1.
Formula One
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Formula One is the highest class of single-seat auto racing that is sanctioned by the Fédération Internationale de lAutomobile. The FIA Formula One World Championship has been the form of racing since the inaugural season in 1950. The formula, designated in the name, refers to a set of rules, the F1 season consists of a series of races, known as Grands Prix, held worldwide on purpose-built F1 circuits and public roads. The results of each race are evaluated using a system to determine two annual World Championships, one for drivers, one for constructors. The racing drivers are required to be holders of valid Super Licences, the races are required to be held on tracks graded 1, the highest grade a track can receive by the FIA. Most events are held in locations on purpose-built tracks, but there are several events in city centres throughout the world. Formula One cars are the fastest road racing cars in the world. Formula One cars race at speeds of up to approximately 375 km/h with engines currently limited in performance to a maximum of 15,000 RPM, the cars are capable of lateral acceleration in excess of five g in corners. The performance of the cars is very dependent on electronics – although traction control and other driving aids have been banned since 2008 – and on aerodynamics, suspension, the formula has radically evolved and changed through the history of the sport. F1 had a global television audience of 425 million people during the course of the 2014 season. Grand Prix racing began in 1906 and became the most popular internationally in the second half of the twentieth century. The Formula One Group is the holder of the commercial rights. Its high profile and popularity have created a major merchandising environment, since 2000 the sports spiraling expenditures and the distribution of prize money favoring established top teams have forced complaints from smaller teams and led several teams to bankruptcy. On 23 January 2017 it was confirmed that Liberty Media had completed its $8 billion acquisition of Delta Topco, the Formula One series originated with the European Grand Prix Motor Racing of the 1920s and 1930s. The formula is a set of rules that all cars must meet. Formula One was a new formula agreed upon after World War II during 1946, the first world championship race was held at Silverstone, United Kingdom in 1950. A championship for constructors followed in 1958, national championships existed in South Africa and the UK in the 1960s and 1970s. Non-championship Formula One events were held for years, but due to the increasing cost of competition
2.
Italy
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Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a unitary parliamentary republic in Europe. Located in the heart of the Mediterranean Sea, Italy shares open land borders with France, Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, San Marino, Italy covers an area of 301,338 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate and Mediterranean climate. Due to its shape, it is referred to in Italy as lo Stivale. With 61 million inhabitants, it is the fourth most populous EU member state, the Italic tribe known as the Latins formed the Roman Kingdom, which eventually became a republic that conquered and assimilated other nearby civilisations. The legacy of the Roman Empire is widespread and can be observed in the distribution of civilian law, republican governments, Christianity. The Renaissance began in Italy and spread to the rest of Europe, bringing a renewed interest in humanism, science, exploration, Italian culture flourished at this time, producing famous scholars, artists and polymaths such as Leonardo da Vinci, Galileo, Michelangelo and Machiavelli. The weakened sovereigns soon fell victim to conquest by European powers such as France, Spain and Austria. Despite being one of the victors in World War I, Italy entered a period of economic crisis and social turmoil. The subsequent participation in World War II on the Axis side ended in defeat, economic destruction. Today, Italy has the third largest economy in the Eurozone and it has a very high level of human development and is ranked sixth in the world for life expectancy. The country plays a prominent role in regional and global economic, military, cultural and diplomatic affairs, as a reflection of its cultural wealth, Italy is home to 51 World Heritage Sites, the most in the world, and is the fifth most visited country. The assumptions on the etymology of the name Italia are very numerous, according to one of the more common explanations, the term Italia, from Latin, Italia, was borrowed through Greek from the Oscan Víteliú, meaning land of young cattle. The bull was a symbol of the southern Italic tribes and was often depicted goring the Roman wolf as a defiant symbol of free Italy during the Social War. Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus states this account together with the legend that Italy was named after Italus, mentioned also by Aristotle and Thucydides. The name Italia originally applied only to a part of what is now Southern Italy – according to Antiochus of Syracuse, but by his time Oenotria and Italy had become synonymous, and the name also applied to most of Lucania as well. The Greeks gradually came to apply the name Italia to a larger region, excavations throughout Italy revealed a Neanderthal presence dating back to the Palaeolithic period, some 200,000 years ago, modern Humans arrived about 40,000 years ago. Other ancient Italian peoples of undetermined language families but of possible origins include the Rhaetian people and Cammuni. Also the Phoenicians established colonies on the coasts of Sardinia and Sicily, the Roman legacy has deeply influenced the Western civilisation, shaping most of the modern world
3.
1950 Formula One season
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The 1950 Formula One season was the fourth season of the FIAs Formula One motor racing. It featured the inaugural FIA World Championship of Drivers which commenced on 13 May and ended on 3 September, as well as a number of non-championship races. The championship consisted of six Grand Prix races, each held in Europe and open to Formula One cars, plus the Indianapolis 500, Giuseppe Farina won the championship from Juan Manuel Fangio and Luigi Fagioli. All of the Formula One regulated races in the championship were run in Europe, the Indianapolis 500 was run to American AAA regulations, not to FIA Formula One regulations and none of the regular drivers who competed in Europe competed in the 500, and vice versa. Alfa Romeo drivers consequently dominated the championship with Italian Giuseppe Nino Farina edging out Argentine teammate Juan Manuel Fangio by virtue of his place in Belgium. Championship points were awarded to the top five finishers in each race on an 8,6,4,3,2 basis,1 point was awarded for the fastest lap of each race. Points for shared drives were divided equally between the drivers, regardless of how many laps each driver completed during the race, Only the best four results from the seven races could be retained by each driver for World Championship classification. The Alfa Romeo team dominated the British Grand Prix at the fast Silverstone circuit in England, with King George VI in attendance, Giuseppe Farina won the race from pole position, also setting the fastest lap. The podium was completed by his teammates Luigi Fagioli and Reg Parnell, while the remaining Alfa driver, the final points scorers were the works Talbot-Lagos of Yves Giraud-Cabantous and Louis Rosier, both two laps behind the leaders. Scuderia Ferrari made their World Championship debut around the streets of Monaco, polesitter Fangio took a comfortable victory, also setting the races fastest lap, a whole lap ahead of Ascari, with the third-placed Louis Chiron a further lap back in the works Maserati. Villoresi, although delayed by the accident, had made his way through the field to second place, Fangios win brought him level with Farina in the points standings. The race was stopped after 138 of the scheduled 200 laps due to rain, Alfa Romeos dominance continued when the World Championship returned to Europe for the Swiss Grand Prix at the tree-lined Bremgarten circuit just outside Bern. Fangio, Farina and Fagioli locked out the front row of the grid for Alfa, while the Ferraris of Villoresi, Fangio was the initial leader, starting from pole position, but he was passed by Farina on lap seven. Ascari and Villoresi were both able to compete with the third Alfa of Fagioli in the stages, although both had retired by the ten-lap mark. Farina took the win and the fastest lap, finishing just ahead of Fagioli, while Rosier, in place as a result of Fangios retirement. Farinas second win of the season put him six points clear of the consistent Fagioli, the Alfas were once again untouchable at the start of the race, but when they stopped for fuel, Sommer emerged as an unlikely race leader. His lead, however, was short-lived and he was forced to retire when his engine blew up, Fangio ultimately took the victory, ahead of Fagioli, who again finished second. Rosier again made the podium in his Talbot-Lago and he had been able to pass the polesitter Farina when the Italian picked up transmission problems towards the end of the race
4.
1951 Formula One season
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The 1951 Formula One season was the fifth season of FIA Formula One motor racing. It featured the 1951 World Championship of Drivers, which commenced on 27 May 1951, the season also included 14 races that were open to Formula One cars but did not count towards the championship standings. Ferraris newer, unsupercharged 4.5 litre cars offered a challenge to the Alfas. The Ferraris were able to capitalize on the inefficiency of the Alfas very thirsty engines, although Alfas won four races, with Fangio taking the championship, Ferraris three victories spelled the end for the Alfas. BRM made their only appearance with the V16 at Silverstone. Points were given to top 5 finishers,1 point was given for fastest lap. Only the best four of eight scores counted towards the world championship, points for shared drives were divided equally between the drivers, regardless of who had driven more laps. Alfa Romeo, the dominant team in 1950 with its supercharged 159 Alfetta, took the first 5 places on the grid, with the exception of 3rd, argentine Juan Manuel Fangio was on pole position, with his Italian teammate Giuseppe Nino Farina alongside him. The race started while it was raining, and with its overhanging trees lining the road, but Fangio made no mistake and won the race from Piero Taruffi in a Ferrari and Farina, whose decision to run the race without changing tires proved to be the wrong decision. Lee Wallard won this race in his Kurtis Kraft-Offenhauser. The next Grand Prix was in Belgium at the very fast, Farina won by 3 minutes over Ascari and Villoresi, with Fangio finishing 4 laps down in 9th after one of his Alfas wheels jammed on its hub. The French Grand Prix at the very fast 4.8 mile Reims-Gueux circuit deep in northern French champagne country played the host for an exciting race. Fangio, on again, was beaten off the line by 3rd placed qualifier Ascari, with 2nd placed qualifier Farina making a terrible start. On this public road circuit, made up entirely of straights and slow, angular corners saw Ascari retire his car with a broken gearbox, Farina pushed very hard and eventually took the lead. Argentine Jose Froilan Gonzalez was 2nd in a Ferrari, and 53-year old pre-war great Luigi Fagioli in an Alfa was 3rd. Gonzalez was chasing Farina very hard, but Farinas car developed magneto problems and had to fall back, but Fangio took advantage of Ascaris brake problems on his Ferrari to win a race that holds the record for farthest racing distance ever completed for a Grand Prix-373 mi. The British Grand Prix at the Silverstone airfield circuit in England played host to Round 5 of the Formula One Championship, and this race was to make history. This was the first time Enzo Ferrari had won a Grand Prix with a car of his own companys construction- and this team went on to be the most successful team in Formula One history
5.
