1.
Congress of Deputies (Spain)
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The Congress of Deputies of Spain, commonly referred to as simply the Congress of Deputies is the lower house of the Cortes Generales, Spains legislative branch. It is located in the Palace of the Parliament and it has 350 members elected by constituencies by proportional representation using the DHondt method. The President of the Congress of Deputies is the analogue to a speaker, in the Congress, members of the Parliament from the political parties, or groups of parties, form parliamentary groups. The MPs belonging to parties who cannot create their own parliamentary group form the Mixed Group, the Spanish Constitution establishes in the Article 68.1 that the Congress of Deputies must be composed of among 300 deputies at least and 400 deputies at most. At present, the chamber has 350 deputies which is determinated by the General Electoral Regim Organic Law, the Spanish Constitution establishes that the deputies are chosen by universal, free, equal, direct and secret suffrage. The Election is held four years or before in case of snap election. The members of the Congress are elected by proportional representation with closed lists in each constituency, there are 52 polynominal constituencies for the Congress of Deputies which belong to the 50 provinces of Spain and the two autonomous cities. According to the Spanish Electoral Law, each province must elect two deputies at least, the two autonomous cities can only elect one each. In this way, there are 102 deputies already elected, the other 248 deputies are allocated proportionally to the citizenships. This distribution can change a bit in each election and it is specified in the Royal Decree Calling Elections, after the General Election, seats are assigned to the electoral lists in each constituency. For this distribution it is used the DHondt method in each constituency separately and this system guarantees that any elected candidate has got less votes than a non-elected candidate in that constituency. Moreover, there is a threshold of 3% that is to say that a political party needs the 3% of the valid votes emitted in its constituency at least to aim for the seats distribution. The last item is only applied in the provinces which elect 24 deputies at least, at present, this condition is only fulfilled by Madrid and Barcelona. 0. 1% of signatures of the register in each constituency are needed. Each citizen can only sign once for each candidacy, the Electoral Board will establish the details of the collection of signatures. Likewise, the most populated provinces are underrepresented and this system tends to favour the biggest political parties. In spite of using a representation system, the electoral system of the Congress of Deputies favours the creation of a two-party system. It is due to different reasons such as, The large disparity of population between the provinces, despite the smaller provinces are overrepresented, the number of deputies assigned to each one is small and tends to go to the two main parties
2.
Union of the Democratic Centre (Spain)
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The Union of the Democratic Centre was an electoral coalition, and later political party, in Spain, existing from 1977 to 1983. It was initially led by Adolfo Suárez, the parties that made the UCD coalition were, Christian democrats, Christian Democratic Party of Fernando Álvarez de Miranda and Íñigo Cavero. Social democrats, Social Democratic Federation of José Ramón Lasuén Sancho, Social Democratic Party of Spain of Francisco Fernández Ordóñez and Rafael Arias Salgado. Independent Social Democratic Party of Gonzalo Casado, spanish Social Democratic Union of Eurico de la Peña. Governmentalists, Peoples Party of Pío Cabanillas, Emilio Attard and José Pedro Pérez Llorca, liberals, Federation of Democratic and Liberal Parties of Joaquín Garrigues Walker and Antonio Fontán. Peoples Democratic Party of Ignacio Camuñas Solís, Liberal Progressive Party of Juan García Madariaga. Regional parties, Extremaduran Regional Action of Enrique Sánchez de León, Independent Galician Party of José Luis Meilán. Andalusian Social Liberal Party of Manuel Clavero, murcian Democratic Union of Antonio Pérez Crespo. Later the Independent Social Federation of Jesús Sancho Rof was also added to the coalition, some months later, all these parties were merged and UCD constituted itself as a party on 4 August 1977. The UCD governed Spain to 1982, in the elections of 15 June 1977, the party took 34. 4% of the vote and 166 seats of the 350 in the Congress of Deputies. Suárez became the first democratically chosen prime minister of Spain after the Franco period, the UCD played a major role in writing the new constitution, as three of the seven members of the constitutional drafting commission, established after those elections, came from the party. In March 1979 the UCD again won the elections but could not attain a majority, the demise of the UCD began when in 1979 the Socialist Party moderated their outlook by dropping the references to Marxism from their programme. At the same time, the right-wing Peoples Alliance increasingly oriented to the centre and, by undergoing a generation change. Therefore, the space for the centrist UCD shrank, the fundamental reason for the party’s disappearance was internal conflict between its diverse factions, which led to the resignation of Suárez as prime minister in January 1981. Suárez was replaced by Leopoldo Calvo Sotelo for the remainder of the term of the Cortes, many believe that the only factor that had kept the party together was the writing of the constitution. With that work done, the party became increasingly unpopular due to the growth of unemployment, inflation, during the course of the 1979-1982 legislature the party suffered a number of serious splits and defections. On 7 March 1980, Joaquim Molins resigned from the UCD group and later joined the Catalan Nationalist Convergence, on 25 April 1980, Manuel Clavero resigned from the party in disputes over the statute of autonomy for Andalusia. Two months later, José García Pérez resigned over the same issue, García joined the Andalusian Socialist Party on 1 September 1981
3.
Spanish Socialist Workers' Party
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The Spanish Socialist Workers Party, is a social-democratic political party in Spain. PSOE formed the government in democratic Spain between 1982 and 1996, and between 2004 and 2011 and it is the currently the oldest political party in Spanish history. The party, under Felipe González, formed a majority government after its victory in the 1982 general election, the party then formed a minority government until 1996. PSOE has had ties with the General Union of Workers. For decades, UGT membership was a requirement for PSOE membership, however, since the 1980s, UGT has frequently criticized the economic policies of PSOE, even calling for a general strike on 14 December 1988. PSOE was last in power between 2004 and 2011 general elections, with José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero serving as leader of the government, the PSOE is a member of the Party of European Socialists, Progressive Alliance and the Socialist International. In the European Parliament, PSOEs 14 Members of the European Parliament sit in the Socialists and Democrats European parliamentary group, PSOE was founded with the purpose of representing and defending the interests of the working class formed during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. The ideology of the Spanish Socialist Workers Party has evolved throughout the 20th Century according to relevant historical events and this allowed for the consolidation of the leftist forces in PSOE. Currently, PSOE defines itself as democratic, center-left and progressive. Concerning the territorial model of the realm, PSOE supports asymmetric federalism and it is grouped with other self-styled socialists, social democrats and labour parties in the Party of European Socialists. PSOE was founded on the 2nd of May,1879 in the Casa Labra Pub by the historical Spanish workers leader Pablo Iglesias, the first program of the new political party was passed in an assembly of 40 people, on 20 July of that same year. The party was a member of the Labour and Socialist International between 1923 and 1940, PSOE formed part of the Spanish Government during the Second Spanish Republic and as part of the Spanish Popular Front, elected to government in February 1936. The dictator Francisco Franco banned PSOE in 1939, and the party was legalized again in 1977, during Francos rule members of PSOE were persecuted, with many leaders, members and supporters being imprisoned or exiled and even executed. Its 25th Congress was held in Toulouse in August 1972, in 1974 at its 26th Congress in Suresnes, Felipe González was elected Secretary General, replacing Rodolfo Llopis Ferrándiz. González was from the wing of the party, and his victory signaled a defeat for the historic. The direction of the party shifted from the exiles to the people in Spain who hadnt fought the war. Their standing was further boosted in 1978 when the 6 deputies of the Popular Socialist Party agreed to merge with the party, in their 27th congress in May 1979, González resigned because the party would not abandon its Marxist character. In September of that year, the extraordinary 28th congress was called in which González was re-elected when the party agreed to move away from Marxism, European social-democratic parties supported Gonzálezs stand, and the Social Democratic Party of Germany granted them money
4.
