1.
Cabriolet (carriage)
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A cabriolet is a light horse-drawn vehicle, with two wheels and a single horse. The carriage has a hood that can cover its two occupants, one of whom is the driver. It has a large rigid apron, upward-curving shafts, and usually a platform between the C springs for a groom. The design was developed in France in the century and quickly replaced the heavier hackney carriage as the vehicle for hire of choice in Paris. The cab of taxi-cab or hansom cab is a shortening of cabriolet, hansom cab Cabriolet Types of carriages
2.
Mazda MX-5
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The Mazda MX-5, released as the Mazda MX-5 Miata /miˈɑːtə/ in North America and as the Eunos Roadster in Japan, is a lightweight two-seater roadster with a front-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout. Manufactured by Mazda in Hiroshima, Japan, the model debuted in 1989 at the Chicago Auto Show, the MX-5 was conceived as a small roadster – with light weight and minimal mechanical complexity limited only by legal and safety requirements, while being technologically modern and reliable. The MX-5 is conceptually the evolution and spiritual successor of the British sports cars of the 1950s & 60s, such as the Triumph Spitfire, Austin-Healey 100, MG MGA, and particularly the Lotus Elan. The second generation MX-5 was launched in 1998, the third model was launched in 2005. It continues to be the best-selling two-seat convertible sports car in history and by April 2016, over one million MX-5s had been built and sold around the world. Production of the MX-5 had fallen by 2013 to below 14,000 units, due to the finance crisis in 2008. Since the launch of the generation, Mazda has consolidated worldwide marketing using the MX-5 name with the exception of the United States where it is marketed as the MX-5 Miata. The name miata derives from Old High German for reward. The MX5s first generation, the NA, sold over 400,000 units from 1989 to 1997 – with a 1.6 L straight-4 engine to 1993, the third generation was introduced in 2006 with a 2.0 L engine. Launched at a time when production of small roadsters had almost come to an end, just a decade earlier, a host of similar models — notably the MG B, Triumph TR7, Triumph Spitfire, and Fiat Spider — had been available. The body is a conventional, but light, unibody or monocoque construction, with front, some MX-5s feature limited slip differentials and anti-lock braking system. Traction control is an available on NC models. The earlier cars weighed just over a ton, with power output usually 116 bhp. The later cars were heavier, with higher power engines, with an approximate 50,50 front/rear weight balance, the car has nearly neutral handling. Raddatz and Otten won the AASA Australian Endurance Championship in 2011, the Miata has also made Car and Driver magazines annual Ten Best list 14 times. In their December 2009 issue, Grassroots Motorsports magazine named the Miata as the most important sports car built during the previous 25 years, at this time Hall hired designer Mark Jordan to join the newly formed Mazda design studio in Southern California. There, Hall and Jordan collaborated on the parameters of the initial image, in 1983, the idea turned concept was approved under the Offline 55 program, an internal Mazda initiative that sought to change the way new models were developed. Thus, under head of project Masakatsu, the development was turned into a competition between the Mazda design teams in Tokyo and California
3.
Cadillac Eldorado
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The Cadillac Eldorado is a personal luxury car that was manufactured and marketed by Cadillac from 1953 to 2002 over ten generations. Competitors and similar vehicles included the Lincoln Mark series, Buick Riviera, Oldsmobile Toronado, the Eldorado was at or near the top of the Cadillac line during early model years. Eldorados carried the Fleetwood designation from 1965 through 1972, and was a revival of the pre-war Cadillac V-12 and Cadillac V16 roadsters. Cadillac began using the nameplates Eldorado Seville and Eldorado Biarritz to distinguish between the hardtop and convertible models while both were offered, from 1956 through 1960 inclusively, the Seville name was dropped when the hardtop was initially discontinued, but the Biarritz name continued through 1964. Beginning 1965, the Eldorado became the Fleetwood Eldorado, Biarritz returned as an up level trim package for the Eldorado for 1977. A special-bodied, low-production convertible, it was the version of the 1952 El Dorado Golden Anniversary concept car. Convertible tops were available in black or white Orlon. AC was an option, as were wire wheels, the car carried no special badging other than a gold-colored Eldorado nameplate in the center of the dash. A hard tonneau cover, flush with the deck, hid the convertible top in the open car version. Although technically a subseries of the Cadillac Series 62 based on the regular Series 62 convertible, sharing its engine, it was nearly twice as expensive at US$7,750. The 220.8 inches long,80.1 inches wide vehicle came with standard features as windshield washers, a signal seeking radio, power windows. The Eldorado comprised only. 5% of Cadillacs sales in 1953, in 1954, Eldorado lost its unique sheet metal and shared its basic body shell with standard Cadillacs. Distinguished now mainly by trim pieces, this allowed GM to lower the price, the Eldorados had golden identifying crests centered directly behind the air-slot fenderbreaks and wide fluted beauty panels to decorate the lower rear bodysides. These panels were made of extruded aluminum and also appeared on a one of a kind Eldorado coupé built for the Reynolds Aluminum Corporation. Also included in the production Eldorado convertible were monogram plates on the doors, wire wheels, two thousand one hundred and fifty Eldorados were sold, nearly four times as many as in 1953. For 1955, the Eldorados body gained its own rear end styling with high, slender and these contrasted with the rather thick, bulbous fins which were common at the time and were an example of the Eldorado once again pointing the way forward. The Eldorado sport convertible featured extras such as wide chrome body belt moldings, for 1956, a two-door hardtop coupé version appeared, called the Eldorado Seville at which point the convertible was named the Eldorado Biarritz. An Eldorado script finally appeared with fender crest on the car which was distinguished by twin hood ornaments
4.