Alfa Romeo in motorsport
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During its history, Alfa Romeo has competed successfully in many different categories of motorsport, including Grand Prix motor racing, Formula One, sportscar racing, touring car racing and rallies. They have competed both as a constructor and a supplier, via works entries and private entries. The first racing car was made in 1913, three years after the foundation of A. L. F. A, the 40-60HP had 6 liter straight-4 engine. Alfa Romeo quickly gained a name in motorsport and gave a sporty image to the whole marque. Alfa Romeo started motor racing almost immediately after it was founded, ventured into motor racing in 1911, with drivers Franchini and Ronzoni competing in the Targa Florio with two 24 HP models. The marques first success came in 1913 when Nino Franchini finished second in Parma-Poggio Berceto race with a 40-60HP, Giuseppe Merosi built a very advanced racing car in 1914, which was named Grand Prix. In 1920 Giuseppe Campari won the race at Mugello with a 40-60HP, a year later Giuseppe Campari won at Mugello again. Ugo Sivocci won the 1923 Targa Florio with an RL and Antonio Ascari took second, sivoccis car was painted with the green cloverleaf on a white background that was to become Alfas good luck token. In 1923 Vittorio Jano was lured to Alfa from Fiat, designing the motors that gave Alfa racing success into the late 1930s, in 1925 Alfa Romeo won the first Automobile World Championship in the history of automobile racing. Over 4 rounds the Alfa Romeo P2 won the European Grand Prix at Spa and the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, and hence incorporated the laurel wreath in their logo. For 1932 Jano produced the sensational P3 which won its first race driven by Tazio Nuvolari at the Italian Grand Prix,5 more Grands Prix that year were shared by Nuvolari and Rudolf Caracciola. Alfa Corse closed for 1933 and locked the cars in the factory, P3s then won six of the final 11 events of the season including the final 2 major Grands Prix in Italy and Spain. In 1934 Louis Chiron won the French Grand Prix in the P3 whilst the German Silver Arrows dominated the other 4 championship events, however the P3s won 18 of the 35 Grands Prix held throughout Europe. The P3 managed 16 victories in 1935, in the 1930s Tazio Nuvolari won the Mille Miglia in a 6C1750, crossing the finishing line after having incredibly overtaken Achille Varzi without lights. Alfa Romeos won the Targa Florio six times in row in the 1930s, and the Mille Miglia every year from 1928 to 1938 except for 1931. In 1935 Alfa Romeo won the German Grand Prix with Nuvolari, in 1938 Biondetti won the Mille Miglia in an 8C 2900B Corto Spider, thereafter referred to as the Mille Miglia model. Alfa Romeo participated in Formula One, both as a constructor and engine supplier, from 1950 to 1988. The works Alfa Romeo team dominated the first two years of the Formula One World Championship, using the pre-war Alfetta, but withdrew from Formula One at the end of 1951
6.
1950 Italian Grand Prix
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The 1950 Italian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 3 September 1950 at Monza. It was the seventh and final event of the 1950 World Drivers Championship, in this race, Nino Farina became the first World Drivers Champion, and the only driver to win the title in his home country. After Juan Manuel Fangios win at the French Grand Prix, Fangio had obtained 26 points, having already finished four times in the points, Fagioli would only be able to drop six points or not gain at all, while Fangio and Farina had only finished three times. All three of Fangios finishes were wins, to win the championship, For Fangio, Win or come 2nd to guarantee the title. Come 3rd, 4th or 5th with Farina 2nd or lower, with the fastest lap only, Farina 3rd or lower. Scoring no points, Farina would have to finish 3rd or lower without the fastest lap, 4th with, for Fagioli, Win the race with the fastest lap, with Farina 3rd or lower, and Fangio not to score any points. For Farina, Win with the fastest lap, and Fangio 3rd or lower, 3rd with fastest lap, and Fangio not to score. ^1 — Giovanni Bracco, Luigi de Filippis, Reg Parnell, Luigi Platé, ^2 — Dorino Serafini qualified and drove 47 laps of the race in the #48 Ferrari. Alberto Ascari, whose own vehicle had already retired, took over Serafinis car for the remaining 33 laps of the race, ^3 — Piero Taruffi qualified and drove 25 laps of the race in the #60 Alfa Romeo. Juan Manuel Fangio, whose own Alfa had already retired, took over Taruffis car for a further 9 laps before again being forced to retire. Ferrari pulled out all the stops to impress at their home circuit, alberto Ascari used it to achieve second place on the grid to Juan Manuel Fangios Alfa Romeo 158 and then in the race behind the fast starting Nino Farina before briefly leading. Sadly, the pace was too punishing for the new car and a porous block broke on lap 20, Fangio retired twice, once in his own Alfa Romeo 158 and a second time after taking over Piero Taruffis. Farina led to the finish from Ascari who was now in team-mate Dorino Serafinis Ferrari 375 with Luigi Fagioli finishing third in his Alfa Romeo 158, louis Rosier finish fourth in his Talbot-Lago T26C with Philippe Étancelin fifth in his Lago-Talbot. Étancelin would become the oldest driver to score a world championship point with that finish. Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed, Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship. Numbers without parentheses are Championship points, numbers in parentheses are total points scored
7.
1951 British Grand Prix
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The 1951 British Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 14 July 1951 at the Silverstone Circuit in Northamptonshire, England. It was the round of the 1951 World Drivers Championship and was contested over 90 laps. The race was the first victory for José Froilán González, and was also the first of many for the Scuderia Ferrari team, both the team and driver also achieved their first ever pole position during the weekend. José Froilán González was one second quicker than Juan Manuel Fangio in qualifying, achieving the first pole position of his career and it was also the first pole position for the Ferrari team, and the first in the World Championship not scored by an Alfa Romeo. Nino Farina and Alberto Ascari qualified in third and fourth positions, González and Fangio shot away almost parallel from the front row of the grid, closely followed by the other Alfa Romeos and Ferraris. Alfa Romeo driver Felice Bonetto, who started in seventh position, was the first man at the first corner, González took the lead from Bonetto on the second lap with Fangio chasing. The BRM cars of Reg Parnell and Peter Walker were in hot pursuit of the leaders, the team had arrived at the last minute, and had not practiced or even qualified for their debut race, and had started in 19th and 20th positions. Bonettos Alfa Romeo teammates of Fangio and reigning World Champion, Nino Farina, managed to overtake him to move into second, on lap 6, Fangio began to close in on González, he passed him on the straight on lap 10, and slowly began to draw away. Consalvo Sanesi then pulled into the pits for fuel and new tyres, Farina pulled up at Abbey curve after 75 laps with a slipping clutch and his engine on fire. He had set the lap record on lap 38, with a time of 1 minute 44 seconds, González retook the lead on lap 39 with an overtake at Becketts corner. He kept his lead for the remainder of the race extending it to 1 minute and 5 seconds with 5 laps to go, before easing off at the end of the race. The BRM drivers of Parnell and Walker were still battling on, despite the fact they were suffering from hand and feet burns, the Alfa Romeos of Fangio and Farina pitted twice for fuel, owing to the awful fuel consumption of their cars. They were doing 1 1/2 miles to the gallon, and needed to take on 70 gallons for every stop, González eventually took his own and Ferraris first victory in a World Championship race by 51 seconds. It was the first World Championship race that was not won by an Alfa Romeo, an Alfa Romeo was still in second place though, in the form of the years eventual champion Fangio. Luigi Villoresi became the second Ferrari on the podium after he finished in third place, Bonetto and Parnell were the other two point scorers at the race, finishing in fourth and fifth positions respectively. As it turned out, González had actually raced with a chassis and engine than his teammates, Villoresi. ^1 — Maurice Trintignant, Robert Manzon, André Simon and Philippe Étancelin all withdrew from the event prior to practice, Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed. Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship
8.
Arezzo
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Arezzo is a city and comune in Italy, capital of the province of the same name, located in Tuscany. Arezzo is about 80 kilometres southeast of Florence, at an elevation of 296 metres above sea level, in 2013 the population was about 99,000. Described by Livy as one of the Capitae Etruriae, Arezzo is believed to have one of the twelve most important Etruscan cities—the so-called Dodecapolis. Etruscan remains establish that the acropolis of San Cornelio, a hill next to that of San Donatus, was occupied and fortified in the Etruscan period. Increasing trade connections with Greece also brought some elite goods to the Etruscan nobles of Arezzo, conquered by the Romans in 311 BC, Arretium became a military station on the via Cassia, the road to expansion by republican Rome into the basin of the Po. Arretium sided with Marius in the Roman Civil War, and the victorious Sulla planted a colony of his veterans in the half-demolished city, as Arretium Fidens. The old Etruscan aristocracy was not extinguished, Gaius Cilnius Maecenas, around 26-261 AD the town council of Arezzo dedicated an inscription to its patron L. Petronius Taurus Volusianus. See that article for discussion of the possible significance of Volusianuss association with the city. The commune of Arezzo threw off the control of its bishop in 1098 and was an independent city-state until 1384, generally Ghibelline in tendency, it opposed Guelph Florence. In 1252 the city founded its university, the Studium, during this period Piero della Francesca worked in the church of San Francesco di Arezzo producing the splendid frescoes, recently restored, which are Arezzos most famous works. Afterwards the city began an economical and cultural decay, which ensured that its medieval centre was preserved. In the 18th century the neighbouring marshes of the Val di Chiana, south of Arezzo, were drained, in 1860 Arezzo became part of the Kingdom of Italy. The Commonwealth War Graves Commissions Arezzo War Cemetery, where 1,266 men are buried, is located to the North West of the city, Pope Benedict XVI visited Arezzo and two other Italian municipalities on Sunday, May 13,2012. Arezzo is set on a hill rising from the floodplain of the River Arno. In the upper part of the town are the cathedral, the town hall, the upper part of the town maintains its medieval appearance despite the addition of later structures. Notable earthquakes are still a rare phenomenon in the province. Under the Köppen climate classification Arezzo is either a humid climate or an oceanic climate. It has uncharacteristically hot summer days for a climate, with the lows moderating the average temps
9.