Communist Party of Spain
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The Communist Party of Spain is a national political party in Spain. It is the largest member organization of the United Left electoral coalition and has influence in the largest trade union in Spain, the PCE was characterized by the struggle against the Franco dictatorship, during which period it was illegal. It was legalized in 1977 by Adolfo Suárez as one of the necessary to establish democracy in Spain. The youth organisation of PCE is the Communist Youth Union of Spain, the PCE was the result of a merger between two organisations, the original Spanish Communist Party and the Spanish Communist Workers Party. The two parties joined in the new Partido Comunista de España on 14 November 1921, the unified PCE became a member of the Third International and held its first congress in Sevilla in March 1922. In May, Jules Humbert-Droz, the top Comintern official in Western Europe, arrived in Spain to supervise the still fractious party, by the end of 1922 the party had approximately 5,000 members. The PCEs left-wing engaged in violence, especially in Bilbao. With the advent of the dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera in September 1923, political parties, the party continued to publish its weekly newspaper La Antorcha until 1927. However, Moscow urged a cautious approach and the CNT and Basque nationalists were reluctant to cooperate with communists, the PCE continued to suffer from repression and dissension. The partys second secretary general, José Bullejos, purged the party of politically suspect members, in 1930 the arguments over doctrine led the Catalan-Balearic Communist Federation to break from the party and associate with the International Right Opposition. Amid this infighting, Comintern official Dmitry Manuilsky reportedly stated that, while Spain had an excellent proletariat, it had only a few little groups, thus, the PCE was in a very debilitated state when the Second Spanish Republic was proclaimed in 1931. On 3 December 1933 the first PCE parliamentarian, Cayetano Bolívar Escribano, was elected, Bolívar was jailed at the time of elections and left imprisonment to occupy his post in the parliament. The PCE leadership judged that while progressive laws could be passed, being a well-knit and highly disciplined organisation, the PCE could in spite of its numerical weakness play an important part in the war. In the first five months of the war, PCE grew from 30,000 members to 100,000 and it also founded a Spanish branch of the International Red Aid, which assisted the Republican cause considerably. In 1936, due to the political situation in Catalonia. Since then the PCE does not have an organization in Catalonia and this set-up has been imitated by many of the communist splinter groups in Spain. After the Republican defeat in April 1939, the PCE was persecuted by the dictatorship of General Francisco Franco, during the initial years of the Franco regime, PCE organized guerrilla struggles in some parts of the country. Much like the identical positions of other Moscow-directed Stalinist parties, this position was changed immediately after Germany invaded the Soviet Union, a large part of the party membership was forced into exile
5.
Manuel Fraga Iribarne
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Manuel Fraga Iribarne was a Spanish professor and politician who was the founder of the Peoples Party. He has also both a Deputy in the Congress and a Senator. Fragas career as one of the key figures in Spain straddles both General Francisco Francos dictatorial regime and the subsequent transition to representative democracy. He served as the President of the Xunta of Galicia from 1990 to 2005, Fraga is also one of the Fathers of the Constitution. Fraga was born in Vilalba, Lugo Province, Galicia, trained in law, economics and political science, he began his political career in 1945, during Francisco Francos dictatorship. Fraga authorized the execution of prisoners under the Francoist regime. A notable case is the execution of communist leader Julián Grimau and his death sentence caused a large controversy outside of Spain. Grimau was executed by firing squad in 1963, Fraga never publicly apologized or expressed regret for Grimaus execution. Another notable case was the assassination by Spanish police of Enrique Ruano, Fraga telephoned Ruanos father and threatened to arrest his other daughter, Margot, who also was also an anti-Francoist, unless she immediately stopped her activism. On 8 March 1966, he attempted to dispel fears of an accident after the Palomares hydrogen bombs incident by swimming in the contaminated water with the American ambassador. Fraga also established himself as one of the prominent members of a reformist faction in the government who favoured opening up the regime from above. He introduced an a posteriori censorship law, which was based on lifting pre-publication censorship, additionally, a certain sexual liberality in films was popularly summarized in the expression Con Fraga hasta la braga. This was the first government with Juan Carlos I as chief of state, although Fraga was known to favor liberalising the regime from above, he himself favoured an extremely gradual transition to full democracy. The phrase ¡La calle es mía. was attributed to him as his answer to complaints of police repression of street protests and he claimed that the streets did not belong to people but to the state. He was known to be an admirer of Cánovas del Castillo, during a clash at the Church of St. Fraga was one of the writers of the new Spanish constitution approved in 1978. Along with other former reformist members of Francos regime, he founded the Peoples Alliance, Fraga was reckoned as the Leader of the Opposition to the Spanish Socialist Workers Party government. Following this critical development, Fraga resigned the presidency of the party in 1986, because of the outcry, Fraga dismissed Almirón. With the AP in headlong decline, Fraga resumed the leadership of the party in 1989, with the addition of several lesser Christian democratic parties and the remnants of the Democratic Center Union, he refounded the Peoples Alliance as the Peoples Party
6.
People's Alliance (Spain)
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The Peoples Alliance was a post-Francoist electoral coalition, and later a conservative political party, in Spain, founded in 1976 by Manuel Fraga along with six other former Francoist ministers. It was the opposition party in the 1980s, as the leading conservative right-wing party in Spain. It was refounded as the Peoples Party in 1989, the AP was originally led by Manuel Fraga, who had helped to prepare the way for reform during the Franco era and who had expected to play a key role in post-Franco governments. He underestimated the popular desire for change and distaste for Francoism, Fragas own outbursts of temper and the close ties of many of the AP candidates to the previous regime contributed to this perception. When elections were held in June 1977, the AP garnered 8. 3% of the vote, in the months following the 1977 elections, dissension erupted within the AP over constitutional issues that arose as the draft document was being formulated. The more reactionary members voted against the constitution, and they advocated a shift to the right. Fraga, however, wanted to move the AP toward the center in order to form a larger center-right party. It was hoped that this new coalition would capture the support of those who had voted for the Union of the Democratic Centre in 1977, when elections were held in March 1979, however, the CD received only 6.1 percent of the vote. Deeply disappointed, Fraga resigned as head of AP, by the time of the APs Third Party Congress in December 1979, party leaders were reassessing their involvement with the CD. Many felt that the creation of the coalition had merely confused the voters, Fraga resumed control of the party, and the political resolutions adopted by the party congress reaffirmed the conservative orientation of the AP. In the early 1980s, Fraga succeeded in rallying the various components of the right around his leadership and he was aided in his efforts to revive the AP by the increasing disintegration of the UCD. The increased strength of the AP was further evidenced in the municipal and regional elections held in May 1983, a significant portion of the electorate appeared to support the APs emphasis on law and order as well as its pro-business policies. Subsequent political developments belied the partys aspirations to continue increasing its base of support, the coalition called for stronger measures against ETAs violence, for more privatization, and for a reduction in spending and in taxes. The CP failed to increase its share of the vote in the 1986 elections, however, when regional elections in late 1986 resulted in further losses for the coalition, Fraga resigned as AP president, although he retained his parliamentary seat. At the party congress in February 1987, Hernández Mancha was chosen to head the AP, but Hernandez lacked political experience at the national level, and the party continued to decline. When support for socks AP plummeted in the municipal and regional elections held in June 1987, the AP eventually was refounded as the Peoples Party in 1989, when it merged with several small Christian democratic and liberal parties in a movement called Reformist Centre. The newly founded party was initially under Fragas chairmanship and it was the ruling party from 1996 through 2004 under José María Aznar and since 2011 under Mariano Rajoy. History of AP and its refundation PP
7.