Alvis TF 21
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Externally, the car was identical to the TE21, but there were some changes to the suspension, and, inside, the instruments were better organised. The 2993 cc engine, first used in the 1950 TA21, had its power increased to 150 bhp at 4750 rpm by fitting triple SU carburettors giving the car a top speed of 120 mph, a choice of automatic or five-speed gearbox made by ZF was available. The chassis and suspension continued with its front coil springs and leaf springs at the rear, disc brakes were fitted to all wheels and recirculating ball-type steering gear was used with power assistance optional. Although this car was an update of the TE21, the TE21 remained available to order until 1967. In August 1967, it was announced production of the Park Ward bodied Alvis 3-litre had ceased. Culshaw, D. Alvis three litre in detail, TA21 to TF21 1950-67, beaworthy, Devon, England, Herridge and Sons Ltd
5.
Car
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A car is a wheeled, self-powered motor vehicle used for transportation and a product of the automotive industry. The year 1886 is regarded as the year of the modern car. In that year, German inventor Karl Benz built the Benz Patent-Motorwagen, cars did not become widely available until the early 20th century. One of the first cars that was accessible to the masses was the 1908 Model T, an American car manufactured by the Ford Motor Company. Cars were rapidly adopted in the United States of America, where they replaced animal-drawn carriages and carts, cars are equipped with controls used for driving, parking, passenger comfort and safety, and controlling a variety of lights. Over the decades, additional features and controls have been added to vehicles, examples include rear reversing cameras, air conditioning, navigation systems, and in car entertainment. Most cars in use in the 2010s are propelled by a combustion engine. Both fuels cause air pollution and are blamed for contributing to climate change. Vehicles using alternative fuels such as ethanol flexible-fuel vehicles and natural gas vehicles are also gaining popularity in some countries, electric cars, which were invented early in the history of the car, began to become commercially available in 2008. There are costs and benefits to car use, the costs of car usage include the cost of, acquiring the vehicle, interest payments, repairs and auto maintenance, fuel, depreciation, driving time, parking fees, taxes, and insurance. The costs to society of car use include, maintaining roads, land use, road congestion, air pollution, public health, health care, road traffic accidents are the largest cause of injury-related deaths worldwide. The benefits may include transportation, mobility, independence. The ability for humans to move flexibly from place to place has far-reaching implications for the nature of societies and it was estimated in 2010 that the number of cars had risen to over 1 billion vehicles, up from the 500 million of 1986. The numbers are increasing rapidly, especially in China, India, the word car is believed to originate from the Latin word carrus or carrum, or the Middle English word carre. In turn, these originated from the Gaulish word karros, the Gaulish language was a branch of the Brythoic language which also used the word Karr, the Brythonig language evolved into Welsh where Car llusg and car rhyfel still survive. It originally referred to any wheeled vehicle, such as a cart, carriage. Motor car is attested from 1895, and is the formal name for cars in British English. Autocar is a variant that is attested from 1895
6.