Milan
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Milan is a city in Italy, capital of the Lombardy region, and the most populous metropolitan area and the second most populous comune in Italy. The population of the city proper is 1,351,000, Milan has a population of about 8,500,000 people. It is the industrial and financial centre of Italy and one of global significance. In terms of GDP, it has the largest economy among European non-capital cities, Milan is considered part of the Blue Banana and lies at the heart of one of the Four Motors for Europe. Milan is an Alpha leading global city, with strengths in the arts, commerce, design, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, services, research, and tourism. Its business district hosts Italys Stock Exchange and the headquarters of the largest national and international banks, the city is a major world fashion and design capital, well known for several international events and fairs, including Milan Fashion Week and the Milan Furniture Fair. The city hosts numerous cultural institutions, academies and universities, with 11% of the national total enrolled students, Milans museums, theatres and landmarks attract over 9 million visitors annually. Milan – after Naples – is the second Italian city with the highest number of accredited stars from the Michelin Guide, the city hosted the Universal Exposition in 1906 and 2015. Milan is home to two of Europes major football teams, A. C. Milan and F. C. Internazionale, the etymology of Milan is uncertain. One theory holds that the Latin name Mediolanum comes from the Latin words medio, however, some scholars believe lanum comes from the Celtic root lan, meaning an enclosure or demarcated territory in which Celtic communities used to build shrines. Hence, Mediolanum could signify the central town or sanctuary of a Celtic tribe, indeed, the name Mediolanum is borne by about sixty Gallo-Roman sites in France, e. g. Saintes and Évreux. Alciato credits Ambrose for his account, around 400 BC, the Celtic Insubres settled Milan and the surrounding region. In 222 BC, the Romans conquered the settlement, renaming it Mediolanum, Milan was eventually declared the capital of the Western Roman Empire by Emperor Diocletian in 286 AD. Diocletian chose to stay in the Eastern Roman Empire and his colleague Maximianus ruled the Western one, immediately Maximian built several monuments, such as a large circus 470 m ×85 m, the Thermae Herculeae, a large complex of imperial palaces and several other buildings. With the Edict of Milan of 313, Emperor Constantine I guaranteed freedom of religion for Christians, after the city was besieged by the Visigoths in 402, the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, the Huns overran the city, in 539, the Ostrogoths conquered and destroyed Milan during the Gothic War against Byzantine Emperor Justinian I. In the summer of 569, a Teutonic tribe, the Lombards, conquered Milan, some Roman structures remained in use in Milan under Lombard rule. Milan surrendered to the Franks in 774 when Charlemagne took the title of King of the Lombards, the Iron Crown of Lombardy dates from this period
10.
World War II
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World War II, also known as the Second World War, was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945, although related conflicts began earlier. It involved the vast majority of the worlds countries—including all of the great powers—eventually forming two opposing alliances, the Allies and the Axis. It was the most widespread war in history, and directly involved more than 100 million people from over 30 countries. Marked by mass deaths of civilians, including the Holocaust and the bombing of industrial and population centres. These made World War II the deadliest conflict in human history, from late 1939 to early 1941, in a series of campaigns and treaties, Germany conquered or controlled much of continental Europe, and formed the Axis alliance with Italy and Japan. Under the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of August 1939, Germany and the Soviet Union partitioned and annexed territories of their European neighbours, Poland, Finland, Romania and the Baltic states. In December 1941, Japan attacked the United States and European colonies in the Pacific Ocean, and quickly conquered much of the Western Pacific. The Axis advance halted in 1942 when Japan lost the critical Battle of Midway, near Hawaii, in 1944, the Western Allies invaded German-occupied France, while the Soviet Union regained all of its territorial losses and invaded Germany and its allies. During 1944 and 1945 the Japanese suffered major reverses in mainland Asia in South Central China and Burma, while the Allies crippled the Japanese Navy, thus ended the war in Asia, cementing the total victory of the Allies. World War II altered the political alignment and social structure of the world, the United Nations was established to foster international co-operation and prevent future conflicts. The victorious great powers—the United States, the Soviet Union, China, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States emerged as rival superpowers, setting the stage for the Cold War, which lasted for the next 46 years. Meanwhile, the influence of European great powers waned, while the decolonisation of Asia, most countries whose industries had been damaged moved towards economic recovery. Political integration, especially in Europe, emerged as an effort to end pre-war enmities, the start of the war in Europe is generally held to be 1 September 1939, beginning with the German invasion of Poland, Britain and France declared war on Germany two days later. The dates for the beginning of war in the Pacific include the start of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, or even the Japanese invasion of Manchuria on 19 September 1931. Others follow the British historian A. J. P. Taylor, who held that the Sino-Japanese War and war in Europe and its colonies occurred simultaneously and this article uses the conventional dating. Other starting dates sometimes used for World War II include the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. The British historian Antony Beevor views the beginning of World War II as the Battles of Khalkhin Gol fought between Japan and the forces of Mongolia and the Soviet Union from May to September 1939, the exact date of the wars end is also not universally agreed upon. It was generally accepted at the time that the war ended with the armistice of 14 August 1945, rather than the formal surrender of Japan
11.
Alfa Romeo
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Alfa Romeo Automobiles S. p. A. is an Italian car manufacturer, founded as A. L. F. A. on 24 June 1910, in Milan. The brand is known for sporty vehicles and has involved in car racing since 1911. The company was owned by Italian state holding company Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale between 1932 and 1986, when it became a part of the Fiat group, in February 2007, the Alfa Romeo brand became Alfa Romeo Automobiles S. p. A. A subsidiary of Fiat Group Automobiles, now Fiat Chrysler Automobiles Italy, the company that became Alfa Romeo was founded as Società Anonima Italiana Darracq in 1906 by the French automobile firm of Alexandre Darracq, with Italian investors. In late 1909, the Italian Darracq cars were selling slowly, on 24 June 1910, a new company was founded named A. L. F. A. Initially still in partnership with Darracq, the first non-Darracq car produced by the company was the 191024 HP, designed by Merosi. Ventured into motor racing, with drivers Franchini and Ronzoni competing in the 1911 Targa Florio with two 24-hp models. In August 1915, the company came under the direction of Neapolitan entrepreneur Nicola Romeo, in 1920, the name of the company was changed to Alfa Romeo with the Torpedo 20-30 HP the first car to be so badged. In 1921, the Banca Italiana di Sconto, which backed the Ing, Nicola Romeo & Co, went broke and the government needed to support the industrial companies involved, among which was Alfa Romeo, through the Consorzio per Sovvenzioni sui Valori Industriali. In 1925, the activities were separated from the Romeo company. In 1933, the ownership was reorganized under the banner of the Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale by Benito Mussolinis government. The company struggled to return to profitability after the Second World War, in 1954, it developed the Alfa Romeo Twin Cam engine, which would remain in production until 1994. Alfa Romeo has competed successfully in Grand Prix motor racing, Formula One, sportscar racing, touring car racing and it has competed both as a constructor and an engine supplier, via works entries, and private entries. The first racing car was made in 1913, three years after the foundation of the company, and Alfa Romeo won the world championship for Grand Prix cars in 1925. The company gained a name in motorsport, which gave a sporty image to the whole marque. Enzo Ferrari founded the Scuderia Ferrari racing team in 1929 as an Alfa Romeo racing team and it holds the worlds title of the most wins of any marque in the world. The companys name is a combination of the name, A. L. F. A. and the last name of entrepreneur Nicola Romeo. The company that became Alfa Romeo was founded as Società Anonima Italiana Darracq in 1906 by the French automobile firm of Alexandre Darracq, One of them, Cavaliere Ugo Stella, an aristocrat from Milan, became chairman of the SAID in 1909
12.
Sports car racing
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Sports car racing is a form of circuit auto racing with sports cars that have two seats and enclosed wheels. They may be purpose-built or related to road-going models, a type of hybrid between the purism of open-wheelers and the familiarity of touring car racing, this style is often associated with the annual Le Mans 24 Hours endurance race. First run in 1923, Le Mans is one of the oldest motor races still in existence, other classic but now defunct sports car races include the Italian classics, the Targa Florio and Mille Miglia, and the Mexican Carrera Panamericana. Most top class sports car races emphasize endurance, reliability, and strategy, longer races usually involve complex pit strategy and regular driver changes. These makers top road cars have often very similar both in engineering and styling to those raced. This close association with the nature of the cars serves as a useful distinction between sports car racing and touring cars. The 12 Hours of Sebring,24 Hours of Daytona, and 24 Hours of Le Mans were once considered the trifecta of sports car racing. In the 1920s, the used in endurance racing and Grand Prix were still basically identical, with fenders. Cars such as the Bugatti Type 35 were almost equally at home in Grands Prix and endurance events, but specialisation gradually started to differentiate the sports-racer from the Grand Prix car. As mainly Italian cars and races defined the genre, the category was called Gran Turismo, as long distances had to be travelled, reliability and some basic comfort were necessary in order to endure the task. After the Second World War, sports car racing emerged as a form of racing with its own classic races. Top Grand Prix drivers also competed regularly in sports car racing, from 1962 sports cars temporarily took a back seat to GT cars with the FIA replacing the World Championship for Sports Cars with the International Championship for GT Manufacturers. The US scene tended to feature small MG and Porsche cars in the smaller classes, the combination of mostly British chassis and American V8 engines gave rise to the popular and spectacular Can-Am series in the 1960s and 1970s. Clubmans provided much entertainment at club-racing level from the 1960s into the 1990s, after a relative period of decline in the 1980s a British GT Championship emerged in the mid-90s. Road races such as the Mille Miglia included everything from stock touring cars to World Championship contenders, the Mille Miglia was the largest sporting event in Italy until a fatal accident caused its demise in 1957. The Targa Florio, another road race, remained part of the world championship until the 1970s. Between the late 1960s and late 1970s, Matra and Renault made significant, the competition at Le Mans even made it to the movie screens, with Steve McQueens film Le Mans. This era was seen by many as the highpoint of sports car racing, with the technology, a peculiarly American form of sports car racing was the Can-Am series, in which virtually unlimited sports prototypes competed in relatively short races
13.
Mille Miglia
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The Mille Miglia was an open-road endurance race which took place in Italy twenty-four times from 1927 to 1957. Like the older Targa Florio and later the Carrera Panamericana, the MM made Gran Turismo sports cars like Alfa Romeo, BMW, Ferrari, Maserati, Mercedes Benz, the race brought out an estimated five million spectators. From 1953 until 1957, the Mille Miglia was also a round of the World Sports Car Championship, since 1977, the Mille Miglia has been reborn as a regularity race for classic and vintage cars. Participation is limited to cars, produced no later than 1957, the route is similar to that of the original race, maintaining the point of departure / arrival in Viale Venezia in Brescia. This made organisation simpler as marshals did not have to be on duty for as long a period, from 1949, cars were assigned numbers according to their start time. For example, the 1955 Moss/Jenkinson car, #722, left Brescia at 07,22, in the early days of the race, even winners needed 16 hours or more, so most competitors had to start before midnight and arrived after dusk - if at all. The race was established by the young Count Aymo Maggi and Franco Mazzotti, together with a group of wealthy associates, they chose a race from Brescia to Rome and back, a figure-eight shaped course of roughly 1500 km — or a thousand Roman miles. Later races followed twelve other routes of varying total lengths, the first race started on 26 March 1927 with seventy-seven starters — all Italian — of which fifty-one had reached the finishing post at Brescia by the end of the race. The first Mille Miglia covered 1,618 km, corresponding to just over 1,005 modern miles, entry was strictly restricted to unmodified production cars, and the entrance fee was set at a nominal 1 lira. The winner, Giuseppe Morandi, completed the course in just under 21 hours 5 minutes, averaging nearly 78 km/h in his 2-litre OM, tazio Nuvolari won the 1930 Mille Miglia in an Alfa Romeo 6C. Having started after his teammate and rival Achille Varzi, Nuvolari was leading the race, in the dim half-light of early dawn, Nuvolari tailed Varzi with his headlights off, thereby not being visible in the latters rear-view mirrors. He then overtook Varzi on the roads approaching the finish at Brescia, by pulling alongside. The event was dominated by local Italian drivers and marques. Caracciola had received little support from the factory due to the economic crisis at that time. He did not have mechanics to man all necessary service points. After performing a pit stop, they had to hurry across Italy, the race was briefly stopped by Italian leader Benito Mussolini after an accident in 1938 killed a number of spectators. When it resumed in 1940 during wartime, it was dubbed the Grand Prix of Brescia and this event saw the debut of the first Enzo Ferrari-owned marque AAC. The Italians continued to dominate their race after the war, now again on a single big lap through Italy, caracciola, in a comeback attempt, was fourth
14.
