mineshaft, obviously these were inconvenient solutions and some sort of mechanical pump working at surface level – one that lifted the water directly instead of sucking it up – was desirable. Such pumps were common already, powered by horses, but required a vertical reciprocating drive that Saverys system did not provide, the more practical problem concerned having a boiler operating under pressure, as demonstrated when the boiler of an engine at Wednesbury exploded, perhaps in 1705
27.
Work (physics)
–
In physics, a force is said to do work if, when acting, there is a displacement of the point of application in the direction of the force. For example, when a ball is held above the ground and then dropped, the SI unit of work is the joule. The SI unit of work is the joule, which is defined as the work expended by a force of one newton through a distance of one metre. The dimensionally equivalent newton-metre is sometimes used as the unit for work, but this can be confused with the unit newton-metre. Usage of N⋅m is discouraged by the SI authority, since it can lead to confusion as to whether the quantity expressed in newton metres is a torque measurement, or a measurement of energy. Non-SI units of work include the erg, the foot-pound, the foot-poundal, the hour, the litre-atmosphere. Due to work having the physical dimension as heat, occasionally measurement units typically reserved for heat or energy content, such as therm, BTU. The work done by a constant force of magnitude F on a point that moves a distance s in a line in the direction of the force is the product W = F s. For example, if a force of 10 newtons acts along a point that travels 2 meters and this is approximately the work done lifting a 1 kg weight from ground level to over a persons head against the force of gravity. Notice that the work is doubled either by lifting twice the weight the distance or by lifting the same weight twice the distance. Work is closely related to energy, the work-energy principle states that an increase in the kinetic energy of a rigid body is caused by an equal amount of positive work done on the body by the resultant force acting on that body. Conversely, a decrease in energy is caused by an equal amount of negative work done by the resultant force. From Newtons second law, it can be shown that work on a free, rigid body, is equal to the change in energy of the velocity and rotation of that body. The work of forces generated by a function is known as potential energy. These formulas demonstrate that work is the associated with the action of a force, so work subsequently possesses the physical dimensions. The work/energy principles discussed here are identical to Electric work/energy principles, constraint forces determine the movement of components in a system, constraining the object within a boundary. Constraint forces ensure the velocity in the direction of the constraint is zero and this only applies for a single particle system. For example, in an Atwood machine, the rope does work on each body, there are, however, cases where this is not true
28.
Piston rod
–
In a piston engine, a piston rod joins a piston to the crosshead and thus to the connecting rod that drives the crankshaft or the driving wheels. Internal combustion engines, and in all current automobile engines. Instead they use trunk pistons, where the piston and crosshead are combined, the term piston rod has been used as a synonym for connecting rod in the context of these engines. Engines with crossheads have piston rods and these include most steam locomotives and some large marine diesel engines. The first single-acting beam engines, such as Newcomens, had a power stroke acting downwards. Rather than a rod, they used an iron chain. This could transmit a force, but not a compression force pushing upwards. The piston was sealed in the cylinder around its rim but the top of the cylinder was open, a rudimentary piston rod was used, simply to reduce the cost of a long forged chain. Watts development of the engine introduced an enclosed upper cylinder. This now required a stuffing box to seal around the piston rod, the engines were still single-acting at this time and the rod was still only acting in tension. Later developments, also by Watt, produced a double-acting cylinder, the piston rod now had to transmit a force alternately pushing and pulling. The steam engines use of an enclosed cylinder, nearly always double-acting, made it dependent on the stuffing box. Piston rods are attached to the crosshead and the piston by a transverse slot. Driving this key sideways tightens the attachment, using a transverse key allows relatively easy dismantling for maintenance. Some smaller pistons are retained by a piston rod and a large nut. This length requires the precision of the manufactured rod but, unlike the rod driving the valves, does not need to be adjusted even more precisely by a fitter during the engines erection. Early steam engineers were convinced that horizontal cylinders would suffer excessive wear, vertical cylinders remained a favourite for some years. When horizontal cylinders were adopted, one used to carry the piston weight was to have an extended or second piston rod on the other side of the piston
29.