Torsion (mechanics)
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In the field of solid mechanics, torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. Torsion is expressed in newton per squared meter or pound per squared inch while torque is expressed in newton metres or foot-pound force, in sections perpendicular to the torque axis, the resultant shear stress in this section is perpendicular to the radius. For shafts of uniform cross-section the torsion is, T = J T r τ = J T ℓ G φ where, τ is the maximum shear stress at the outer surface JT is the torsion constant for the section. It is almost equal to the moment of area Jz = Iz for twisting about axis z. For more accuracy, finite element analysis is the best method, other calculation methods include membrane analogy and shear flow approximation. R is the distance between the axis and the farthest point in the section. ℓ is the length of the object the torque is being applied to or over, φ is the angle of twist in radians. G is the modulus, also called the modulus of rigidity. The product JT G is called the torsional rigidity wT, the shear stress at a point within a shaft is, τ φ z = T r J T Note that the highest shear stress occurs on the surface of the shaft, where the radius is maximum. High stresses at the surface may be compounded by stress concentrations such as rough spots, thus, shafts for use in high torsion are polished to a fine surface finish to reduce the maximum stress in the shaft and increase their service life. The angle of twist can be found by using, φ = T ℓ G J T, calculation of the steam turbine shaft radius for a turboset, Assumptions, Power carried by the shaft is 1000 MW, this is typical for a large nuclear power plant. Yield stress of the used to make the shaft is,250 ×106 N/m². Electricity has a frequency of 50 Hz, this is the frequency in Europe. In North America, the frequency is 60 Hz.16 rad/s and the torque 3.1831 ×106 N·m. The maximal torque is, T max = τ max J z z r After substitution of the moment of inertia. The shear stress in the shaft may be resolved into principal stresses via Mohrs circle, if the shaft is loaded only in torsion, then one of the principal stresses will be in tension and the other in compression. These stresses are oriented at a 45-degree helical angle around the shaft and this is often demonstrated by twisting a piece of blackboard chalk between ones fingers. In the case of thin hollow shafts, a twisting buckling mode can result from excessive torsional load, structural rigidity Torsion siege engine Torsion spring or -bar Torsional vibration Torque tester Saint-Venants theorem Second moment of area List of area moments of inertia
7.
Retractable hardtop
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A retractable hardtop, also known as coupé convertible or coupé cabriolet, employs an automatically operated, multi-part, self-storing hardtop in lieu of a folding textile-based roof. Frenchman Georges Paulin subsequently designed the production 1934 Peugeot 601 Éclipse manually retractable hardtop, advances in electronics, hydraulics, and weatherproofing materials have made the modern retractable hardtop increasingly popular. 1919 Ben P. Ellerbeck conceived a retractable hardtop – a manually operated system on a Hudson coupe that allowed unimpeded use of the seat even with the top down –. 1935 Peugeot introduced the first production, power-operated retractable hardtop in 1935, the French coachbuilder, Marcel Pourtout, custom-built other examples of Paulins designs on a larger Peugeot chassis as well. The first Eclipse 402s offered a top, but in 1936 was replaced by a manually operated version on a stretched chassis. 1941 Chrysler introduced a retractable hardtop concept car, the Chrysler Thunderbolt,1953 Ford Motor Company spent an estimated US$2 million to engineer a Continental Mark II with a servo-operated retractable roof. The project was headed by Ben Smith, a 30-year-old draftsman, the concept was rejected for cost and marketing reasons. Engineering work was recycled to the Ford Division which used the mechanism in their 1957-1959 flagship Ford Fairlane 500 Skyliner after an estimated US$18 million more was spent. 1955 Brothers Ed and Jim Gaylord showed their first prototype at the 1955 Paris motor show,1957 Ford introduced the Fairlane 500 Skyliner in the United States. A total of 48,394 were built from 1957 to 1959, the retractable top was noted for its complexity and usually decent reliability in the pre-transistor era. The Skyliner was a car with little luggage space. 1989 Toyota introduced a retractable hardtop, the MZ20 Soarer Aerocabin. The car featured a folding hardtop and was marketed as a 2-seater with a cargo area behind the front seats. 1995 The Mitsubishi GTO Spyder by ASC was marketed in the U. S, produced by French coachbuilding specialist Heuliez, the Macarenas top can be folded in about 30 seconds. It has a beam behind the front seats which incorporates LCD screens into the crossmember for the rear passengers. 2006 General Motors introduced a retractable version of the Pontiac G6. The roof featured a relatively simple two-piece folding design and did not materially reduce rear seat space, production continued through the 2009 model year. The Volkswagen Eos features a five-segment retractable roof where one section is itself an independently sliding transparent sunroof, the Mercedes SL hardtop features a glass section that rotates during retraction to provide a more compact stack
8.