Juan Carlos I of Spain
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Juan Carlos I was King of Spain from 1975 until his abdication in 2014. Juan Carlos is the grandson of Alfonso XIII, the last king of Spain prior to the abolition in 1931. Juan Carlos was born in Rome, Italy, during his familys exile, Juan Carloss father, Don Juan, was the fourth child of Alfonso who had renounced his claims to the throne in January 1941. Don Juan was seen by Franco to be too liberal and in 1969, was bypassed in favour of Juan Carlos as Francos successor, Juan Carlos spent his early years in Italy and came to Spain in 1947 to continue his studies. After completing his education in 1955, he began his military training. Later, he attended the Naval Military School, the General Academy of the Air, in 1962, Juan Carlos married Princess Sophia of Greece in Athens, daughter of King Paul. The couple had two daughters and a son together, Elena, Cristina, and Felipe, due to Francos declining health, Juan Carlos first began periodically acting as Spains head of state in the summer of 1974. Expected to continue Francos legacy, soon after his accession, Juan Carlos, however, introduced reforms to dismantle the Francoist regime and this led to the approval of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 in a referendum, which re-established a constitutional monarchy. In 1981, Juan Carlos played a role in preventing a coup that attempted to revert Spain to Francoist government in the Kings name. In 2008, he was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America, in 2014, Juan Carlos, citing personal reasons, abdicated in favour of his son, who acceded the throne as Felipe VI. He was baptized as Juan Carlos Alfonso Víctor María de Borbón y Borbón-Dos Sicilias and he was given the name Juan Carlos after his father and maternal grandfather, Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. His early life was dictated largely by the concerns of his father. He moved to Spain in 1948 to be educated there after his father persuaded Franco to allow it and he began his studies in San Sebastián and finished them in 1954 at the San Isidro Institute in Madrid. He then joined the army, doing his officer training from 1955 to 1957 at the Military Academy of Zaragoza, Juan Carlos has two sisters, Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz, and Infanta Margarita, Duchess of Soria. He also had a brother, Alfonso. On the evening of Holy Thursday,29 March 1956, Juan Carloss younger brother Alfonso died in a gun accident at the familys home Villa Giralda in Estoril, Portugal. The accident took place at 20.30 hours, after the Infantes return from the Maundy Thursday religious service and it is alleged that Juan Carlos began playing with a gun that had apparently been given to Alfonso by General Franco. Rumors appeared in newspapers that the gun had actually held by Juan Carlos at the moment the shot was fired
8.
Spain
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By population, Spain is the sixth largest in Europe and the fifth in the European Union. Spains capital and largest city is Madrid, other urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Bilbao. Modern humans first arrived in the Iberian Peninsula around 35,000 years ago, in the Middle Ages, the area was conquered by Germanic tribes and later by the Moors. Spain is a democracy organised in the form of a government under a constitutional monarchy. It is a power and a major developed country with the worlds fourteenth largest economy by nominal GDP. Jesús Luis Cunchillos argues that the root of the span is the Phoenician word spy. Therefore, i-spn-ya would mean the land where metals are forged, two 15th-century Spanish Jewish scholars, Don Isaac Abravanel and Solomon ibn Verga, gave an explanation now considered folkloric. Both men wrote in two different published works that the first Jews to reach Spain were brought by ship by Phiros who was confederate with the king of Babylon when he laid siege to Jerusalem. This man was a Grecian by birth, but who had given a kingdom in Spain. He became related by marriage to Espan, the nephew of king Heracles, Heracles later renounced his throne in preference for his native Greece, leaving his kingdom to his nephew, Espan, from whom the country of España took its name. Based upon their testimonies, this eponym would have already been in use in Spain by c.350 BCE, Iberia enters written records as a land populated largely by the Iberians, Basques and Celts. Early on its coastal areas were settled by Phoenicians who founded Western Europe´s most ancient cities Cadiz, Phoenician influence expanded as much of the Peninsula was eventually incorporated into the Carthaginian Empire, becoming a major theater of the Punic Wars against the expanding Roman Empire. After an arduous conquest, the peninsula came fully under Roman Rule, during the early Middle Ages it came under Germanic rule but later, much of it was conquered by Moorish invaders from North Africa. In a process took centuries, the small Christian kingdoms in the north gradually regained control of the peninsula. The last Moorish kingdom fell in the same year Columbus reached the Americas, a global empire began which saw Spain become the strongest kingdom in Europe, the leading world power for a century and a half, and the largest overseas empire for three centuries. Continued wars and other problems led to a diminished status. The Napoleonic invasions of Spain led to chaos, triggering independence movements that tore apart most of the empire, eventually democracy was peacefully restored in the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Spain joined the European Union, experiencing a renaissance and steady economic growth
9.
Politics of Spain
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The politics of Spain takes place under the framework established by the Constitution of 1978. Spain is established as a social and democratic state, wherein the national sovereignty is vested in the people, legislative power is vested in the Cortes Generales, a bicameral parliament constituted by the Congress of Deputies and the Senate. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature, administering justice on behalf of the King by judges and magistrates. Spains political system is a multi-party system, but since the 1990s, since the Spanish transition to democracy, there have not been coalition governments, when a party has failed to obtain absolute majority, minority governments have been formed. Exercising the right to self-government granted by the constitution, the nationalities and regions have been constituted as 17 autonomous communities and his title is King of Spain, although he can use all other titles of the Crown. The Crown, as a symbol of the unity, has a two-fold function. First, it represents the unity of the State in the separation of powers, hence he appoints the prime ministers and summons and dissolves the Parliament. Secondly, it represents the Spanish State as a whole in relation to the autonomous communities, all ambassadors and other diplomatic representatives are accredited by him, and foreign representatives in Spain are accredited to him. He also expresses the States assent to entering into international commitments through treaties, in practical terms, his duties are mostly ceremonial, and constitutional provisions are worded in such a way as to make clear the strict neutral and apolitical nature of his role. The king is the commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces, but has only symbolic, rather than actual, the Spanish Constitution, promulgated in 1978, established explicitly that Juan Carlos I is the legitimate heir of the historical dynasty. First, it established that the position of the King emanates from the constitution, Juan Carlos I was constitutional king of Spain from 1978 to 2014. He abdicated in favor of his son Felipe VI, finally, if all possible rightful orders of primogeniture and representation have been exhausted, then the General Courts will select a successor in the way that best suits the interest of Spain. The heir presumptive or heir apparent holds the title of Prince or Princess of Asturias, the current heir presumptive is princess Leonor de Borbón. Legislative power is vested in the Spanish Parliament, the Cortes Generales, the Cortes Generales are the supreme representatives of the Spanish people. This legislature is bicameral, integrated by the Congress of Deputies, the General Courts exercise the legislative power of the State, approving the budget and controlling the actions of the government. As in most parliamentary systems, more power is vested in the lower chamber. The Speaker of Congress, known as president of the Congress of Deputies presides a joint-session of the Cortes Generales. Each chamber of the Cortes Generales meets at separate precincts, and carry out their duties separately, except for important functions
10.
Spanish Constitution of 1978
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The Spanish Constitution of 1978 is the current supreme law of the Kingdom of Spain. It was enacted after the countrys 1978 constitutional referendum and is a furtherance of the Spanish transition to democracy, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 was preceded by numerous other constitutions. The Constitution was ratified after a referendum on 6 December 1978, sanctioned by King Juan Carlos I on 27 December 27, and published in the Boletin Oficial del Estado on 29 December. The promulgation of the Constitution marked the culmination of the Spanish transition to democracy after the death of the head of state, Francisco Franco. This led to the country undergoing a series of political and historical changes that transformed the Francoist regime into a democratic state, the constitutional history of Spain dates back to the Constitution of 1812. After the death of dictator Francisco Franco in 1975, an election in 1977 convened the Constituent Cortes for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution. A seven-member panel was selected among the members of the Cortes to work on a draft of the Constitution to be submitted to the body. These came to be known, as the media put it, however, since much of the consensus depended on keeping the wording ambiguous, few of Celas proposed re-wordings were approved. One of those accepted was the substitution of the archaic gualda for the plain amarillo in the description of the flag of Spain, the constitution was approved by the Cortes Generales on 31 October 1978, and by the Spanish people in a referendum on 6 December 1978. 88% of voters supported the new constitution, finally, it was promulgated by King Juan Carlos on 27 December. It came into effect on 29 December, the day it was published in the Official Gazette, Constitution Day on 6 December has since been a national holiday in Spain. Writing the preamble to the constitution was considered an honour, the person chosen for this purpose was Enrique Tierno Galván. The full text of the preamble may be translated as follows, The Constitution recognizes the existence of nationalities, other constitutional provisions recognize the right to adequate housing, employment, social welfare provision, health protection and pensions. The Constitution has been amended twice, the first time, Article 13.2, Title I was altered to extend to citizens of the European Union the right to active and passive suffrage in local elections. The second time, in August/September 2011, a budget amendment. The current version restricts the death penalty to military courts during wartime, amnesty International has still requested an amendment to be made to the Constitution to abolish it firmly and explicitly in all cases. After that, the campaign pleads for other 24 amendments protecting human rights, even though such a procedure would not formally violate the law, it could be considered an attack on its spirit. The Statutes of Autonomy of the different regions are the second most important Spanish legal normatives when it comes to the structure of the country
11.