Single- and double-acting cylinders
–
Reciprocating engine cylinders are often classified by whether they are single- or double-acting, depending on how the working fluid acts on the piston. A single-acting cylinder in an engine is a cylinder in which the working fluid acts on one side of the piston only. A single-acting cylinder relies on the load, springs, other cylinders, or the momentum of a flywheel, single-acting cylinders are found in most kinds of reciprocating engine. They are almost universal in internal combustion engines and are used in many external combustion engines such as Stirling engines. They are also found in pumps and hydraulic rams, a double-acting cylinder is a cylinder in which the working fluid acts alternately on both sides of the piston. Double-acting cylinders are common in steam engines but unusual in other engine types, many hydraulic and pneumatic cylinders use them where it is needed to produce a force in both directions. A double-acting hydraulic cylinder has a port at each end, supplied with hydraulic fluid for both the retraction and extension of the piston. A double-acting cylinder is used where a force is not available to retract the piston or where high force is required in both directions of travel. Steam engines normally use double-acting cylinders, however, early steam engines, such as atmospheric engines and some beam engines were single-acting. These often transmitted their force through the beam by means of chains, where these were used for pumping mine shafts and only had to act against a load in one direction, single-acting designs remained in use for many years. The main impetus towards double-acting cylinders came when James Watt was trying to develop a rotative beam engine, with a single-cylinder engine, a double-acting cylinder gave a smoother power output. The high-pressure engine, as developed by Richard Trevithick, used double-acting pistons, some of the later steam engines, the high-speed steam engines, used single-acting pistons of a new design. The crosshead became part of the piston, and there was no longer any piston rod and this was for similar reasons to the internal combustion engine, as avoiding the piston rod and its seals allowed a more effective crankcase lubrication system. Small models and toys often use single-acting cylinders for the above reason, in contrast to steam engines, nearly all internal combustion engines have used single-acting cylinders. Their pistons are usually trunk pistons, where the gudgeon pin joint of the rod is within the piston itself. This avoids the crosshead, piston rod and its sealing gland and this, in turn, has the advantage of allowing easy access to the bottom of the piston for lubricating oil, which also has an important cooling function. This avoids local overheating of the piston and rings, small petrol two-stroke engines, such as for motorcycles, use crankcase compression rather than a separate supercharger or scavenge blower. This uses both sides of the piston as working faces, the side of the piston acting as a piston compressor to compress the inlet charge ready for the next stroke
30.
Crosshead
–
A crosshead is a mechanism used in long reciprocating engines and reciprocating compressors to eliminate sideways pressure on the piston. Also, the crosshead enables the connecting rod to freely move outside the cylinder, therefore, the longitudinal dimension of the crosshead must be matched to the stroke of the engine. A piston rod is attached to the piston and links it to the crosshead, the crosshead also houses the gudgeon pin on which the small end of the connecting rod pivots. In this way, the forces are applied only to the crosshead and its bearings. Internal combustion engines using crossheads make for easier maintenance of the top end of the engine, the piston rod is mounted on the underside of the piston and connected to the crosshead by a single nut in double acting engines. The large two-stroke marine diesel engines are usually of this pattern, a crosshead is essential in a double-acting diesel engine. Large diesels often have a plunger oilpump directly attached to the crosshead to supply oil under pressure to the crosshead bearing. In the case of the engine, a crosshead is essential if the engine is to be double acting - steam is applied to both sides of the piston, which requires a seal around the piston rod. An exception is the cylinder steam engine which can be double acting. Crossheads in a locomotive can be mounted either to one guide mounted above the crosshead or to two, one above and one below. The former was preferred in modern locomotives
31.