Giuseppe Farina
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Dottore Giuseppe Antonio “Nino” Farina, was an Italian racing driver and was the first official Formula One World Champion, gaining the title in 1950. He was also the Italian Champion in 1937,1938 and 1939, during his thirty-year racing career he suffered a series of accidents. Born in Turin, Farina was the son of Giovanni Carlo Farina who founded the Stabilimenti Farina coachbuilder, Giuseppe began driving a two-cylinder Temperino, at the age of just nine. He became a Doctor of Political Science, he excelled at skiing, football. He cut short a career as an officer with the Italian army to fulfil a different ambition. While still at university Farina purchased his first car, a second-hand Alfa Romeo, while trying to beat his father, he crashed, breaking his shoulder and receiving facial cuts, establishing a trend that continued throughout his crash-prone career. It was Nuvolari who to some extent, guided Farina’s early career, in 1935, he raced for the factory Maserati team, showing enough promise to impress Enzo Ferrari, who recruited him to drive for Scuderia Ferrari, the team that ran the works-supported Alfa Romeos. It was in an Alfa Romeo 8C that he finished second in the Mille Miglia and he made mistakes aplenty, but kept coming back for more and became a Grand Prix winner, when he won the 1937 Grand Prix of Naples. Although he was noted for his style and intelligence, he had a petulant streak. He was involved in two fatal accidents, the first was during the 1936 Grand Prix de Deauville, when he tried to pass Marcel Lehoux for second. Farina’s Alfa Romeo 8C collided with Lehoux’s ERA, causing the ERA to overturn, Lehoux was thrown out, received a fractured skull and died in hospital, while Farina escaped with minor injuries. Two seasons later, during the 1938 Gran Premio di Tripoli, the cars to collided and overturned. Farina survived without injuries, but Hartmann died the following day. In 1938, the official Alfa Romeo team, Alfa Corse, returned to motor sport and Farina was a member. Driving the new Alfa Romeo 158 Voiturette in 1939, he won the Grand Prix d’Anvers, Coppa Ciano, the following year, he won the Tripoli Grand Prix and finished second in the Mille Miglia for the third time. After World War II, Farina returned to Alfa Corse to drive their 158 and he won the 1946 Grand Prix des Nations. However, he left Alfa Corse after a disagreement over team leadership and he came back to the sport in 1948 with a privately entered Maserati and a works Ferrari. During this period, he also got married to Elsa Giaretto, in her opinion motor sport was a silly and dangerous activity, and she tried to persuade Farina to stop
15.
Juan Manuel Fangio
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Juan Manuel Fangio Déramo, nicknamed El Chueco or El Maestro, was an Argentine racing car driver. He dominated the first decade of Formula One racing, winning the World Drivers Championship five times, from childhood, he abandoned his studies to pursue auto mechanics. In 1938, he debuted in Turismo Carretera, competing in a Ford V8, Fangio then competed in Europe between 1947 and 1949 where he achieved further success. He won the World Championship of Drivers five times—a record which stood for 47 years until beaten by Michael Schumacher—with four different teams, Fangio is the only Argentine driver to have won the Argentine Grand Prix, having won it four times in his career—the most of any driver. After retirement, Fangio presided as the president of Mercedes-Benz Argentina from 1987. In 2011, on the centenary of his birth, Fangio was remembered around the world, Fangios grandfather, Giuseppe Fangio, emigrated to Buenos Aires in 1887. Giuseppe managed to buy his own farm near Balcarce within three years by making charcoal from tree branches and his father, Loreto, emigrated to Argentina from the small central Italian town of Castiglione Messer Marino in the Chieti province of the Abruzzo region. His mother, Herminia Déramo, was from Tornareccio, slightly to the north and they married on 24 October 1903, and lived on farms where Herminia was a housekeeper and Loreto worked in the building trade, becoming an apprentice stonemason. Fangio was born on San Juans Day 1911 at 12,10 a. m. in Balcarce and his birth certificate was mistakenly dated 23 June by the Register of Balcarce. He was the fourth of six children, in his childhood he became known as El Chueco, the bandy legged one, for his skill in bending his left leg around the ball to shoot on goal during football games. Fangio started his education at the School No.4 of Balcarce, when Fangio was 13, he dropped out of school and worked as an assistant mechanic. When he was 16, he started riding as a mechanic for his employers customers and he developed pneumonia, which almost proved fatal, after a football game where hard running had caused a sharp pain in his chest. He was bed-ridden for two months, cared for by his mother, after recovering, Fangio served compulsory military service at the age of 21. In 1932 he was enlisted at the Campo de Mayo cadet school near Buenos Aires and his driving skills caught the attention of his commanding officer, who appointed Fangio as his official driver. Fangio was discharged before his 22nd birthday after taking his final physical examination and he returned to Balcarce where he aimed to further his football career. Along with his friend José Duffard he received offers to play at a club based in Mar del Plata. Their teammates at Balcarce suggested the two work on Fangios hobby of building his own car and his parents donated space in a section of their home where a rudimentary shed was built. After finishing his service, Fangio opened his own garage
16.
Carrera Panamericana
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The Carrera Panamericana was a border-to-border sedan and sports car racing event on open roads in Mexico similar to the Mille Miglia and Targa Florio in Italy. Running for five years from 1950 to 1954, it was widely held by contemporaries to be the most dangerous race of any type in the world. It has since been resurrected along some of the course as a classic speed rally. The 1950 race ran almost entirely along the new roadway, because it started at the border with Texas, it was especially attractive to all types of American race drivers from Indy cars to NASCAR. Bill France, the founder of NASCAR, was there for the first race as well as later races, Piero Taruffi and Felice Bonetto, both Italian F1 drivers, entered a pair of Alfa Romeo coupes specially constructed for the event. However, many of the 132 competitors were ordinary unsponsored citizens from the United States, Mexico, the entrants include nine women drivers. The event comprised nine legs or stage, at least one leg was run each day for five consecutive days. The elevation changes were significant, from 328 feet to 10,482 feet above sea level, Most of the race was run between 5,000 feet and 8,000 feet. The first four places were won by American cars and American drivers, the winner, Hershel McGriff, drove an Oldsmobile 88 at an average speed of 142 km/h. Though less powerful, the car was lighter than its big Lincoln and Cadillac competitors, meaning that it would eventually pull away from them on the steep. The car, had another advantage in its weight - it was easier to stop. The reason that this was so important was that neither McGriff nor his co-driver were capable of even the most basic maintenance to the car. McGriff also noted that the control afforded by his gearbox gave him a significant advantage the last day on the gravel roads in Chiapas. The final miles to the finish were run without oil due to bottoming out the oil pans leaving the engine smoking and rattling to the checkered flag, the best placed European car was an Alfa Romeo sedan driven by Italian driver, Felice Bonetto. The race, however, set its bloody and dangerous reputation right from the start,4 people were killed during this event and this northerly direction also allowed the U. S. drivers to finish at their border. The race was run in late November as opposed to early May, the race would prove to exact a heavy toll upon drivers. At the start of the race, José Estrada, a prosperous Mexico City car dealer, on the first stage, his 1951 Packard skidded off the road and tumbled 630 feet down into a ravine. Both Estrada and co-driver Miguel González died in an Oaxaca hospital later that afternoon and he is credited with being the first pilot to fly a light plane around the world
17.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
18.
Brand
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A brand is a name, term, design, symbol, or other feature that distinguishes one seller’s product from those of others. Brands are used in business, marketing, and advertising, however, the term has been extended to mean a strategic personality for a product or company, so that ‘brand’ now suggests the values and promises that a consumer may perceive and buy into. Branding is a set of marketing and communication methods that help to distinguish a company from competitors, the key components that form a brands toolbox include a brand’s identity, brand communication, brand awareness, brand loyalty, and various branding strategies. Brand equity is the totality of a brands worth and is validated by assessing the effectiveness of these branding components. To reach such an invaluable brand prestige requires a commitment to a way of doing business. A corporation who exhibits a strong brand culture is dedicated on producing intangible outputs such as customer satisfaction, reduced price sensitivity and customer loyalty. A brand is in essence a promise to its customers that they can expect long-term security, when a customer is familiar with a brand or favours it incomparably to its competitors, this is when a corporation has reached a high level of brand equity. Many companies are beginning to understand there is often little to differentiate between products in the 21st century. Branding remains the last bastion for differentiation, in accounting, a brand defined as an intangible asset is often the most valuable asset on a corporation’s balance sheet. The word ‘brand’ is often used as a referring to the company that is strongly identified with a brand. Marque or make are often used to denote a brand of motor vehicle, a concept brand is a brand that is associated with an abstract concept, like breast cancer awareness or environmentalism, rather than a specific product, service, or business. A commodity brand is a associated with a commodity. The word, brand, derives from Dutch brand meaning to burn and this product was developed at Dhosi Hill, an extinct volcano in northern India. Roman glassmakers branded their works, with Ennion being the most prominent, the Italians used brands in the form of watermarks on paper in the 13th century. Blind Stamps, hallmarks, and silver-makers marks are all types of brand, industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from local communities to centralized factories. When shipping their items, the factories would literally brand their logo or insignia on the barrels used, Bass & Company, the British brewery, claims their red-triangle brand as the worlds first trademark. Another example comes from Antiche Fornaci Giorgi in Italy, which has stamped or carved its bricks with the same proto-logo since 1731, cattle-branding has been used since Ancient Egypt. The term, maverick, originally meaning an un-branded calf, came from a Texas pioneer rancher, Sam Maverick, use of the word maverick spread among cowboys and came to apply to unbranded calves found wandering alone
19.