Spanish transition to democracy
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The Spanish transition to democracy, or simply the Transition refers to the restoration of democracy in Spain after the death of Francisco Franco in 1975. Though faced with political and economic crises at the time, the transition to democracy was one of the factors that allowed Spain to join the European Economic Community and NATO. Francisco Franco came to power in 1939 following the Spanish Civil War, in 1969, he designated Prince Juan Carlos, grandson of Spains former king, Alfonso XIII, as his official successor. For the next six years, Prince Juan Carlos initially remained in the background during public appearances, once in power as King of Spain, however, he facilitated the development of a constitutional monarchy as his father, Don Juan de Borbón, had advocated since 1946. The transition was a plan that counted on ample support both within and outside of Spain. Western governments, headed by the United States, now favoured a Spanish constitutional monarchy, as did many Spanish, nevertheless, the transition proved challenging, as the spectre of the Civil War still haunted Spain. Francoists on the far right enjoyed considerable support within the Spanish Army, King Juan Carlos began his reign as head of state without leaving the confines of Francos legal system. Only in his speech before the Cortes did he indicate his support for a transformation of the Spanish political system, in this manner he would formally act within the Francoist legal system and thus avoid the prospect of military intervention in the political process. Suárez was appointed as the 138th Prime Minister of Spain by Juan Carlos on 3 July 1976, a call for democratic elections in June 1977 to elect a Cortes charged with drawing up a new democratic constitution. This program was clear and unequivocal, but its realization tested the capacity of Suárez. Despite these challenges, Suárezs project was carried out without delay between July 1976 and June 1977, in this short period of time Suárez had to act on many fronts to achieve his aims. The draft of the Law for Political Reform was written by Don Torcuato Fernández-Miranda, speaker of the Cortes, the project was approved by the Suarez Government in September 1976. Throughout the month of November the Cortes, under the presidency of Fernández-Miranda, debated this law, which it ultimately approved with 425 votes in favor,59 against. The Suárez government sought to gain legitimacy for the changes through a popular referendum. On 15 December 1976, with a 77. 72% participation rate, with this part of his plan fulfilled, Suárez had to resolve a crucial issue, should he include the opposition groups who had not participated at the beginning of the transition. Suárez also had to deal with another issue, coming to terms with the anti-Francoist opposition. Suárez adopted a series of measured policies to add credibility to his project, in July 1976 he issued a partial political amnesty, freeing 400 prisoners. He extended this in March 1977, and finally granted an amnesty in May of the same year
12.
Human rights in Spain
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This article is a summary of the state of human rights in Spain. Spain is a democracy with a constitutional monarch, the Cortes Generales consists of two chambers, the Congress of Deputies and the Senate. Since 2012, Mariano Rajoy of the Spanish Popular Party has been Prime Minister of Spain, civilian authorities maintained effective control of the security forces. There have been allegations that members of the security forces have committed isolated human rights abuses. The market-based economy, with reliance on private enterprise, provided the population of over 40 million with a high standard of living. The Government respects the rights of its citizens, although there are a few problems in some areas. There are allegations that a few members of the security forces abused detainees and mistreated foreigners, according to Amnesty International, government investigations of such alleged abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light. Lengthy pretrial detention and delays in trials are sometimes problems, violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address. Trafficking of women and teenage girls for the purpose of prostitution was a problem, under a new health law introduced in September 2012, immigrants without proper residents permits are to be refused medical care. Illegal immigrants older than 18 will only be entitled to free treatment within Spains healthcare system in cases of emergency or a pregnancy or birth. In February 2014, a Spanish court ordered the arrest of China’s former Party General Secretary Jiang Zemin and former Premier Li Peng for the alleged genocide, in May 2014, in response to the diplomatic situation, the Spanish government repealed the universal jurisdiction law. Former judge Baltasar Garzón has criticized the governments reform
13.
Spanish nationality law
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Spanish nationality law refers to all the laws of Spain concerning nationality. Article 11 of the First Title of the Spanish Constitution refers to Spanish nationality and establishes that a law is to regulate how it is acquired. This separate law is the Spanish Civil Code, in general terms, Spanish nationality is based on the principle of jus sanguinis, although limited provisions exist for the acquisition of Spanish nationality based on the principle of jus soli. All the constitutions in Spain before 1978 have had an article that defines Spanish nationality and it is also the first constitution that emphasises that those Spaniards by origin, roughly equivalent to a natural born Spaniard, cannot be deprived of their nationality. This law has been reformed on 17 December 1990,23 December 1993,2 November 1995, the constitution was reformed to allow this. Spanish legislation regarding nationality establishes two types of nationality, Spanish nationality by origin —that is, a natural-born Spaniard—and the Spanish nationality not by origin, foreign minors under the age of 18 acquire Spanish nationality by origin upon being adopted by a Spanish national. If the adoptee is 18 years or older, he or she can apply for Spanish nationality by origin within two years after the adoption took place, all other individuals that acquire Spanish nationality, other than by which is specified above, are Spaniards not by origin. Those individuals mentioned in the second bullet-point in article 17, Spanish nationality by option must be claimed within two years after their 18th birthday or after their emancipation, regardless of age. Spanish nationality by option does not confer nationality by origin unless otherwise specified. Any individual can also request Spanish nationality after a period of legal residence, as long as he or she is 18 years or older. Nationals of Iberoamerica, Andorra, Philippines, Equatorial Guinea and Portugal must be natural born citizens of their respective countries and that is, individuals who acquire nationality of the said countries by naturalisation would still have to live ten years in Spain before applying for nationality by residence. Applicants must provide evidence of their Sephardi origin and some connection with Spain, in this case, loss of nationality occurs three years after the acquisition of the foreign nationality or emancipation only if the individual does not declare their will to retain Spanish nationality. Spanish nationality is not lost as described above if Spain is at war, people who lose Spanish nationality can recover it if they become legal residents in Spain. In this case the applicant must have proven that the grandparent had left Spain as a refugee or that the grandparent left Spain between 18 July 1936 and 31 December 1955. The law also granted Spanish nationality by origin to those individual members of the International Brigades who had defended the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War. The period wherein the Spanish nationality could be acquired by the Law of Historical memory started on 27 December 2008, around 95% were Latin American, half of them from Cuba and Argentina. To the surprise of government officials,92. 5% of all applications were made by sons or daughters of Spaniards by origin regardless of their place of birth, and only 6. 1% by grandchildren of refugees. The measure, championed by the government of Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy, grants dual citizenship rights for Sephardic Jews
14.
Capital punishment in Spain
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The 1978 Spanish Constitution bans capital punishment in Spain. Spain completely abolished capital punishment for all offenses, including during wartime conditions, the garotte had been portrayed as a draconian act by the publicity after its last use in 1974, when Salvador Puig Antich was executed in Barcelona and Heinz Chez in Tarragona. Capital punishment was common in the Spanish kingdom, and methods used included decapitation, according to a pamphlet published anonymously by Crown Prince Oscar Bernadotte, Spain was the most frequent executioner of the Western world in the early 1800s, followed by his native Sweden. The penalty was abolished by the Second Spanish Republic in 1932 but restored two years later in the midst of social and political turmoil for a few major offences, capital punishment in Francoist Spain was restored fully on decree in 1938. From 1940 to 1975,165 judicial executions are reported to have carried out. Among the most relevant executed from this there is Lluís Companys. As Francos regime was consolidated, use of the penalty became more scarce. In the 1960s, the number of executions dropped to six. Due to criticism, a six-year stay followed, broken when Pedro Martínez Exposito was shot in 1972 for homicide, the imposition of the death penalty for terrorism followed its own logic during Francos dictatorship. Sometimes it was not swiftly carried out, such as in the case of Andrés Ruiz Márquez and he was arrested by the Spanish police in 1964 and condemned to death but saw his sentence commuted to life in prison
15.