Convertible
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A convertible or cabriolet is an automobile body style that can convert between an open-air mode and an enclosed one, varying in degree and means by model. Convertibles evolved from the phaeton, an open vehicle without glass side windows that sometimes had removable panels of fabric or other material for protection from the elements. Historically, a retractable roof consisted of a frame covered with a folding. A lesser seen detachable hardtop provided a more weatherproof and secure alternative, as technology improved, a retractable hardtop which removes and stows its own rigid roof in its trunk appeared, increasingly becoming the most popular form. A semiconvertible also known as a coach has a retractable or removable top which retains fully framed windows on its doors. A landaulet is a convertible with a fully enclosed front cabin. Other common terms include cabriolet, cabrio, soft top, and drop top, and where the roof is more than emergency weather protection, open two-seater, rag top, spider. The erected top secures to the frame header with manual latches, semimanual latches. The folded convertible top is called the stack, a tonneau cover provides a solution. A range of materials is available for soft tops, automakers had problems in securing raw materials to fulfill orders after World War II, including canvas in various shades for convertible tops and limiting their manufacture. Polyvinyl chloride material was used for many convertible tops, the material consists of two layers, a top layer made of PVC, which has a specific structure depending on the vehicle model, and a lower layer made of fabric. Side windows were not existent in open cars, which may have detachable side screens, rear windows have evolved similarly, with plastic rear windows appearing as late as the first-generation Porsche Boxster. Plastic windows can degrade, fade, yellow, and crack over time, a windblocker or wind deflector minimizes noise and rushing air reaching the occupants. Mazda pioneered a version on the RX7 convertible which featured an integral rigid opaque panel that folded up from behind the front seats, current convertibles feature windblockers of various designs including detachable fold-up designs, vertically retractable glass, minimal flaps – or other integrated wind controlling systems. According to the responsible for the 2008 Chrysler Sebring, its windblocker reduces wind noise by roughly 11 to 12 dB. Mercedes and Audi currently offer a heating duct to the area of the seat on SLK, SL. Windblockers are also available on the aftermarket for use on convertibles that do not have them, the Volvo C70 retractable hardtop includes a door-mounted side-impact protection inflatable curtain which inflates upward from the interior belt-line – vs. downward like the typical curtain airbag. The curtain has an extra stiff construction with double rows of slats that are offset from each other
9.
Touring car
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A touring car is an open car seating four or more. A popular car body style in the twentieth century, it declined in popularity in the 1920s when closed bodies became less expensive. A tourer, in Britain and the Commonwealth, is a vehicle, however. The term all-weather tourer was used to describe open vehicles that could be fully enclosed, a popular version of the touring car style was the torpedo, with the hood/bonnet line at the cars waistline giving the car a straight line from front to back. This eventually became the version of the touring car. In 1916, the US-based Society of Automobile Engineers defined a touring car as, the term has also been defined as an open car seating five or more. Touring cars may have two or four doors, engines on early models were either in the front, or in a mid-body position. When the top was folded down, it formed a bulky mass known as the fan behind the seat, fan covers were made to protect the top. The touring car style was popular in the early 20th century, being an alternative to the runabout. Most of Model Ts produced by Ford between 1908 and 1927 were four and then three-door models touring cars, accounting for 6,519,643 cars sold out of the 15,000,000 estimated Model Ts built. The popularity of the car began to wane in the 1920s when cars with enclosed passenger compartments became more affordable. In Australia tourers may have two or four doors, the belt lines of tourers were often lowered in the front doors to give the car a more sporting character. And would then be named sports tourers, the torpedo body style was a type of touring body used from the early twentieth century until the mid-1920s. A torpedos hood line was level with the waistline, giving a straight line from front to back. The torpedo style became the style of touring car and the name fell into disuse around 1920
10.