12 Hours of Sebring
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The event is the second round of the United SportsCar Championship and in the past has been a round of the now defunct World Sportscar Championship, IMSA GT Championship and American Le Mans Series. In 2012, the race was the event of the FIA World Endurance Championship. The track opened in 1950 on an airfield and is a racing course styled after those used in European Grand Prix motor racing. The first race was a race on New Years Eve 1950. The race is famous for its once around the action, starting during the day. In its early years, the Sebring circuit combined former airport runways with narrow service roads. The 1966 event was a point in Sebring history, as the facilities. Five people were killed during the race, which was more people killed than in the races prior 15-year history combined, bob McLean crashed while approaching the hairpin, his car rolled several times, struck a utility pole and then exploded, landing in a ditch and killing McLean. The circuit was made safer and there were no fatalities until 1980 and it is known as preparation for the 24 Hours of Le Mans, as the tracks extremely bumpy surface, combined with south-central Floridas perennial hot weather, is a test of a cars reliability. In recent years, six victories have been achieved by the Audi R8. Tom Kristensen has won the more times than anyone else, with six victories – in 1999–2000, 2005–2006,2009. The 1966 race had Dan Gurney leading at the last lap, Gurney pushed his car over the finish line, beaten only by Ken Miles and Lloyd Ruby. However, his actions were ultimately determined to be against the rules, Corvette had dominated the class the past three years with its previous generation C5R. The all-new Audi R10 TDI won the 2006 edition of the race, the victory set the stage for an even more momentous win by the R10 in its next race, the Le Mans 24 Hours later in the year. The much-hyped Porsche RS Spyder campaigned by Penske Racing dropped to take 2nd place in its LMP2 class, behind the Intersport Lola car. The GT1 Corvette C6R team got their revenge against the Aston Martin, in addition to an overall win, Audi also set a track record in 2007 with Marco Werner behind the wheel in qualifying. ^A The car was in fact, a Porsche 935 K3 that has been modified with a single cylinder head. ^B These races were stopped for a period of due to heavy rain and/or accidents
20.
Alfa Romeo Giulia TZ
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The Alfa Romeo Giulia TZ was a sports car and racing car manufactured by Alfa Romeo from 1963 to 1967. In 2011, the name was reduced from Giulia TZ to TZ in the new TZ3 model, the original TZ, currently sometimes referenced as TZ1 to differ from later TZ2, was developed in together with Autodelta, a company led by Ex-Ferrari engineer Carlo Chiti. The result was a lightweight coupé of only 650 kilograms and top speed of 134 miles per hour, the TZ was built both for street and racing trim, with the latest racing versions producing up to 160 brake horsepower. Aiding the TZ in its quest for performance was the treatment of the rear bodywork, incorporating the research of Dr. Wunibald Kamm, the TZ used a style called coda tronca in Italian, meaning short tail. Otherwise known as the Kamm tail, Zagato had previously proved the success of this tail treatment in their coda tronca Sprint Zagato sports-racing cars, and it was a natural evolution to adapt this to the Giulia TZ. The car debuted at the 1963 FISA Monza Cup, where TZs took the first four places in the prototype category, at the beginning of 1964 the TZ was homologated to the Gran Turismo category. After homologation it started to take more class wins in Europe, of the first TZ,112 units were built between 1963 and 1965. Only built as limited amount these TZ models are quite collectibles nowadays, listed price around 150,1,570 cc straight-4 DOHC112 bhp at 6500 rpm,160 bhp In 1965 the car was updated with new fibreglass bodywork providing lower drag and reduced weight. This new version was made by Zagato. The new design was called the Alfa Romeo Giulia TZ2, the TZ2 was only built as racing version, it was equipped with an Autodelta-prepared twin plug, dry sump lubrication 1,570 cc straight-4 DOHC engine producing around 170 brake horsepower at 7000 rpm. With this engine the car reached top speed of 152 miles per hour, the rear window was also changed, now single unit rather than three part window in TZ. Development of TZ cars was stopped in the end of 1965, the car won the prestigious Gran Turismo Trophy at the 2009 Pebble Beach Concours dElegance. The TZ3 was built in two forms, celebrating Alfa Romeos centenary in two different heritages, the Alfa Romeo TZ3 Corsa is the track version of the TZ3 built to celebrate 100 years of Alfa Romeo in racing. The Corsa is a car that was first presented at, and won. This unique car, based on the Alfa Romeo 8C Competizione, was made for German collector Martin Kapp and is not intended for sale or for competitions. The car weighs 850 kg thanks to its carbon fiber frame, the car has a 6-speed sequential gearbox, it reaches a top speed of over 300 km/h and it can accelerate from zero to 100 km/h in 3.5 seconds. The chassis is a monocoque with some tubular elements. The suspension setup, front and rear, are double wishbones, with pushrod actuated coil springs, the Alfa Romeo TZ3 Stradale is the road version of the TZ3, designed by Norihiko Harada of Zagato, and was built to celebrate 100 years of Alfa Romeo on the road
21.
Poughkeepsie, New York
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Poughkeepsie /pəˈkɪpsi/, officially the City of Poughkeepsie, is a city in the state of New York, United States, which is the county seat of Dutchess County. As of the 2010 census it had a population of 32,736, Poughkeepsie is in the Hudson Valley midway between New York City and Albany, and is part of the New York metropolitan area. Poughkeepsie is known as The Queen City of the Hudson and it was settled in the 17th century by the Dutch and became New Yorks second capital shortly after the American Revolution. It was chartered as a city in 1854. S, the city of Poughkeepsie lies in New Yorks 18th congressional district. The site of Poughkeepsie was purchased from the Indians in 1686 by Robert Sanders, an Englishman, and Myndert Harmense Van Den Bogaerdt, the first settlers were the families of Barent Baltus Van Kleeck and Hendrick Jans van Oosterom. The settlement grew quickly, and the Reformed Church of Poughkeepsie was established by 1720, the community was set off from the town of Poughkeepsie when it became an incorporated village on 27 March 1799. The city of Poughkeepsie was chartered on 28 March 1854, spared from battle during the American Revolution, Poughkeepsie became the second capital of New York. With its ratification, New York entered the new union as the eleventh of the thirteen colonies to join together as the United States of America. In 1799, a new seal was created for Poughkeepsie, due to the areas natural beauty and proximity to New York City, families such as the Astors, Rogers, and Vanderbilts built palatial weekend homes nearby. The city is home to the oldest continuously operating entertainment venue in the state, the city is on the western edge of Dutchess County, bordered by the Hudson River on the west and by the town of Poughkeepsie on the north, east and south. There are two crossings of the Hudson River in Poughkeepsie, the Mid-Hudson Bridge for motor vehicles and pedestrians, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 5.7 square miles. 5.1 square miles of it is land, and 0.23 square miles of it is water and it is about 75 miles north of New York City and is in southeastern New York State. It receives approximately 44.12 inches of precipitation per year, much of which is delivered in the late spring, due to its inland location, Poughkeepsie can be very cold during the winter, with temperatures dropping below zero a few times per year. Poughkeepsie can also be hit by powerful noreasters, but usually significantly less snow or rain from these storms compared to locations to the south. As of the census of 2010, there were 32,736 people, the population density was 5,806.2 inhabitants per square mile. There were 13,153 housing units at a density of 2,556.6 per square mile. 35. 4% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.15. In the city, the population was out with 25. 9% under the age of 18,12. 2% from 18 to 24,29. 2% from 25 to 44,19. 0% from 45 to 64
22.
Alfa Romeo in Formula One
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Alfa Romeo participated in Formula One, as both a constructor and engine supplier, from 1950 to 1988. Alfa Romeo had often been a force in Grand Prix racing before World War II, from 1934 to the start of World War II in 1939, Alfa rarely won and their cars looked rather outdated and badly built compared to the high-tech Silver Arrows. When the new Formula One World Championship had come around, Alfa had absolutely dominated post-WWII racing from 1946 to 1949- winning every Grand Prix they entered with the exception of 3. In 1950 Nino Farina won the inaugural World Championship of Drivers in a 158 with supercharger, in 1951 Juan Manuel Fangio won while driving an Alfetta 159. The Alfettas engines were powerful for their capacity, in 1951 the 159 engine was producing around 420 bhp. Surprisingly, Alfa Romeo involvement in racing was made with a thin budget, using mostly pre-war technology. For instance the team won two championships using only nine pre-war built engine blocks, during the 1960s, several minor F1 teams used Alfa Romeo straight-4 engines in cars such as the LDS Mk1 and Mk2 Specials, Coopers and De Tomasos. In the end of 1960s Alfa Romeo was developing a new V8 engine for its racing cars, Alfa Romeo briefly returned to Formula One for the 1970 and 1971 seasons with a V8 engine based on their sportscar unit. In 1970 the unit was entrusted to Andrea de Adamich. The combination often failed to qualify and was uncompetitive when it did run in the races, in 1971 a similar arrangement saw de Adamich run most of the second half of the season in a works March car, with a similar lack of success. For 1976 Bernie Ecclestone did a deal for the Brabham Formula One team to use Alfa Romeo engines based on their new sports car unit. At Murrays instigation Alfa produced a narrower V12 design in three months for the 1979 season, but it continued to be unreliable and fuel inefficient. During 1977, and after persuasion by Chiti, Alfa Romeo gave Autodelta permission to start developing a Formula One car on their behalf. Thus named the Alfa Romeo 177, the car made its debut at the 1979 Belgian Grand Prix, the partnership with Brabham had finished before the end of the season, with Bernie Ecclestones outfit returning to Ford/Cosworth DFV engines. This second Alfa works Formula One project was never truly successful during its existence from the middle of 1979 until the end of 1985 and they also endured tragedy when their driver Patrick Depailler was killed testing for the 1980 German Grand Prix at the Hockenheimring. In 1981 they had the services of Mario Andretti, but continued to be dogged by poor reliability, after a restructuring of Autodelta, the team operations and design of the car were outsourced to Euroracing in 1982, with the works engines still being supplied by Autodelta. The 890T was very thirsty and suffered badly at fast circuits- particularly both of Alfas home circuits of Imola and Monza, the engine was developed but the fuel consumption problems were never really rectified. The teams 1985 car, the Alfa Romeo 185T proved to be so uncompetitive that the 1984 car, after being updated to 1985 specifications the car, now dubbed the 184TB, was actually an improvement over the 1985 car, but results were still not forthcoming
23.