Monarchy of Spain
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The Monarchy of Spain, constitutionally referred to as the Crown, is a constitutional institution and historic office of Spain. It used to be called the Hispanic Monarchy. The monarchy comprises the monarch, his or her family. The Spanish monarchy is represented by King Felipe VI, his wife Queen Letizia, and their daughters Leonor, Princess of Asturias, the Spanish Constitution of 1978 reestablished a constitutional monarchy as the form of government for Spain. The 1978 constitution affirmed the role of the King of Spain as the personification and embodiment of the Spanish State, constitutionally, the king is the head-of-state and commander-in-chief of the Spanish Armed Forces. According to the constitution, the monarch is also instrumental in promoting relations with the nations of its historical community, the King of Spain serves as the president of the Ibero-American States Organization, purportedly representing over 700,000,000 people in twenty-four member nations worldwide. In 2008, Juan Carlos I was considered the most popular leader in all Ibero-America, a dynastic marriage between Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon united Spain in the 15th century. The last pretender of the Crown of the Byzantine Empire, Andreas Palaiologos, sold his title to Ferdinand II of Aragon. However, there is no evidence that any Spanish monarch has used the Byzantine imperial titles, the Spanish Empire became one of the first global powers as Isabella and Ferdinand funded Christopher Columbuss exploratory voyage across the Atlantic Ocean. This led to the discovery of America, which became the focus of Spanish colonization, in 2010, the budget for the Spanish monarchy was 7.4 million euros, one of the lowest public expenditures for the institution of monarchy in Europe. One of the earliest influential dynasties was the House of Jiménez which united much of Christian Iberia under its leadership in the 11th century. From Sancho III of Navarre until Urraca of León and Castile, the Jiménez rulers sought to bring their kingdoms into the European mainstream and often engaged in cross-Pyrenees alliances and marriages, and became patrons to Cluniac Reforms. Urracas son and heir Alfonso VII of León and Castile, the first of the Spanish branch of the Burgundy Family, was the last to claim the title of Spain. The Castilian Civil War ended with the death of King Peter at the hands of his illegitimate half-brother Henry, Henry II became the first of the House of Trastámara to rule over a Spanish kingdom. King Peters heiress, his granddaughter Catherine of Lancaster, married Henry III, reuniting the dynasties in the person of their son, each kingdom retained its basic structure. In 1492 the Catholic Monarchs conquered the Kingdom of Granada in southern Spain and this date marks the unification of Spain. The territories of the Spanish empire overseas were dependencies of the crown of Castile, in the early 16th century, the Spanish monarchy controlled several territories in Europe under the Habsburg King Charles I, son of Queen Joanna of Castile. His reign ushered in the Spanish Golden Age a period of colonial expansion
16.
Felipe VI of Spain
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Felipe VI is the King of Spain. He ascended to the throne on 19 June 2014 following the abdication of his father and he is the only son of Juan Carlos and his wife Sofía of Greece and Denmark. When Juan Carlos was chosen in 1969 to be Francisco Francos successor, Felipe became heir apparent when Juan Carlos succeeded Franco as head of state following his death in 1975. He was created Prince of Asturias in 1977, the title for the first in line. As Prince of Asturias, he worked to support philanthropic causes, in 2004, Felipe married TV presenter Letizia Ortiz with whom he has two daughters. Leonor, the elder, is his heir apparent and he succeeded his father as King of Spain when he abdicated in 2014. Felipe was born at Our Lady of Loreto Clinic in Madrid and he was baptised on 8 February 1968 at the Palace of Zarzuela by the Archbishop of Madrid, Casimiro Morcillo. His godparents were his paternal grandfather Juan and his paternal great-grandmother, shortly after his birth he was styled infante, although his father was not yet king. The ruling dictator General Francisco Franco died just over two months before Felipes eighth birthday, and Felipes father ascended the throne, in his first official appearance, Felipe attended his fathers proclamation as king on 22 November 1975. In 1977, Felipe was formally created Prince of Asturias, in May, nine-year-old Felipe was made an honorary soldier of the 1st Kings Immemorial Infantry Regiment. The occasion was marked on 28 May and was attended by the king, on 1 November the same year, he was ceremoniously paid homage as Prince of Asturias in Covadonga. In 1981 Felipe received the Collar of the Order of the Golden Fleece from his father, Felipe attended school at Santa María de los Rosales, which his daughters currently attend. As the heir to the throne, a regulated and structured plan was laid out for Felipes military training. In August 1985, a Royal Decree named Felipe as officer at the General Military Academy in Zaragoza and he began his military training there in September. He completed the first phase of his formation in October, in July 1986, he was promoted to Cadet 2nd Lieutenant. He was also named as Midshipman, on September 1986, he began his naval training at the Escuela Naval Militar in Pontevedra, joining the Third Brigade. In January 1987, he continued his training on board the training ship Juan Sebastián Elcano. In July, he was named as Student Ensign at the Academia General del Aire in Murcia, in September 1987, he began his air force training there
17.
Prince of Asturias
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Prince or Princess of Asturias, was the title of the heir of the Kingdoms of Castile and Leon and later the main title used by the heir of the Kingdom of Spain. According to the Spanish Constitution of 1978, Article 572, the title originated in 1388, when King John I of Castile granted the dignity – which included jurisdiction over the territory– to his first-born son Henry. The custom of granting titles to royal heirs had already been in use in the Kingdoms of Aragon, England. In 1705, with the advent of the House of Bourbon on the Spanish throne, from its origins, there have been buying and selling operations. These lordships were unique, they were territories that in remote times formed the Kingdom of Asturias, Henry, once King, ceded the counties to his illegitimate son Alfonso Enríquez. After two decades of conflicts of varying intensity, the arrived at a compromise through means of the marriage between Prince Henry and Catherine of Lancaster. On 8 July 1388 the Treaty of Bayonne was signed between John of Lancaster and King John I of Castile, establishing the final dynastic reconciliation after the assassination of King Peter I, the title was granted with a ceremony. Besieged by the Kings troops, he submitted to the arbitration of King Charles VI of France, the territory was subdued, and his royal status was confirmed. In the early days of its creation, the title of Prince of Asturias was not just an honorific title. The Prince ruled it in representation of the King and was able to appoint judges, mayors, in the periods in which no prince was proclaimed, the Principality did not disappear but was directly governed by the monarch, to whose treasury were sent the jurisdictional rents. With Prince John the title was added to a list of titles used by the Hispanic monarchy, the heir adding the titles of Prince of Asturias, Girona, Spain, and the New World. The imperialist aspirations are observed in the new title of the heir of the Catholic Monarchs, Prince of these Kingdoms, Prince of the Spains and the New World. The 16th and 17th centuries were characterized by conflicts between the King and the principality because of the titles and dignities granted and referring to the territory. Only during the reign of Philip IV was a proper ceremony introduced for the Princes oath as heir, another period for the title began at the beginning of the 19th century with the arrival of the constitutional regime. During discussions, some proposed that the Prince should be renamed of the Spains and not of Asturias, while others wanted him to use the dignity only after his oath. The project remained unchanged and was finally approved, however, the Royal Order of 25 March 1875 ratified the doctrine of 1850 by granting Infanta María Isabel Francisca de Asís the title of Princess of Asturias. The Royal Decree of 22 August 1880 tried to clarify all the confusion and established the titles and honors of the Prince and Infantes. The decree stated that any immediate successor, male or female, had to be granted the title.1 of the Constitution
18.