Crankpin
–
In a reciprocating engine, the crankpins, also known as crank journals are the journals of the big end bearings, at the ends of the connecting rods opposite to the pistons. If the engine has a crankshaft, then the crankpins are the journals of the bearings of the crankshaft. In a beam engine, the single crankpin is mounted on the flywheel, In a steam locomotive, big end bearings are commonly bushings or plain bearings, but less commonly may be roller bearings. In a multi-cylinder engine, a crankpin can serve one or many cylinders, for example, In a straight or flat engine, in a V engine, each crankpin usually serves two cylinders, one in each cylinder bank. In a radial engine, each serves a entire row of cylinders. There are three common configurations of big end bearing, If a crankpin serves only one cylinder, then the big end is a simple design. This design is the cheapest to produce, and is used in, If a crankpin serves more than one cylinder, then the corresponding cylinders may have an offset, to simplify the design of the big end bearing. This design is used in, Most V engines, If more than one cylinder is served by a single crankpin but there is no offset, then some or all of the connecting rods must be forked at the big end. Any extra weight added to the big end itself also carries a penalty of adding vibration, as the number of cylinders grows, the effect of the offset on balance becomes less important, and forked connecting rods become less common. They are mainly used in, Single-row radial engines, some V-twin engines, notably including motorcycle engines. Connecting rod Crankshaft Crankshaft deep rolling
32.
Driving wheel
–
On a steam locomotive, a driving wheel is a powered wheel which is driven by the locomotives pistons. On diesel and electric locomotives, the wheels may be directly driven by the traction motors. Coupling rods are not usually used, and it is common for each axle to have its own motor. Jackshaft drive and coupling rods were used in the past but their use is now confined to shunting locomotives, on an articulated locomotive or a duplex locomotive, driving wheels are grouped into sets which are linked together within the set
33.
Nigel Gresley
–
Sir Herbert Nigel Gresley CBE was one of Britains most famous steam locomotive engineers, who rose to become Chief Mechanical Engineer of the London and North Eastern Railway. He was the designer of some of the most famous steam locomotives in Britain, including the LNER Class A1, Gresleys engines were considered elegant, both aesthetically and mechanically. This rapid rise in his career was maintained for, in 1904, he became Assistant Superintendent of the Carriage, a year later, he moved to the Great Northern Railway as Carriage and Wagon Superintendent. He succeeded Henry A. Ivatt as CME of the GNR on 1 October 1911, at the 1923 Grouping, he was appointed CME of the newly formed LNER. In 1936, Gresley was awarded an honorary DSc by Manchester University, during the 1930s, Sir Nigel Gresley lived at Salisbury Hall, near St. Albans in Hertfordshire. Gresley developed an interest in breeding birds and ducks in the moat, intriguingly. The Hall still exists today as a residence and is adjacent to the de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre. In 1936, Gresley designed the 1, 500V DC locomotives for the electrification of the Woodhead Line between Manchester and Sheffield. The Second World War forced the postponement of the project, which was completed in the early 1950s, Gresley died after a short illness on 5 April 1941 and was buried in St Peters Church, Netherseal, Derbyshire. He was succeeded as the LNER CME by Edward Thompson, Gresley was awarded the CBE in 1920 and was knighted in the 1936 Birthday Honours. A memorial plaque to Gresleys achievements was unveiled at Edinburgh Waverley railway station in 2001 and it was created by the Gresley Society and incorporates line drawings of his Flying Scotsman and Mallard locomotives. Sir Nigel Gresley Square was opened to the Public as part of the Queens Diamond Jubilee celebrations by the Mayor of Doncaster Mr. Peter Davies, LNER Class A44498 Sir Nigel Gresley is named after its designer. A statue of Gresley was unveiled at Kings Cross station in London on 5 April 2016, derived valve motion for 3-cylinder steam locomotives, Gresley Conjugated Valve Gear. The largest passenger locomotive in the UK, the P2 2-8-2. The largest steam locomotive in the UK, the U1 2-8-0+0-8-2 Garratt, the locomotive that won the war, the V2 2-6-2. The fastest steam locomotive in the world, the A4 Mallard 4-6-2,6701 Bo+Bo electric locomotive Hughes, Geoffrey. Sir Nigel Gresley, The Engineer and his Family, the Oakwood Library of Railway History
34.