Alfa Romeo 158/159 Alfetta
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The Alfa Romeo 158/159, also known as the Alfetta, is one of the most successful racing cars ever produced. The 158 and its derivative, the 159, took 47 wins from 54 Grands Prix entered and it was originally developed for the pre-World War II voiturette formula and has a 1. 5-litre straight-8 supercharged engine. Following World War II, the car was eligible for the new Formula One introduced in 1947, in the hands of drivers such as Nino Farina, Juan-Manuel Fangio and Luigi Fagioli, it dominated the first two seasons of the World Championship of Drivers. The first version of this successful racing car, the 158, was made during 1937/1938, the main responsibility for engineering was given to Gioacchino Colombo. The cars name refers to its 1. 5-litre engine and eight cylinders, the voiturette class was for racing cars with 1. 5-litre engines, standing in the same relation to the top Grand Prix formula as the GP2 series does to Formula One today. Alfas 3-litre racing cars in 1938 and 1939 were the Tipo 308,312 and 316, the 158 debuted with the works Alfa Corse team at the Coppa Ciano Junior in August 1938 at Livorno, Italy, where Emilio Villoresi took the cars first victory. At that time the 1479.56 cc engine produced around 200 bhp at 7000 rpm. with the help of a single-stage Roots blower, more success came at the Coppa Acerbo, Coppa Ciano and Tripoli Grand Prix in May 1940. Soon World War II stopped development of the car for six years, after the war the engine was developed further to push out 254 bhp in 1946. In 1947, the Alfetta was put back into service, the new rules allowed 1500 cc supercharged and 4500 cc naturally aspirated engines. The 158 was modified again, this time to produce over 300 bhp and was denoted as Tipo 158/47, the car made a tragic debut in the 1948 Swiss Grand Prix where Achille Varzi lost control of his car and was killed. Another loss for the team came in practice for the 1949 Buenos Aires Grand Prix, in 1950, the 158 was eligible for the new World Championship of Drivers. The Alfa Romeo team included talented drivers such as Giuseppe Farina and Juan Manuel Fangio, at the end of the 1950 season, a further updated version known as the 159 was produced, which was used for the 1951 season. This version had reworked rear suspension, the old swing axle was replaced with a De-Dion axle, but this amount of power out of a small engine with a big supercharger came at a price – it had horrendous fuel consumption. It did 1 1⁄2 miles to the gallon – compared to the Talbot-Lagos of the time, the reason for this was because the simplistically designed engine had been virtually unmodified, while bigger superchargers had been added over time. Still, the Alfa had the edge on performance and with wins in Switzerland, France and Spain, for their second-to-last World Championship race, the Italian Grand Prix at Monza, Alfa Romeo introduced a new evolution version known as the 159M, the M standing for Maggiorata. After an unsuccessful bid by Alfa Romeo to obtain government assistance to meet development costs, the cars last Grand Prix win came in 1953 at Merano Grand Prix, Italy. * The Constructors Championship was not awarded until 1958
24.
Straight-eight engine
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The straight-eight engine or inline-eight engine is an eight-cylinder internal combustion engine with all eight cylinders mounted in a straight line along the crankcase. The type has been produced in side-valve, IOE, overhead-valve, sleeve-valve, a straight-eight can be timed for inherent primary and secondary balance, with no unbalanced primary or secondary forces or moments. However, crankshaft torsional vibration, present to some degree in all engines, is sufficient to require the use of a harmonic damper at the end of the crankshaft. Without such damping, fatigue cracking near the main bearing journal may occur. Also, due to the number of power strokes per revolution. The smooth running characteristics of the straight-eight made it popular in luxury, however, the engines length demanded the use of a long engine compartment, making the basic design unacceptable in modern vehicles. Also, due to the length of the engine, torsional vibration in both crankshaft and camshaft can adversely affect reliability and performance at high speeds, as a result, the design has been displaced almost completely by the shorter V8 engine configuration. The first straight-eight was conceived by Charron, Girardot et Voigt in 1903, great strides were made during World War I, as Mercedes made straight-eight aircraft engines like the Mercedes D. IV. The disadvantages of crank and camshaft twisting were not considered at this time, unlike the V8 engine configuration, examples of which were used in De Dion-Bouton, Scripps-Booth, and Cadillac automobiles by 1914, no straight-eight engines were used in production cars before 1920. The Duesenberg brothers introduced their first production straight-eight in 1921, straight-eight engines were used in expensive luxury and performance vehicles until after World War II. Bugattis and Duesenbergs commonly used double overhead cam straight-eight engines, other notable straight-eight-powered automobiles were built by Daimler, Mercedes-Benz, Isotta-Fraschini, Alfa Romeo, Stutz, Stearns-Knight and Packard. One marketing feature of engines was their impressive length — some of the Duesenberg engines were over 4 ft long, resulting in the long hoods found on these automobiles. In the United States in the 1920s, automobile manufacturers, including Chandler, Marmon, Gardner, Engine manufacturer Lycoming built straight-eight engines for sale to automobile manufacturers, including Gardner, Auburn, and Locomobile. The automobile manufacturers within the Cord Corporation, comprising Auburn, Cord, Lycoming continues to this day as an aircraft engine manufacturer. In the late 1920s, volume sellers Hudson and Studebaker introduced straight-eight engines for the vehicles in their respective lines. They were followed in the early 1930s by Nash, REO, and the Buick, Oldsmobile, the Buick straight-eight engine was an overhead valve design, while the Oldsmobile and Pontiac straight-eights were flathead engines. Chevrolet, as a marque, did not have a straight-eight. Cadillac, the brand of General Motors, stayed with their traditional V8 engines
25.
1950 British Grand Prix
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The 1950 British Grand Prix/1950 Grand Prix of Europe was a Formula One motor race held on 13 May 1950 at the Silverstone Circuit in Silverstone, England. It was the first World Championship Formula One race in the era, as well as the fifth British Grand Prix. It was the first round of the 1950 World Drivers Championship and the fifth race of the season. The 70-lap race was won by Giuseppe Farina for the Alfa Romeo team, after starting from pole position, with a time of 2,13,23.6. Luigi Fagioli finished second in another Alfa Romeo, and Reg Parnell third in a third Alfa Romeo, the race followed the non-championship Pau Grand Prix and San Remo Grand Prix, the Richmond Trophy and the Paris Grand Prix. In all, there were 22 competing,21 qualified for the race, numbers 7 and 13 were not assigned. The Alfa Romeo factory team arrived at the circuit with four 158s for Fangio, Farina, ferrari decided not to take part but there were a handful of Maseratis, one of them a factory car for Monegasque driver Louis Chiron. Scuderia Ambrosiana prepared two cars for David Hampshire and David Murray, Enrico Platé entered two drivers of aristocratic origin, Prince Bira of Siam and Baron Toulo de Graffenried, Joe Fry entered a private Maserati and Scuderia Milano entered Felice Bonetto, but he did not arrive. These cars were raced in Italian Rosso Corsa livery, talbot-Lago sent over two factory cars in the traditional French pale blue colour to be driven by Yves Giraud-Cabantous and Eugène Martin. Other private Talbots were entered by Louis Rosier, Philippe Etancelin and Belgian Johnny Claes, the rest of the field was made up of local machinery, which included four E. R. A. s and two Altas, in British racing green. Farina was fastest in qualifying and the other three Alfas were alongside him on the front row, the second row consisted of B. Bira in a Maserati and the two factory Talbots, in accordance with the standard at the time, the rest of the grid consisted of rows of four and three alternating, up to the sixth row. Felice Bonetto was the driver who did not take part in qualifying. On 13 May,21 drivers from 9 countries were represented at the old Silverstone airport,4 from France,2 from Italy,1 each from Belgium, Ireland, Monaco, Argentina, the UK was represented by 9 drivers. At the start of the race, Farina took the lead with Fagioli, in the early laps they switched around between themselves several times to keep everyone amused. Fangio retired with engine troubles and so Farina led Fagioli home by 2.5 seconds with Parnell a distant third despite hitting a hare during the race, the nearest challenger was Giraud-Cabantous two laps down, Bira having retired with a fuel problem. Crossley and Murray duelled at the back before retiring, de Graffenried had done so on lap 34, Giuseppe Farina led for 63 laps. Luigi Fagioli led for 6 laps, juan Manuel Fangio led for 1 lap
26.
1950 Monaco Grand Prix
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The 1950 Monaco Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 21 May 1950 at Monaco. This race was the round of 1950 World Drivers Championship. The 100-lap race was held at a distance of 318.1 km and was won by Juan Manuel Fangio for the Alfa Romeo team after starting from pole position. Alberto Ascari finished 2nd for Ferrari and Louis Chiron finished 3rd for Maserati, the starting grid consisted of alternating rows of three and two, starting with three on the front row and continuing up to two on the 8th row. This format meant that Luigi Villoresi started 6th, despite his time being fast enough for 2nd place on the grid, thanks to an accident in practice, Alfredo Piàn did not start the race, with Peter Whitehead another non-starter. The race was marred by a large pile-up during the first lap, nino Farina in 2nd, spun and crashed while Fangio managed to escape the chaos. Those who were behind them tried to stop or avoid the carnage, none of them was injured, but José Froilán González, who damaged his Maserati in the pile-up but was subsequently running second, crashed during the second lap. His car caught fire and he suffered burns, the race went on with many cars going off at Tabac Corner, nearly causing other accidents. Ferrari driver Luigi Villoresi charged his way from the back of the field after being delayed by the pile-up, harry Schells Cooper was the first rear-engined car to start in a championship race. ^1 — Entry cancelled prior to event, positions 1-5 determined by Thursday practice. The rest of the field was set on Saturday, Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed. Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship
27.