Leonor, Princess of Asturias
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Leonor, Princess of Asturias, is the elder daughter of King Felipe VI and Queen Letizia of Spain. Leonor is first in the line of succession to the throne and her sister, Infanta Sofía, follows her in the line of succession. Leonor was born on 31 October 2005 at 1,47 am in the Ruber International Hospital in Madrid by means of a caesarean section necessitated by non-progression of labour and her birth was announced by the Royal Family to the press via SMS. Leonor left the Ruber Clinic with her parents on 7 November 2005 and she was baptised in the Zarzuela Palace by the Cardinal Archbishop of Madrid, Antonio Rouco Varela, on 14 January 2006. Like her father in 1968, Leonor was christened with water from the Jordan River and she was also given the additional names of de Todos los Santos, a Bourbon tradition. Her godparents were her grandparents, King Juan Carlos and Queen Sofía. Leonors education began at the daycare for the children of the Spanish Royal Guard and she began her first year of elementary school on 15 September 2008 at the Santa María de los Rosales School in Aravaca, just outside Madrid. Her father is an alumnus of the school and her younger sister Sofía is also enrolled there. Leonor is fluent in both Spanish and English and has studied Mandarin, in May 2014, Leonor made her first official visit to the San Javier airforce base in Murcia. On 18 June 2014, King Juan Carlos signed the instrument of abdication, at this time, Leonors father became the King of Spain as Felipe VI, and Leonor herself became the heir presumptive and the new Princess of Asturias. Spains monarchy operates under a system of cognatic primogeniture, meaning that Leonor. Under the current law, however, if her parents have a son, Leonor would be displaced in the line of succession and again become an infanta. Despite a recent change from male-preference to absolute primogeniture for Spanish titles of nobility, if Leonor ascends the throne, she will be Spains first queen regnant since Isabella II, who reigned from 1833 to 1868. In October 2014, a wax figure of Leonor was unveiled at the Museo de Cera in Madrid, on 20 May 2015, Leonor had her first communion. A day before her 10th birthday, she was granted the Order of the Golden Fleece by her father and she also holds the historical titles of Duchess of Montblanc, Countess of Cervera and Lady of Balaguer. Coat of arms of the Princess of Asturias List of honours of the Spanish Royal Family by country Princess of Asturias Awards Official website Infanta Leonor - Genealogy of Infanta Leonor
19.
Spanish royal family
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The House of Bourbon-Anjou, is the current Spanish Royal Family. It consists of the present king, the consort, their children. The Spanish royal family belongs to the House of Bourbon, the membership of the Royal Family is defined by royal decree and consists of, the King of Spain, the monarchs spouse, the monarchs parents, and the heir to the Spanish throne. The Spanish Royal Family should not be confused with the Family of the King and he or She is styled His or Her Majesty. The Kings wife bears the title of Queen with the style Her Majesty, the husband of the Queen regnant bears the title of Prince and is styled His Royal Highness. The Kings heir apparent or heir presumptive bears the title Prince or Princess of Asturias with the style His or Her Royal Highness, the children of an Infante or Infanta have the rank of Grandees, and the style of His or Her Excellency. Spouses and widows/widowers of the sons and daughters, other than those of the Prince or Princess of Asturias, are entitled to the form of address. The sovereign may also grant the dignity of Infante or Infanta with the style of Highness. If the heirs of King Juan Carlos I were to be extinguished and it is incumbent for the monarch to exercise the High Patronage of the Royal Academies. Royal patronage conveys a sense of credibility as the organization is scrutinized for suitability. Royalty make use of their celebrity to assist the organization to raise funds or to promote government policy. Additionally, members of the family may also pursue their own charitable. King Felipe also serves as chair of the Ministry of Culture National Awards Ceremonies. King Juan Carlos, Queen Sofia, and Infanta Cristina are all members of the Bilderberg Group, an informal think-tank centered on United States and European relations, line of succession to the Spanish Throne
20.
Cortes Generales
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The Cortes Generales is the legislature of Spain. It is a parliament, composed of the Congress of Deputies. The Cortes has power to any law and to amend the constitution. Moreover, the house has the power to confirm and dismiss the President of the Government. The system of Cortes arose in the Middle Ages as part of feudalism, a Corte was an advisory council made up of the most powerful feudal lords closest to the king. The Cortes of León was the first parliamentary body in Western Europe, from 1230, the Cortes of Leon and Castile were merged, though the Cortes power was decreasing. Prelates, nobles and commoners remained separated in the three estates within the Cortes, with the reappearance of the cities near the 12th century, a new social class started to grow, people living in the cities were neither vassals nor nobles themselves. Furthermore, the nobles were experiencing very hard times due to the Reconquista, so now the bourgeoisie had the money. So the King started admitting representatives from the cities to the Cortes in order to get money for the Reconquista. The frequent payoffs were the Fueros, grants of autonomy to the cities, at this time the Cortes already had the power to oppose the Kings decisions, thus effectively vetoing them. In addition, some representatives were permanent advisors to the King, isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon, the Catholic Monarchs, started a specific policy to diminish the power of the bourgeoisie and nobility. They greatly reduced the powers of the Cortes to the point where they simply rubberstamped the monarchs acts, one of the major points of friction between the Cortes and the monarchs was the power of raising and lowering taxes. The role of the Cortes during the Spanish Empire was mainly to rubberstamp the decisions of the ruling monarch, however, they had some power over economic and American affairs, especially taxes. This allowed the Cortes to become influential, even when they did not directly oppose the Kings decisions. The abolition in the realms of Aragon was completed by 1716, Cortes existed in each of Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia and Navarre. It is thought that these legislatures exercised more power over local affairs than the Castilian Cortes did. Executive councils also existed in each of these realms, which were tasked with overseeing the implementation of decisions made by the Cortes. Thus, the Cortes in Spain did not develop towards a system as in the British case
21.
Lower house
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A lower house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the upper house. Despite its official position below the house, in many legislatures worldwide. A legislature composed of one house is described as unicameral. In comparison with the house, lower houses frequently display certain characteristics, Powers In a parliamentary system, Much more power. Able to override the upper house in some ways, can vote a motion of no confidence against the government. In a presidential system, Somewhat less power, as the house alone gives advice. Given the sole power to impeach the executive Status Always elected directly, while the house may be elected directly, indirectly. Its members may be elected with a different voting system to the upper house, most populated administrative divisions are better represented than in the upper house, representation is usually proportional to population. Elected all at once, not by staggered terms, in a parliamentary system, can be dissolved by the executive. Has total or original control over budget and monetary laws, lower age of candidacy than the upper house. Many lower houses are named in the manner, House/Chamber of Representatives/the People/Commons/Deputies
22.
Senate of Spain
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The Senate is the upper house of Spains parliament, the Cortes Generales. It is made up of 265 members,208 elected by popular vote, all senators serve four-year terms, though regional legislatures may recall their appointees at any time. The Spanish senate was instituted by the constitution of 1837 under the regency of Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies and it remained under the regimes of the constitutions of 1845,1856,1869 and 1876. It was composed, at that time, of three main categories, senators by their own right, senators for life and senators elected. This chamber was suppressed after the coup of General Miguel Primo de Rivera in 1923, only after the Spanish transition to democracy in 1978 was it re-instituted. Senators form groups along party lines, parties with fewer than ten senators form the Mixed Group. If the membership of an existing group falls below six during a session, for example, Coalición Canaria lost its senate caucus in 2008 after electoral losses reduced its group from six to two. The PNV group is again under threshold after returning the borrowed Socialists, legally,133 seats are required for an absolute majority, vacant seats notwithstanding. Most members of the senate are elected by the people. Each province elects four senators without regard to population and this allocation is heavily weighted in favor of small provinces, Madrid, with roughly 6 million people, and Soria, with 100,000 inhabitants, are each represented by four senators. In non-insular constituencies, each party nominates three candidates, candidates names are organized in columns by party on a large ochre-colored ballot called a sábana or bedsheet. Each voter may mark up to three names, from any party. This is the occasion when Spanish voters vote for individuals rather than a party list. Panachage is allowed, but typically voters cast all three votes for candidates of a single party, as a result, the four Senators are usually the three candidates from the most popular party and the first placed candidate from the next most popular. Before 2011, a party could not choose the order of its candidates on the ballot paper, when a party did not get all three of its candidates elected, this arrangement favored candidates with surnames early in the alphabet. This was the case for 2nd placed parties in every province, demographic growth increased the combined size of the regional delegations from 51 to 56 in 2008 for the 9th term. Conventionally, the proportions of the regional delegations mimic their legislative assemblies, however, Autonomous Communities have considerable leeway, and a motion to appoint the delegation often requires no more than a plurality. This arrangement was part of a five-party coalition agreement and this anomaly was resolved in 2008, when the Balearic Islands gained a second senate seat which was filled by the PP
23.