LNER Class A4
–
The Class A4 is a class of streamlined 4-6-2 steam locomotive designed by Nigel Gresley for the London and North Eastern Railway in 1935. Their streamlined design gave them high-speed capability as well as making them instantly recognisable, thirty-five of the class were built to haul express passenger trains on the East Coast Main Line route from London Kings Cross via York to Newcastle, and later via Newcastle to Edinburgh, Scotland. They remained in service on the East Coast Main Line until the early 1960s when they were replaced by Deltic diesel locomotives. Several A4s saw out their remaining days until 1966 in Scotland, particularly on the Aberdeen - Glasgow express trains, Gresley introduced the Class A4 locomotives in 1935 to haul a new streamlined train called the Silver Jubilee to run between London Kings Cross and Newcastle. The new service was named in celebration of the 25th year of King George Vs reign, however, the diesel units of the time did not have the desired passenger carrying capacity and the capital investment in the new technology was prohibitive. Gresley was sure that steam could do the job well and with a decent fare-paying load behind the locomotive and so. Initially four locomotives were built, all with the silver as part of their names. The first was 2509 Silver Link, followed by 2510 Quicksilver,2511 Silver King and 2512 Silver Fox. During a press run to publicise the service, Silver Link twice achieved a speed of 112.5 mph, breaking the British speed record and sustained an average of 100 mph, over a distance of 43 mi. Following the commercial success of the Silver Jubilee train, other streamlined services were introduced, the Coronation, the A4 Pacifics were designed for high-speed passenger services. A further improvement to the design was the fitting of a Kylchap double-chimney first introduced on 4468 Mallard and this device improved the capability of the locomotives further, and the final three locomotives of the class were fitted with the Kylchap exhaust from new. Eventually the rest of the class acquired it in the late 1950s, the distinctive design made it a particularly attractive subject for artists, photographers and film-makers. The A4 Class locomotives were known affectionately by train spotters as streaks and this apart, the A4 was one of very few streamlined steam locomotive designs in the world to retain its casing throughout its existence. Many similar designs, including the contemporary Coronation class, had their streamlining removed or cancelled to cut costs, simplify maintenance and increase driver visibility. On 3 July 19384468 Mallard, the first of the class to enter service with the Kylchap exhaust, pulling six coaches, however, Gresley never accepted this as the record-breaking maximum. He claimed this speed could only have been attained over a few yards, close analysis of the dynamometer roll of the record run confirms that Mallards speed did in fact exceed that of the German BR05002. On the other hand, the German train was only four coaches long, despite this a record was set. Gresley planned to have another attempt in September 1939, but this was prevented by the outbreak of World War II, No other British steam locomotives have a longer or more consistent record of high speed running than the A4s
35.
LNER Class A4 4468 Mallard
–
London and North Eastern Railway locomotive numbered 4468 Mallard is a Class A4 4-6-2 Pacific steam locomotive built at Doncaster, England in 1938. It is historically significant as the holder of the speed record for steam locomotives at 126 mph. The A4 class was designed by Sir Nigel Gresley to power high-speed streamlined trains, the wind-tunnel-tested, aerodynamic body and high power allowed the class to reach speeds of over 100 miles per hour, although in everyday service it rarely attained this speed. Mallard covered almost one and a million miles before it was retired in 1963. The locomotive is 70 ft long and weighs 165 tons, including the tender and it is painted LNER garter blue with red wheels and steel rims. Mallard is now part of the National Collection at the United Kingdoms National Railway Museum in York, Mallard is the holder of the world speed record for steam locomotives at 126 mph. It broke the German 002s 1936 record of 124.5 mph, the record attempt was carried out during the trials of a new quick acting brake. Mallard was a good vehicle for such an endeavour. Mallard was four months old, meaning that it was sufficiently broken-in to run freely, selected to crew the locomotive on its record attempt were driver Joseph Duddington and fireman Thomas Bray. He had 27 years on the footplate, and had driven the Scarborough Flyer for 144 miles at over 74mph. Shortly after attaining the speed, the middle big end did overheat. It then travelled to Doncaster for repair and this had been foreseen by the publicity department, who had many pictures taken for the press, in case Mallard did not make it back to Kings Cross. The Ivatt Atlantic that replaced Mallard at Peterborough was only just in sight when the head of publicity started handing out the pictures, Stoke Bank has a gradient of between 1,178 and 1,200. Mallard, pulling a dynamometer car and six coaches, topped Stoke Summit at 75 mph and accelerated downhill. The speeds at the end of each mile from the summit were recorded as, 87½, 96½,104,107, 111½,116 and 119 mph, half-mile readings after that gave 120¾, 122½,123, 124¼ and finally 125 mph. The speed recorded by instruments in the car reached a momentary maximum of 126 mph. The visitors include three UK based, privately owned engines in 4464 Bittern,60007 Sir Nigel Gresley and 60009 Union of South Africa, Stoke Bank is long, straight and slightly downhill, whereas the 1936 run of 05002 took place on a horizontal stretch of track. Also, unlike Mallard,05002 survived the attempt undamaged, on the hand, its train was only four coaches long
36.