1950 Indianapolis 500
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The 34th International 500-Mile Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Tuesday, May 30,1950. The event was part of the 1950 AAA National Championship Trail, the race was also included as the third round in the inaugural 1950 World Drivers Championship, and paid points towards the World Championship. The event, however, did not attract any European entries for 1950, giuseppe Farina originally planned to enter, but his car never arrived. The Indianapolis 500 would be included on the World Championship calendar through 1960, the race was originally scheduled for 200 laps, but was stopped after 138 laps due to rain. A rumor circulated in racing circles during and after this race that Johnnie Parsonss team discovered a crack in the engine block on race morning. The discovery supposedly precipitated Parsons to charge for the lap leader prizes, presumably, he set his sights on leading as many laps as possible before the engine inevitably was to fail. Furthermore, the race ending early due to rain supposedly saved Parsonss day allowing him to secure the victory before the engine let go. However, the engine block crack was proved to be a myth, and it was said to be a very minor but acceptable level of porosity. Despite the 500 being his only race in the 1950 World Championship, during the month, Clark Gable and Barbara Stanwyck were at the track to film scenes for the film To Please a Lady. Stanwyck was on hand in victory lane after the race for the traditional celebratory kiss to the winner, time trials was scheduled for six days. Saturday May 13, Walt Faulkner won the position with a record run of 134.343 mph. Sunday May 14 Saturday May 20, The third day of time trials saw six cars complete runs, Bayliss Levrett was the fastest of the afternoon. Charles Van Acker was ruled physically disqualified, after a crash he suffered at the Speedway from 1949, sunday May 21 Saturday May 27, The day began with 11 spots open in the grid. Sunday May 28, Only one driver managed to bump his way into the field, johnny McDowell bumped Cliff Griffith, while 15 other cars failed to make the field. The two Novi entries failed to qualify – Chet Miller had engine trouble in one of the cars, rain and two crashes cut the track time to less than three hours. Points for 5th position were shared between the drivers, henry Banks and Fred Agabashian Bayliss Levrett and Bill Cantrell First win for Firestone in the World Championship. World Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed, Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship. The race was carried live on the Mutual Broadcasting System, the precursor to the IMS Radio Network, the broadcast was sponsored by Perfect Circle Piston Rings and Bill Slater served as the anchor
28.
1950 Swiss Grand Prix
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The 1950 Swiss Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 4 June 1950 at Bremgarten. It was the round of the 1950 World Drivers Championship. The 42-lap race was won by Alfa Romeo driver Nino Farina after he started from second position and his teammate Luigi Fagioli finished second and Talbot-Lago driver Louis Rosier came in third. The fourth round of the Championship took place just three weeks after the series began at Silverstone, there were a number of uncompetitive Talbot-Lagos and Maseratis as usual. José Froilán González was out of action as a result of burns he had received after the first lap accident at Monaco Grand Prix, also out of action as a result of the crash was Maserati factory driver Franco Rol. This was the last race to be entered by pre-war racer Eugène Martin and it was also the first and only World Championship Grand Prix for Nello Pagani, better known for his exploits in Grand Prix motorcycle racing. In qualifying Fangio and Farina were well clear of Fagioli with Villoresi, peter Whitehead, Franco Rol, Reg Parnell and Rudi Fischer failed to qualify. In the race, on the first lap Ascari managed to get among the Alfa Romeos but he slipped back. Fangio led early on but then Farina went ahead through a faster refuelling stop, Fagioli was unable to keep up and after both Villoresi and Ascari retired it was left to Prince Bira to run fourth. He had to refuel and so Philippe Étancelin in a Talbot-Lago was able to move into fourth place, shortly afterwards, factory Talbot-Lago driver Eugène Martin crashed heavily and was seriously hurt when he was thrown from the car. Étancelin later went out with gearbox trouble and so Talbot-Lago factory driver Louis Rosier moved into fourth and he was promoted to third when Fangio retired on lap 33 with an electrical problem. Farina became the first driver to win multiples Grands Prix, after winning the inaugural World Championship Grand Prix, ^1 — Nello Pagani qualified and drove all 39 laps of the race in the #2 Maserati. José Froilán González, named substitute driver for the car, was absent due to injury, Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed. Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship
29.
1950 Belgian Grand Prix
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The 1950 Belgian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 18 June 1950 at Spa-Francorchamps. It was the round of the 1950 World Drivers Championship. The 35-lap race was won by Alfa Romeo driver Juan Manuel Fangio after he started from second position and his teammate Luigi Fagioli finished second and Talbot-Lago driver Louis Rosier came in third. By the time of the Belgian Grand Prix, the pace of the season was beginning to tell and these included the dominant Alfa Romeos of Nino Farina, Juan Manuel Fangio and Luigi Fagioli. Ferrari was down to two 125s for Luigi Villoresi and Alberto Ascari, although Ascari had a new V12 engine to try out, the factory Talbot-Lago team had three cars for Louis Rosier, Yves Giraud-Cabantous and Philippe Étancelin. The rest of the field was made up of Talbot-Lagos, a single Alta and this race was the final entry for Geoffrey Crossley, the sports high costs forcing him, like many privateers, to retire after just a handful of races. Farina and Fangio were fastest as usual in qualifying with Fagioli unable to match them, Sommer split the Ferraris in his old Talbot-Lago. The race would be a similar story, the Alfas went off on their own and Sommer battled with the two Ferraris. When the Alfa stopped for fuel, Sommer found himself in the position of being race leader. Ascari took the lead but he had to stop for fuel, Farina suffered transmission trouble in the closing laps and dropped to fourth behind the best of the surviving Talbot-Lagos being driven by Rosier. Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed, Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship
30.
1950 French Grand Prix
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The 1950 French Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 2 July 1950 at Reims-Gueux. It was the round of the 1950 World Drivers Championship. The 64-lap race was won by Alfa Romeo driver Juan Manuel Fangio after he started from pole position and his teammate Luigi Fagioli finished second and Peter Whitehead took third in a privateer Ferrari. A total of 22 cars entered the event, four of which did not start the race, Fangio put in a stunning display with a 116 mph practice lap. With Ferrari not starting their 3-litre cars, the opposition was to come from the Talbots. But they suffered from problems and overheated to allow Fangio and Fagioli to lead home another Alfa demonstration run. Peter Whitehead took a podium with 3rd place despite a fractured head gasket in the last two laps. ^1 — Philippe Étancelin qualified and drove 26 laps of the race in the #16 Talbot-Lago, Eugène Chaboud, who did not start the race despite qualifying in his own car, took over Étancelins vehicle for 33 laps of the race. ^2 — Charles Pozzi qualified and drove 14 laps of the race in the #26 Talbot-Lago, Louis Rosier, whose own car had already retired, took over #26 for 42 laps of the race. ^3 — David Hampshire qualified the #34 Maserati and drove it in the race until he was forced to retire, David Murray, named substitute driver for the car, was not used during the Grand Prix. Shared Drives, Car #16, Philippe Étancelin then Eugène Chaboud and they shared the points for 5th place. Car #26, Charles Pozzi then Louis Rosier Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship. Sheldon and Rabagliati, A Record of Grand Prix and Voiturette Racing, Volume 5, 1950–1953,1988
31.
1951 Swiss Grand Prix
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The 1951 Swiss Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at the Bremgarten on 27 May 1951. It was the first round of the 1951 World Drivers Championship, the race saw the Formula One debut of British driver Stirling Moss. The Swiss Grand Prix, the first event of the 1951 World Championship due to the absence of Monaco from the calendar, saw the Alfa Romeo team continue their dominance of the previous season. All four of their drivers occupied positions on the front two rows of the grid, the highest non-Alfa qualifier was Ferraris Luigi Villoresi, who was alongside Fangio, the race took place in the rain, with Fangio initially leading from Farina. Ferraris Piero Taruffi also challenged for the lead, having started sixth on the grid. Fangio pitted, handing Nino Farina the lead for the 24th lap of the race, however, Farinas decision not to make a pitstop did not pay off, as Fangio was able to retake the lead on lap 29. Fangio maintained the lead for the remainder of the race, eventually winning by nearly a minute from Taruffi and this was Taruffis first podium in just his second championship race. Stirling Moss, driving for HWM, was in seventh, but ran out of fuel on the lap, therefore yielding the position to Louis Chiron. ^1 — Consalvo Sanesi qualified and drove the entirety of the race in the #28 Alfa Romeo, gianbattista Guidotti, named substitute driver, was not used during the Grand Prix. ^2 — Francis Rochat, Maurice Trintignant and André Simon all withdrew from the event prior to practice, robert Manzon, who was entered in the #48 Simca Gordini alongside Trintignant, also withdrew. Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are included, Only the best 4 results counted toward the Championship
32.
1951 Indianapolis 500
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The 35th International 500-Mile Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Wednesday, May 30,1951. The event was part of the 1951 AAA National Championship Trail, for the second year in a row, no European Formula One-based teams entered the race. Duke Nalon, who had suffered burns in a crash in 1949. Heavy attrition saw only eight cars running at the finish, winner Lee Wallards car lost its brakes, suffered a damaged exhaust pipe, and broke a shock absorber mounting. In addition to the unbearably uncomfortable ride, Wallard had worn a fire retardant outfit, created by dipping his uniform in a mixture of borax crystals and water. Due to not wearing an undershirt, Wallard suffered serious chafing and it was estimated he lost 15 pounds during the race. Wallards winning car had the smallest displacement in the field, about a week after winning the race, Wallard suffered severe burns in a crash at Reading, which effectively ended his professional racing career. Three-time winner Mauri Rose, in his 15th Indy start, crashed and flipped on lap 126 and it was his final 500, as he retired from driving after the crash. Time trials was scheduled for six days, rain, however, pushed qualifying into a seventh day.74 Fastest Lead Lap, – Lee Wallard 1,07.26 Ayulo and McGrath shared the same car. Points for 3rd position were shared between the drivers, World Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed. Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship, the race was carried live on the radio through a network arrangement set up by 1070 WIBC-AM of Indianapolis. Mutual, which had carried the race for years, had raised its advertising rates for 1951. As a result, Mutual dropped the coverage altogether, local station WIBC stepped in to cover the race, and provided its feed to various Mutual affiliates. A total of 26 stations carried the broadcast, WIBC personality Sid Collins served as booth announcer, and the remainder of the crew consisted mostly of WIBC talent. Jim Shelton reported from his familiar turn four location, and Collins interviewed the winner in victory lane, like the Mutual broadcasts, WIBC featured live coverage of the start, the finish, and 15-minute live updates throughout the race. Indianapolis 500 History, Race & All-Time Stats – Official Site Van Camps Pork & Beans Presents, Great Moments From the Indy 500 – Fleetwood Sounds,19751951 Indianapolis 500 at RacingReference. info
33.
1951 Belgian Grand Prix
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The 1951 Belgian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 17 June 1951 at Circuit de Spa-Francorchamps. It was the round of the 1951 World Drivers Championship. Despite there being just 13 starters representing 3 makes of car, there were a further 3 entries, including 2 Maseratis, which did not attend the event. Fangio had a new suspension with special wheels, which had to be concave to make room for the brake drums, at his first pit stop, they jammed and his stop lasted over 14 minutes. Farinas Alfa Romeo dominated, holding off the Ferraris of Ascari, a lightning stop of 39 seconds for wheel change and refuelling preserved his lead until the finish. First Grand Prix, André Pilette Of his 52 career Grand Prix, Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed. Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship
34.