Upper house
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An upper house, sometimes called a Senate, is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house. The house formally designated as the house is usually smaller. Examples of upper houses in countries include the UKs House of Lords, Canadas Senate, Indias Rajya Sabha, Russias Federation Council, Irelands Seanad, Germanys Bundesrat, a legislature composed of only one house is described as unicameral. An upper house is different from the lower house in at least one of the following respects, Powers, In a parliamentary system. Therefore, in countries the Upper House votes on only limited legislative matters. Cannot vote a motion of no confidence against the government, while the house always can. In a presidential system, It may have equal or nearly equal power with the lower house and it may have specific powers not granted to the lower house. For example, It may give advice and consent to some executive decisions and it may have the sole power to try impeachments against officials of the executive, following enabling resolutions passed by the lower house. Status, In some countries, its members are not popularly elected, membership may be indirect and its members may be elected with a different voting system than that used to elect the lower house. Less populated states, provinces, or administrative divisions may be represented in the upper house than in the lower house. Members terms may be longer than in the house. Members may be elected in portions, for staggered terms, rather than all at one time, in some countries, the upper house cannot be dissolved at all, or can be dissolved only in more limited circumstances than the lower house. It typically has fewer members or seats than the lower house and it has usually a higher age of candidacy than the lower house. In parliamentary systems the upper house is seen as an advisory or revising chamber. Some or all of the restrictions are often placed on upper houses. No absolute veto of proposed legislation, though suspensive vetoes are permitted in some states, in countries where it can veto legislation, it may not be able to amend the proposals. A reduced or even absent role in initiating legislation, additionally, a Government must have the consent of both to remain in office, a position which is known as perfect bicameralism or equal bicameralism. An example is the British House of Lords, bills can only be delayed for up to one year before the Commons can use the Parliament Act, although economic bills can only be delayed for one month
24.
Ombudsman
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In some countries an Inspector General, Citizen Advocate or other official may have duties similar to those of a national ombudsman, and may also be appointed by a legislature. Below the national level an ombudsman may be appointed by a state, unofficial ombudsmen may be appointed by, or even work for, a corporation such as a utility supplier, newspaper, NGO, or professional regulatory body. The typical duties of an ombudsman are to investigate complaints and attempt to resolve them, Ombudsmen sometimes also aim to identify systematic issues leading to poor service or breaches of peoples rights. At the national level, most ombudsmen have a mandate to deal with the entire public sector. In some cases, there is a more restricted mandate, for example with particular sectors of society, more recent developments have included the creation of specialized Childrens Ombudsman and Information Commissioner agencies. In some jurisdictions an ombudsman charged with handling concerns about government is more formally referred to as the Parliamentary Commissioner. In many countries where the ombudsmans responsibility includes protecting human rights, the post of ombudsman had by the end of the 20th century been instituted by most governments and by some intergovernmental organizations such as the European Union. A prototype of ombudsmen may have flourished in China during the Qin Dynasty, the Roman Tribune had some similar roles, with power to veto acts that infringed upon the Plebeians. Another precursor to the ombudsman was the Turkish Diwan-al-Mazalim which appears to go back to the caliph, Umar. They were also attested in Siam, India, the Liao dynasty, Japan, an indigenous Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish term, ombudsman is etymologically rooted in the Old Norse word umboðsmaðr, essentially meaning representative. In the Danish Law of Jutland from 1241, the term is umbozman, from 1552, it is also used in the other Scandinavian languages such as the both Icelandic and Faroese umboðsmaður, the Norwegian ombudsmann/ombodsmann and the Swedish ombudsman. The Swedish speaking minority in Finland uses the Swedish terminology, the predecessor of the Swedish Parliamentary Ombudsman was the Office of Supreme Ombudsman, which was established by the Swedish King, Charles XII, in 1713. Charles XII was in exile in Turkey and needed a representative in Sweden to ensure that judges and civil servants acted in accordance with the laws, if they did not do so, the Supreme Ombudsman had the right to prosecute them for negligence. In 1719 the Swedish Office of Supreme Ombudsman became the Chancellor of Justice, the word ombudsman and its specific meaning have since been adopted in various languages, including Spanish, Dutch and Czech. The German language uses Ombudsmann, Ombudsfrau and Ombudsleute, notable exceptions are French and Finnish, which use translations instead. Modern variations of this term include ombud, ombuds, ombudsperson, or ombudswoman, if the ombudsman finds a complaint to be substantiated, the problem may get rectified, or an ombudsman report is published making recommendations for change. Further redress depends on the laws of the concerned. Ombudsmen in most countries do not have the power to initiate legal proceedings or prosecution on the grounds of a complaint, the major advantage of an ombudsman is that he or she examines complaints from outside the offending state institution, thus avoiding the conflicts of interest inherent in self-policing
25.
Government of Spain
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Spain is a parliamentary monarchy whose government is defined by the Constitution of Spain. This was approved by a referendum of the people of Spain in 1978. The final interpretation of the Constitution, in the case of dispute, is the business of the Constitutional Court of Spain, the king is also the commander in chief of the Spanish Armed Forces in which capacity he suppressed the 23-F Spanish coup détat attempt in February 1981. The king, currently Felipe VI, has held this position since 19 June 2014 and his predecessor, Juan Carlos I, abdicated the throne. Daughters can inherit only if the monarch has no sons, the heir presumptive is Leonor, Princess of Asturias. The Military Chief of Staff is General of the Army Fernando Alejandre Martínez, President of the Government, sometimes misleadingly called the Spanish President, is the first minister and is elected by the Congress of Deputies. He is informally but internationally and commonly referred to as the Prime Minister, the current holder is Mariano Rajoy Brey, who was elected on 21 December 2011. He appoints a number of vice-presidents ordered numerically according to rank and responsible for their respective major ministries such as Finance, Foreign affairs, Domestic administration, etc. Minister for the Presidency and Vice President, María Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría Antón, the following is the list of members of the Cabinet of Spain formed after the 2016 general election. Shown here is the logo of the Government of Spain. Below it is a variant design for the Ministry of Finance, Spanish cabinets from 1931 to 2004 Official website Law 50/1997, of the Government Boe. es
26.
Council of Ministers (Spain)
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It is regulated by Article 98 of the Spanish Constitution. In the meetings of this Council all matters of common interest would be discussed, the Secretary of State would act as Chief Minister and preside over the meetings when the King was absent. The Council of Ministers meets on weekly basis, usually Fridays in the morning at Moncloa Palace, the meetings are chaired by the Prime Minister, though, in his absence, Vice presidents take the responsibility to chair over the cabinet. Also on exceptional occasions, the cabinet can be chaired by the King of Spain, in event the meeting is solely consultative. List of cabinets Politics of Spain Website of the Government of Spain
27.
Prime Minister of Spain
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The current office is established under the Constitution of 1978. In practice, the Prime Minister is almost always the leader of the largest party in the Congress, since current constitutional practice in Spain calls for the King to act on the advice of his ministers, the Prime Minister is effectively the countrys chief executive. Mariano Rajoy Brey of the Peoples Party has been the minister since he was sworn in on December 21,2011. The Spanish head of government is known, in Spanish, as the Presidente del Gobierno, in Spain the head of the government is often called simply Presidente, meaning President. Before 1833 the figure was known as Secretario de Estado, a denomination used today for junior ministers, once a general election has been announced by the king, political parties nominate their candidates to stand for the presidency of the government-usually the party leader. Constitutionally, the Prime Minister and the cabinet are responsible to the monarch, on paper, the monarch is free to name anyone he sees fit as his prerogative to form a government. For this reason, the Prime Minister is usually the leader of the largest party in the Congress. By political custom established by Juan Carlos I since the ratification of the 1978 Constitution, however, there is no legal requirement for this. In theory, the largest party could end up not ruling if rival parties gather into a majority, the monarch is normally able to announce his nominee on the day following a general election. A simple majority confirms the nominee and his program, after the nominee is confirmed, the Speaker of the Congress formally reports to the king of the congressional confirmation. The king then appoints the candidate as the new President of the Government, the kings order of appointment is countersigned by the Speaker. If no overall majority was obtained on the first Vote of the Confidence, then the same nominee and program is resubmitted for a second vote within forty-eight hours. Following the second vote, if confidence by the Congress is still unreached, then the monarch again meets with political leaders and the Speaker, and submits a new nominee for a vote of confidence. If, within two months, no candidate has won the confidence of the Congress then the King dissolves the Cortes, the Kings royal decree is countersigned by the Speaker of the Congress. Once appointed, the President of the Government forms his government whose ministers are appointed and removed by the King on the presidents advice, conversely, nominating the party leader whose party maintains a plurality and who are already familiar with their party manifesto facilitates a smoother nomination process. In the event of coalitions, the leaders would customarily have met beforehand to hammer out a coalition agreement before their meeting with the King. Governments and the Cortes sit for a no longer than four years when the president tenders his resignation to the king and advises the king to dissolve the Cortes. It remains within the prerogative to dissolve the Cortes if, at the conclusion of the four years
28.