I-beam
–
An I-beam, also known as H-beam, W-beam, Universal Beam, Rolled Steel Joist, or double-T, is a beam with an I or H-shaped cross-section. The horizontal elements of the I are known as flanges, while the element is termed the web. I-beams are usually made of steel and are used in construction. The web resists shear forces, while the flanges resist most of the bending moment experienced by the beam, Beam theory shows that the I-shaped section is a very efficient form for carrying both bending and shear loads in the plane of the web. On the other hand, the cross-section has a capacity in the transverse direction. The method of producing an I-beam, as rolled from a piece of steel, was patented by Alphonse Halbou of the company Forges de la Providence in 1849. Bethlehem Steel was a supplier of rolled structural steel of various cross-sections in American bridge. Today, rolled cross-sections have been displaced in such work by fabricated cross-sections. There are two standard I-beam forms, Rolled I-beam, formed by hot rolling, cold rolling or extrusion, plate girder, formed by welding plates. I-beams are commonly made of steel but may also be formed from aluminium or other materials. A common type of I-beam is the rolled steel joist —sometimes incorrectly rendered as reinforced steel joist, british and European standards also specify Universal Beams and Universal Columns. These sections have parallel flanges, as opposed to the thickness of RSJ flanges which are seldom now rolled in the UK. Parallel flanges are easier to connect to and do away with the need for tapering washers, however, there has been some concern as to their rapid loss of strength in a fire if unprotected. I-beams are widely used in the industry and are available in a variety of standard sizes. Tables are available to allow selection of a suitable steel I-beam size for a given applied load. I-beams may be used both as beams and as columns, I-beams may be used both on their own, or acting compositely with another material, typically concrete. A beam under bending sees high stresses along the fibers that are farthest from the neutral axis. To prevent failure, most of the material in the beam must be located in these regions, comparatively little material is needed in the area close to the neutral axis
37.
Paddle steamer
–
A paddle steamer is a steamship or riverboat powered by a steam engine that drives paddle wheels to propel the craft through the water. In antiquity, paddle wheelers followed the development of poles, oars and sails, modern paddle wheelers may be powered by diesel engines. The paddle wheel is a steel framework wheel. The outer edge of the wheel is fitted with numerous, regularly-spaced paddle blades, the bottom quarter or so of the wheel travels underwater. An engine rotates the wheel in the water to produce thrust. More advanced paddle wheel designs feature feathering methods that keep each paddle blade closer to vertical while in the water to increase efficiency, the upper part of a paddle wheel is normally enclosed in a paddlebox to minimise splashing. There are two ways to mount paddle wheels on a ship, either a single wheel on the rear, known as a sternwheeler, or a paddle wheel on each side. Both sternwheelers and sidewheelers were used as riverboats in the United States, some still operate for tourists, for example on the Mississippi River. Sidewheelers are used as riverboats and as coastal craft and this extra maneuverability makes sidewheelers popular on the narrower, winding rivers of the Murray-Darling system in Australia, where a number still operate. European sidewheelers, such as the PS Waverley, connect the wheels with solid drive shafts that limit maneuverability, some were built with paddle clutches that disengage one or both paddles so they can turn independently. However, wisdom gained from experience with sidewheelers deemed that they be operated with clutches out. Crews noticed that as ships approached the dock, passengers moved to the side of the ready to disembark. The shift in weight, added to independent movements of the paddles, could lead to imbalance, in a simple paddle wheel, where the paddles are fixed around the periphery, power is lost due to churning of the water as the paddles enter and leave the water surface. Ideally, the paddles should remain vertical while under water and this ideal can be approximated by use of levers and linkages connected to a fixed eccentric. The eccentric is fixed slightly forward of the wheel centre. It is coupled to each paddle via a rod and lever, the geometry is designed such that the paddles are kept almost vertical for the short duration that they are in the water. One of the drawings of the Anonymous Author of the Hussite Wars shows a boat with a pair of paddle-wheels at each end turned by men operating compound cranks. In 1704, the French physicist Denis Papin constructed the first ship powered by his steam engine and this made him the first to construct a steam-powered boat
38.