1951 French Grand Prix
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The 1951 French Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held at Reims-Gueux on 1 July 1951. It was the round of the 1951 World Drivers Championship and was won by Juan Manuel Fangio. It was the first of three occasions where two drivers would be credited with a Grand Prix win after sharing a car, the race, which also carried the honorific title of European Grand Prix, saw the World Championship debuts of Aldo Gordini, André Simon and Onofre Marimón. Fagiolis victory, his first in a World Championship race, made him the oldest driver to win a World Championship Grand Prix and this race also holds the record for the longest Formula One Grand Prix in terms of total distance needed to cover. 77 laps of the 4.856 mile Reims-Gueux circuit totaled to 373 miles, about 10 laps into the race, the engine in Fangios car began misfiring, so he stopped at the pits to have the magneto changed, but only completed one further lap before stopping again. Around this time, the gearbox in Ascaris Ferrari had broken, and he retired, although he took over the car of González, when Fagioli came in for his fuel stop, the team ordered Fagioli and Fangio to swap cars. Fuel stops and problems for the Ferraris enabled Fangio to make his way into the lead and win the race, Fagioli, in Fangios original car, finished 11th,22 laps behind. ^1 — Juan Manuel Fangio qualified and drove 15 laps of the race in the #4 Alfa Romeo, Luigi Fagioli took over the car for a further 40 laps. ^2 — Luigi Fagioli qualified and drove 20 laps of the race in the #8 Alfa Romeo, Juan Manuel Fangio took over the car for the remaining 57 laps of the race. ^3 — José Froilán González qualified and drove 35 laps of the race in the #14 Ferrari, alberto Ascari, whose own vehicle had already retired, took over the car for the remaining 42 laps of the race. ^4 — Piero Taruffi and Prince Bira both withdrew from the event prior to practice, ^5 — Reg Parnell qualified and drove the entire race in the #26 Ferrari. Brian Shawe-Taylor practiced in the car, but took no part in the race proper, ^6 — Eugène Chaboud qualified and drove the entire race in the #44 Talbot-Lago. Lucien Vincent, named substitute driver for the car, was not used during the Grand Prix and they shared the points for the win. They shared the points for 2nd position, when Fagioli rejoined the race in Fangios car he was already 20 laps behind. Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed, Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship
35.
1951 German Grand Prix
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The 1951 German Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 29 July 1951 at the Nürburgring Nordschleife. It was the round of the 1951 World Drivers Championship. Alfa Romeo once again fielded four cars, with local driver Paul Pietsch replacing Consalvo Sanesi, joining Fangio, Farina, following on from their maiden victory at Silverstone, Ferrari also entered four drivers. Piero Taruffi rejoined their lineup, alongside Ascari, Villoresi and British Grand Prix winner José Froilán González, Ferrari continued their good form from the previous event, with Ascari and González the fastest two qualifiers. Fangio and Farina completed the front row, with Villoresi, Taruffi, nino Farina initially took the lead, but, by the end of the first lap, had been passed by Fangio, Ascari and González. Paul Pietsch was running in fifth, but ended up at the back of the field after going off on the second lap. When Farina was forced to retire due to overheating problems, Fangio was left as the sole Alfa Romeo able to take the fight to the Ferrari drivers. Alberto Ascari took the lead on the lap as a result of Fangios first pitstop. As the Alfas required two pitstops, as opposed to just one for the Ferraris, Fangio needed to build a lead in his second stint if he wanted to retain the lead after his second stop. He was unable to do so, therefore Ascari reclaimed the lead on the lap of the race. González completed the podium, with the points positions going to the other works Ferraris of Villoresi. Ascaris victory took him to second in the Championship standings, ten points adrift of Fangio, after his second consecutive podium, José Froilán González moved up to third in the standings, level on points with Farina and Villoresi. ^1 — Paul Pietsch qualified and raced in a different car, ^2 — Prince Bira, Erik Lundgren and Chico Landi all withdrew from the event prior to practice. First win, Alberto Ascari Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed, Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship. Numbers without parentheses are Championship points, numbers in parentheses are total points scored
36.
1951 Italian Grand Prix
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The 1951 Italian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 16 September 1951 at Monza. It was the round of the 1951 World Drivers Championship. Toulo de Graffenried returned to Alfa Romeos four-car line up, in place of Paul Pietsch, having raced for Enrico Platé in France and he raced alongside the regular Alfa drivers, Fangio, Farina and Bonetto. The field was completed by works teams from BRM, Simca-Gordini and OSCA, the front row positions on the grid were shared equally between Alfa Romeo and Ferrari, with Fangio, Farina, Ascari and González posting the four fastest qualifying times. The second row consisted of the remaining works Ferraris of Villoresi and Taruffi, reg Parnell, in a BRM, was also supposed to be on the second row, but was unable to start due to lubrication problems. Fangio was the race leader, having started from pole position. He retook the lead on lap eight before pitting for a tyre change, early retirements for Farina and de Graffenried left José Froilán González in second, behind his teammate Ascari. Fangio attempted to bridge the gap to the Ferraris, but engine problems put paid to his chances, the sole remaining Alfa driver, Nino Farina, who had taken over Bonettos car on lap 30, inherited third place as a result of Fangios retirement. He was fast, but fuel leakages meant that he needed to two further pitstops, he therefore had to settle for third. Alberto Ascari took his second, and Ferraris third, consecutive Championship race victory, the other works Ferraris of Villoresi and Taruffi completed the points positions in what was another successful race for the Scuderia. Ascaris victory took him to two points of Championship leader Fangio, while González was a further four points behind in third. Only Fangio and Ascari remained in contention for the Drivers Championship with one race remaining, ^1 — Gianni Marzotto withdrew from the event prior to practice ^2 — Ken Richardson qualified the #32 BRM, although he did not start the race. Hans Stuck was also entered in the car, but he took no part in either qualifying or the race. ^3 — Toulo de Graffenried qualified and drove the race in the #36 Alfa Romeo, consalvo Sanesi was also entered in the car, but injury prevented his participation in the Grand Prix. ^4 — Felice Bonetto qualified and drove 29 laps of the race in the #40 Alfa Romeo, Nino Farina, whose own vehicle had already retired, took over the car for a further 50 laps. Pole position, Juan Manuel Fangio –1,53.2 Fastest lap, points for 3rd position were shared between the drivers. First race, Chico Landi Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the top five positions are listed, Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship. Numbers without parentheses are Championship points, numbers in parentheses are total points scored
37.
1951 Spanish Grand Prix
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The 1951 Spanish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 28 October 1951 at Pedralbes Circuit. It was the eighth and final round of the 1951 World Drivers Championship and this race was determined by tyre choice – Ferrari chose a 16 inch rear wheel, whilst Alfa Romeo settled for the 18 inch, which proved to be the better of the two options. Juan Manuel Fangio led Alberto Ascari by two points before the race, Ascari led the race from José Froilán González, but the Ferraris suffered numerous tread problems. Piero Taruffi threw a tyre tread on lap 6 and was followed on lap 7 by Luigi Villoresi, Ascari on lap 8 and Gonzalez on lap 14. The Ferraris were forced to stop frequently to change tyres and Fangio comfortably won the race and his first drivers title, after the race, Alfa Romeo announced that due to lack of finances, they would not be competing in the 1952 season. ^1 — Peter Whitehead and Reg Parnell both withdrew from the event prior to practice, ^2 — Juan Jover qualified in the #46 Maserati, although he did not start the race. Joaquin Palacio had been entered in car #46, but he withdrew prior to practice, ^3 — Toni Branca withdrew from the event prior to practice. Chico Landi had also entered in car #48, but he too withdrew from the Grand Prix before practice. First Grand Prix, Paco Godia, Georges Grignard Two drivers were fighting for the going into this race, with Fangio on 27 points. Fangio needed either To finish ahead of Ascari Ascari 3rd or lower Ascari needed either 1st 2nd with Fangio 3rd or lower Drivers Championship standings Note, Only the best 4 results counted towards the Championship. Numbers without parentheses are Championship points, numbers in parentheses are total points scored
38.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
39.
The New York Times
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The New York Times is an American daily newspaper, founded and continuously published in New York City since September 18,1851, by The New York Times Company. The New York Times has won 119 Pulitzer Prizes, more than any other newspaper, the papers print version in 2013 had the second-largest circulation, behind The Wall Street Journal, and the largest circulation among the metropolitan newspapers in the US. The New York Times is ranked 18th in the world by circulation, following industry trends, its weekday circulation had fallen in 2009 to fewer than one million. Nicknamed The Gray Lady, The New York Times has long been regarded within the industry as a newspaper of record. The New York Times international version, formerly the International Herald Tribune, is now called the New York Times International Edition, the papers motto, All the News Thats Fit to Print, appears in the upper left-hand corner of the front page. On Sunday, The New York Times is supplemented by the Sunday Review, The New York Times Book Review, The New York Times Magazine and T, some other early investors of the company were Edwin B. Morgan and Edward B. We do not believe that everything in Society is either right or exactly wrong, —what is good we desire to preserve and improve, —what is evil, to exterminate. In 1852, the started a western division, The Times of California that arrived whenever a mail boat got to California. However, when local California newspapers came into prominence, the effort failed, the newspaper shortened its name to The New-York Times in 1857. It dropped the hyphen in the city name in the 1890s, One of the earliest public controversies it was involved with was the Mortara Affair, the subject of twenty editorials it published alone. At Newspaper Row, across from City Hall, Henry Raymond, owner and editor of The New York Times, averted the rioters with Gatling guns, in 1869, Raymond died, and George Jones took over as publisher. Tweed offered The New York Times five million dollars to not publish the story, in the 1880s, The New York Times transitioned gradually from editorially supporting Republican Party candidates to becoming more politically independent and analytical. In 1884, the paper supported Democrat Grover Cleveland in his first presidential campaign, while this move cost The New York Times readership among its more progressive and Republican readers, the paper eventually regained most of its lost ground within a few years. However, the newspaper was financially crippled by the Panic of 1893, the paper slowly acquired a reputation for even-handedness and accurate modern reporting, especially by the 1890s under the guidance of Ochs. Under Ochs guidance, continuing and expanding upon the Henry Raymond tradition, The New York Times achieved international scope, circulation, in 1910, the first air delivery of The New York Times to Philadelphia began. The New York Times first trans-Atlantic delivery by air to London occurred in 1919 by dirigible, airplane Edition was sent by plane to Chicago so it could be in the hands of Republican convention delegates by evening. In the 1940s, the extended its breadth and reach. The crossword began appearing regularly in 1942, and the section in 1946
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