Deputy Prime Minister of Spain
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The person for the post is usually handpicked by the Prime Minister from the members of the Cabinet. The title of First is used to them from the Second Vice President of the Government. The Headquarters of the First Vice Presidency of the Government of Spain is the Edificio Semillas, currently Mrs. Soraya Sáenz de Santamaría is the First Deputy Prime Minister of the Government of Spain. She assumed the post on the swearing-in of the Rajoy Government in December 2011, being a constitutional monarchy, the government of Spain is headed by a prime minister but the official title in Spanish is Presidente del Gobierno, literally President of the Government. This can be confusing to foreigners and indeed is to many Spaniards, therefore, the Spanish Vice President of the Government is actually the equivalent of a Deputy Prime Minister, not a Vice President. The Deputy Prime Minister of Spain is responsible for, Advising the President of the Government, attending the Cabinet, the Delegated Commissions of the Government and the General Commission of Secretaries of State and Undersecretaries. Supporting the President of the Government, specially exercising the responsibilities in relation to preparing and tracking the Government Programme, interministerial Coordinating given by current laws, the Government or the President. Attending the Government with its relationships with the General Courts, preparing, carrying out and tracking the legislative programme of the Government and specialy its parliamentary processing. Material supporting, economic, financial, personal and budgetary management and in general whatever responsibilities needed by the President, being the secretary at the Cabinet. Falange Union of the Democratic Centre Socialist Peoples Party Military Council of Ministers of Spain List of cabinets Politics of Spain Political minister Spain Official website
29.
Spanish Council of State
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The Council of State, is the supreme consultative council of the Spanish Government. The current Council of State was established in 1980 according to the article 107 of the Constitution of 1978, the institution of the Council of State, understood as supreme consultative council of the Government, has existed intermittently since 1812. During the Ancien Régime, the Council of State advised the king about international policy and it was established by Charles I and although it dealt primarily with international issues, its actual functions were ambiguous as its supreme goal was advising the monarch about the State in general. It has an influence during the reigns of Charles I and Philip II. The reforms of Philip V emptied its actual power, although Manuel de Godoy wished to revive it in 1792 and it was definitively abolished in 1834. The Council of State has existed intermittently during 19th and 20th centuries, the Constitution of 1812 established it and obliged the Government to ask for advice in case of serious issues. Website of the Council of State
30.
Judiciary of Spain
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The Judiciary of Spain consists of Courts and Tribunals, composed of judges and magistrates, who have the power to administer justice in the name of the King of Spain. The Spanish legal system is a civil law based on comprehensive legal codes and laws rooted in Roman law, as opposed to common law. Independence, courts and tribunals are independent of all authority or people in the exercise of jurisdictional power, irremovability, judges and magistrates are irremovable and cannot be removed, suspended, separated or retired without cause and with guarantees established by law. Legality, in the exercise of their functions, judges and magistrates are subject to the Constitution and to the rest of the laws just as other branches of government. They are the units of judicial procedure in Spain. The Supreme Court of Spain is the highest judicial body in Spain, the Audiencia Nacional, based in Madrid, has jurisdiction over the entire territory of the nation. It has four Chambers, although it is composed of 3 jurisdictions, Criminal jurisdiction in cases pertaining to crimes against the Spanish Crown, terrorism, organized crime, counterfeiting and crimes committed in more than one jurisdiction. Administrative jurisdiction, deals with cases against resolutions of ministers, secretaries of state, the Council of Ministers]. Social jurisdiction involves cases pertaining to collective bargaining agreements that cover more than the territory of one autonomous community, the Audiencia Nacional also has specialized courts dealing with criminal inquiries, penitentiary surveillance and juvenile cases. Some jurists consider this court to be unnecessary and a successor to the Public Order Court, the High Courts of Justice have authority over a single autonomous community, and are the highest jurisdictional body of the autonomous community without prejudice to the Supreme Court. The Audiencia Provincial is a court that covers the territory of a province and is responsible for two jurisdictional orders, civil and criminal. Civil chambers, are responsible for appeals against judgements by courts of first instance, Criminal chambers, judge serious criminal cases. The courts of first instance are the courts of civil jurisdiction assigned to judicial districts. They hear all cases not assigned to High Courts of Justice, judges of first instance are usually responsible for the civil registry. Courts of inquiry are responsible for investigating all cases in order for them to be judged by High Courts of Justice. In the case of smaller districts, first instance and inquiry courts are usually unified under the responsibility of one judge, judge less serious crimes and misdemeanor, as well as acting as second instance courts for the courts of Justices of the Peace. They are assigned to a province, are responsible for all cases corresponding to appeals for national and autonomic bodies not assigned by the constitution to other courts as of the appeals to resolutions issued by municipal bodies. They are assigned to a province, social courts are basic courts related to labour law, and are assigned to a province
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Supreme Court of Spain
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The Supreme Court of Spain is the highest court in Spain for all matters not pertaining to the Spanish Constitution. The court meets in the Convent of the Salesas Reales in Madrid and consists of a president, the Supreme Court is the court of last resort and can provide finality in all legal issues. It can order ordinary and extraordinary remedies against decisions of lower courts according to the provisions of Spanish law, also, most its resolutions are reliable since they are solutions to appeal against the considered decisions of lower courts. The Supreme Court is divided into five chambers, each dealing with an areas of Spanish law that may affect ordinary citizens. The tribunal is composed of the Chief Justice, sitting with the presidents of the five Chambers. The Chief Justice and one Judge drawn of each of the Boards supervising jurisdictions where conflict has arisen, the Board of Jurisdictional Disputes resolves conflicts and deficiencies arising between the ordinary civil courts and organs of military justice. The Chief Justice, two Judges of the Board for the relevant civil court plus two judges from the military chamber, the Court of Jurisdictional Disputes resolves conflicts and deficiencies arising between the jurisdictional responsibilities of a civil court, the Courts Martial or Administrative courts. It is composed of the Chief Justice, two Judges of the Sala Tercera, and three permanent directors of the Spanish Council of State. In subordination to the Supreme Judicial Council, the Supreme Courts governing bodies are responsible for hearing and resolving issues that may arise. Judiciary of Spain Constitutional Court of Spain Audiencia Nacional of Spain Regional High Courts Regional Courts of Justice Court Notices
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Audiencia Nacional (Spain)
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The Audiencia Nacional is a special and exceptional high court in Spain. It has jurisdiction over all of the Spanish territory, as well as international crimes which come under the competence of Spanish courts. The Audiencia Nacional was created in 1977 at the time as the Public Order Tribunal. Despite what many think, the two work differently, and both the Spanish Constitutional Court and the European Commission of Human Rights have observed this tribunal to be legal. Its seat is in the city of Madrid, in most cases, the rulings and decisions of these different divisions of the Audiencia Nacional can be appealed before the Supreme Court of Spain. The Audiencia is composed of its President, the Presidents of the Chambers, appeals Chamber, which hears appeals against rulings of the Criminal Chamber
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