Car
–
A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
39.
Internal combustion engine
–
An internal combustion engine is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an oxidizer in a combustion chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal combustion engine the expansion of the high-temperature and high-pressure gases produced by combustion applies direct force to some component of the engine, the force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, rotor or a nozzle. This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy into mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir around 1859, firearms are also a form of internal combustion engine. Working fluids can be air, hot water, pressurized water or even liquid sodium, ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel, liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many applications, most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for vehicles such as cars, aircraft. Typically an ICE is fed with fossil fuels like natural gas or petroleum products such as gasoline, there is a growing usage of renewable fuels like biodiesel for compression ignition engines and bioethanol or methanol for spark ignition engines. Hydrogen is sometimes used, and can be made from fossil fuels or renewable energy. Various scientists and engineers contributed to the development of internal combustion engines, in 1791, John Barber developed a turbine. In 1794 Thomas Mead patented a gas engine, also in 1794 Robert Street patented an internal combustion engine, which was also the first to use liquid fuel, and built an engine around that time. In 1798, John Stevens built the first American internal combustion engine, in 1807, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz built an internal combustion engine ignited by electric spark. In 1823, Samuel Brown patented the first internal combustion engine to be applied industrially, in 1860, Belgian Jean Joseph Etienne Lenoir produced a gas-fired internal combustion engine. In 1864, Nikolaus Otto patented the first atmospheric gas engine, in 1872, American George Brayton invented the first commercial liquid-fuelled internal combustion engine. In 1876, Nikolaus Otto, working with Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach, patented the compressed charge, in 1879, Karl Benz patented a reliable two-stroke gas engine. In 1892, Rudolf Diesel developed the first compressed charge, compression ignition engine, in 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. In 1939, the Heinkel He 178 became the worlds first jet aircraft, at one time, the word engine meant any piece of machinery — a sense that persists in expressions such as siege engine. A motor is any machine that produces mechanical power, traditionally, electric motors are not referred to as Engines, however, combustion engines are often referred to as motors. In boating an internal combustion engine that is installed in the hull is referred to as an engine, reciprocating piston engines are by far the most common power source for land and water vehicles, including automobiles, motorcycles, ships and to a lesser extent, locomotives
40.
Steel
–
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
41.
Aluminium alloy
–
Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium is the predominant metal. The typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin, there are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of aluminium is used for products, for example rolled plate, foils. Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting point, the most important cast aluminium alloy system is Al–Si, where the high levels of silicon contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminium alloys are used in engineering structures and components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required. Alloys composed mostly of aluminium have been important in aerospace manufacturing since the introduction of metal-skinned aircraft. Aluminium-magnesium alloys are both lighter than aluminium alloys and much less flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of magnesium. Aluminium alloy surfaces will develop a white, protective layer of aluminium oxide if left unprotected by anodizing and/or correct painting procedures, referred to as dissimilar-metal corrosion, this process can occur as exfoliation or as intergranular corrosion. Aluminium alloys can be heat treated. This causes internal element separation, and the metal then corrodes from the inside out, Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum Association. Aluminium alloys with a range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a system or by names indicating their main alloying constituents. Selecting the right alloy for a given application entails considerations of its strength, density, ductility, formability, workability, weldability. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing technologies is given in Ref. Aluminium alloys are used extensively in aircraft due to their high strength-to-weight ratio. On the other hand, pure aluminium metal is too soft for such uses. Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of about 70 GPa, therefore, for a given load, a component or unit made of an aluminium alloy will experience a greater deformation in the elastic regime than a steel part of identical size and shape. Though there are aluminium alloys with somewhat-higher tensile strengths than the commonly used kinds of steel, with completely new metal products, the design choices are often governed by the choice of manufacturing technology. Extrusions are particularly important in regard, owing to the ease with which aluminium alloys, particularly the Al–Mg–Si series
42.
Titanium
–
Titanium is a chemical element with symbol Ti and atomic number 22. It is a transition metal with a silver color, low density. Titanium is resistant to corrosion in sea water, aqua regia, titanium was discovered in Cornwall, Great Britain, by William Gregor in 1791, and it is named by Martin Heinrich Klaproth for the Titans of Greek mythology. The metal is extracted from its principal mineral ores by the Kroll, the most common compound, titanium dioxide, is a popular photocatalyst and is used in the manufacture of white pigments. Other compounds include titanium tetrachloride, a component of smoke screens and catalysts, and titanium trichloride, the two most useful properties of the metal are corrosion resistance and strength-to-density ratio, the highest of any metallic element. In its unalloyed condition, titanium is as strong as some steels, there are two allotropic forms and five naturally occurring isotopes of this element, 46Ti through 50Ti, with 48Ti being the most abundant. Although they have the number of valence electrons and are in the same group in the periodic table. As a metal, titanium is recognized for its high strength-to-weight ratio and it is a strong metal with low density that is quite ductile, lustrous, and metallic-white in color. The relatively high melting point makes it useful as a refractory metal and it is paramagnetic and has fairly low electrical and thermal conductivity. Commercial grades of titanium have ultimate tensile strength of about 434 MPa, equal to that of common, low-grade steel alloys, titanium is 60% denser than aluminium, but more than twice as strong as the most commonly used 6061-T6 aluminium alloy. Certain titanium alloys achieve tensile strengths of over 1400 MPa, however, titanium loses strength when heated above 430 °C. Titanium is not as hard as some grades of heat-treated steel, it is non-magnetic, machining requires precautions, because the material might gall unless sharp tools and proper cooling methods are used. Like steel structures, those made from titanium have a limit that guarantees longevity in some applications. The metal is an allotrope of an hexagonal α form that changes into a body-centered cubic β form at 882 °C. The specific heat of the α form increases dramatically as it is heated to this transition temperature but then falls, similar to zirconium and hafnium, an additional omega phase exists, which is thermodynamically stable at high pressures, but metastable at ambient pressures. This phase is usually hexagonal or trigonal and can be considered to be due to a soft longitudinal acoustic phonon of the β phase causing collapse of planes of atoms, like aluminium and magnesium, titanium metal and its alloys oxidize immediately upon exposure to air. Titanium readily reacts with oxygen at 1,200 °C in air and it is, however, slow to react with water and air at ambient temperatures because it forms a passive oxide coating that protects the bulk metal from further oxidation. When it first forms, this layer is only 1–2 nm thick but continues to grow slowly
43.
Cast iron
–
Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than 2%. Its usefulness derives from its low melting temperature. Carbon ranging from 1. 8–4 wt%, and silicon 1–3 wt% are the main alloying elements of cast iron, Iron alloys with less carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes the Fe–C–Si system ternary, the principle of cast iron solidification can be understood from the simpler binary iron–carbon phase diagram, cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. It is resistant to destruction and weakening by oxidation, the earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient China for warfare, agriculture, during the 15th century, cast iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during the Reformation. The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by Abraham Darby III, cast iron is also used in the construction of buildings. Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with quantities of iron, steel, limestone, carbon. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of the iron, but this also burns out the carbon. Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the desired levels, other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by casting. Cast iron is melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola. After melting is complete, the molten cast iron is poured into a furnace or ladle. Cast irons properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or alloyants, next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it forces carbon out of solution. A low percentage of silicon allows carbon to remain in solution forming iron carbide, a high percentage of silicon forces carbon out of solution forming graphite and the production of grey cast iron. Other alloying agents, manganese, chromium, molybdenum, titanium and vanadium counteracts silicon, promotes the retention of carbon, nickel and copper increase strength, and machinability, but do not change the amount of graphite formed. The carbon in the form of graphite results in an iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength. Sulfur, largely a contaminant when present, forms iron sulfide, the problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron viscous, which causes defects. To counter the effects of sulfur, manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of iron sulfide, the manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float out of the melt and into the slag
44.
Semi-finished casting products
–
Semi-finished casting products are intermediate castings produced in a foundry that need further processing before being a finished good. There are four types, ingots, blooms, billets, ingots are large rough castings designed for storage and transportation. The shape usually resembles a rectangle or square with generous fillets and they are tapered, usually with the big-end-down. In the era of commercial wrought iron, blooms were slag-riddled iron castings poured in a bloomery before being worked into wrought iron, blooms are usually further processed via rotary piercing, structural shape rolling and profile rolling. Common final products include structural shapes, rails, rods, a billet is a length of metal that has a round or square cross-section, with an area less than 36 in2. Billets are created directly via continuous casting or extrusion or indirectly via hot rolling an ingot or bloom, billets are further processed via profile rolling and drawing. Final products include bar stock and wire, centrifugal casting is also used to produce short circular tubes as billets, usually to achieve a precise metallurgical structure. They are commonly used as cylinder sleeves where the inner and outer diameters are ground, because their size is not modified significantly, they are not always classified as semi-finished casting products. In copper production, a billet is a 30 long, about 8 diameter, a slab is a length of metal that is rectangular in cross-section. It is created directly by casting or indirectly by rolling an ingot on a slabbing mill. Slabs are usually further processed via flat rolling, skelping, common final products include sheet metal, plates, strip metal, pipes, and tubes
45.
Casting
–
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. The solidified part is known as a casting, which is ejected or broken out of the mold to complete the process. Casting materials are usually metals or various cold setting materials that cure after mixing two or more together, examples are epoxy, concrete, plaster and clay. Casting is most often used for making complex shapes that would be difficult or uneconomical to make by other methods. The oldest surviving casting is a frog from 3200 BC. In metalworking, metal is heated until it becomes liquid and is poured into a mold. The mold is a cavity that includes the desired shape. The mold and the metal are then cooled until the metal solidifies, the solidified part is then recovered from the mold. Subsequent operations remove excess material caused by the casting process, when casting plaster or concrete, the material surface is flat and lacks transparency. Often topical treatments are applied to the surface, for example, painting and etching can be used in a way that give the appearance of metal or stone. Alternatively, the material is altered in its initial casting process, by casting concrete, rather than plaster, it is possible to create sculptures, fountains, or seating for outdoor use. A simulation of high-quality marble may be made using certain chemically-set plastic resins with powdered stone added for coloration, raw castings often contain irregularities caused by seams and imperfections in the molds, as well as access ports for pouring material into the molds. The process of cutting, grinding, shaving or sanding away these unwanted bits is called fettling, simulation accurately describes a cast component’s quality up-front before production starts. The casting rigging can be designed with respect to the component properties. This has benefits beyond a reduction in sampling, as the precise layout of the complete casting system also leads to energy, material. The software supports the user in component design, the determination of melting practice and casting methoding through to pattern and mold making, heat treatment and this saves costs along the entire casting manufacturing route. Since the late 80s, commercial programs are available which make it possible for foundries to gain new insight into what is happening inside the mold or die during the casting process
.jpg)
![[1]](http://www.flugzeug-lorenz.de/index.php?eID=tx_cms_showpic&file=uploads%2Fpics%2FYY_169-1_Jumo222_Stirnschnitt.jpg&width=10000m&height=10000m&bodyTag=%3Cbody%20style%3D%22margin%3A0%3B%20background%3A%23fff%3B%22%3E&wrap=%3Ca%20href%3D%22javascript%3Aclose%28%29%3B%22%3E%20%7C%20%3C%2Fa%3E&md5=3a4da1957d3bd583a511bb5044efc2d8){kind=link}