Victoria (carriage)
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The victoria was an elegant French carriage, possibly based on a phaeton made for George IV. A victoria may be visualised as essentially a phaeton or brougham with the addition of a coachmans box-seat, but not enclosed and therefore open to the elements. Though in English the name victoria was not employed for a carriage before 1870, when one was imported to England by Edward VII, the Prince of Wales in 1869 and it was very popular amongst wealthy families. On a low body, it had one forward-facing seat for two passengers and a drivers seat supported by an iron frame, all beneath a calash top. It was usually drawn by one or two horses and this type of carriage became fashionable with ladies for riding in the park, especially with a stylish coachman installed. Nowadays, victorias can be seen in the Chilean city of Viña del Mar, the name has been applied to the Ford Crown Victoria, and has been used as a generic term for light horse carriages in Mumbai. Illustration and description, Carriage Association of America, farrell, Jeremy, Aileen, Dr, Ribeiro, ed. Umbrellas & Parasolls, London, BT Batsford
11.
Landau (carriage)
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A landau is a coachbuilding term for a type of four-wheeled, convertible carriage. It was a city carriage of luxury type and it is lightweight and suspended on elliptical springs. It was invented in the 18th century, landau in this sense is first noted in English in 1743 and it was named after the German city of Landau in the Rhenish Palatinate where they were first produced. Lord, Hopkinson, coachmakers of Holborn, London, produced the first English landaus in the 1830s, the soft folding top is divided into two sections, front and rear, latched at the center. These usually lie perfectly flat, but the section can be let down or thrown back while the front section can be removed or left stationary. When fully opened, the top can completely cover the passengers, the landaus center section might contain a fixed full-height glazed door, or more usually a low half-door. A small landau, a coupé with a top, was called a landaulet. A brougham called a brougham-landaulet had a top collapsible from the rear doors backward, a five-glass landau was fitted with a front glass windscreen and two windows on each side. The landau reached its development by the mid-19th century. It was purely a city carriage of luxury type, the low shell of the landau made for maximum visibility of the occupants and their clothing, a feature that makes a landau still a popular choice for Lords Mayor on ceremonial occasions. The Royal Mews contains several different types of landau, seven State Landaus are in regular use, as well as being slightly plainer in ornamentation, the Semi-state Landaus are distinguished from the State Landaus in that they are postilion-driven, rather than driven from the box. The 1902 State Landau was built for the coronation of Edward VII in 1902, unlike the earlier State Landaus, it is postilion-driven. So too are the five Ascot Landaus, smaller and lighter carriages with basket-work sides, the Royal Mews also retains a miniature landau made for the children of George V and designed to be pulled by ponies. The ambassadors suite follows in another State landau, the monarch of Canada has a state landau at his or her disposal in Ottawa for ceremonial processions from Rideau Hall to Parliament Hill. The State Landau was given to Canada in 1911 and was used by the Governor General of Australia. For the Queens Plate in Toronto, the monarch and the family have a private landau owned by the Ontario Jockey Club. Driving, The Development and Use of Horse-Drawn Vehicles, London,1985, berkebile, Don H, Carriage Terminology, A Historical Dictionary, Smithsonian Institution, Washington D. C.1978
12.
Phaeton body
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A phaeton is a style of open automobile or carriage without weather protection. It is a development of the fast, lightweight phaeton carriage. Originally meant to denote a faster and lighter vehicle than a touring car, a popular style of phaeton was the dual cowl phaeton, with a cowl separating the rear passengers from the driver and front passenger. A victoria carriage was easily adaptable to this type of vehicle, phaetons fell from favour when closed cars and convertible body styles became widely available during the 1930s. Convertibles and pillarless hardtops were marketed as phaetons after actual phaetons were phased out, a phaeton differs from a convertible in having no winding or sliding windows in the doors or the body, and no permanent roof, whether rigid or folding. A detachable folding or rigid roof could be added before a drive in preparation for inclement weather and this was mainly temporary and partial relief rather than the more permanent, watertight protection offered by a convertible. As a result, a phaeton was much lighter than the sturdier, since the body was entirely open, it was easy to add or remove an extra row of seating where space had been left in the original construction. The term phaeton had historically described a light, open four-wheeled carriage, when automobiles arrived it was applied to a light two-seater with minimal coachwork. The term was interchangeable with spyder, derived from a form of phaeton carriage known as a spider. However, there were also double phaetons, with two rows of seats, triple phaetons, or even closed phaetons. Eventually, the term became so widely and loosely applied that almost any vehicle with two axles and a row or rows of seats across the body could be called a phaeton. After 1912, American use of the term began to be most closely associated with the triple phaeton body configurations that had room for three seats, whether all three were installed or not. Common usage further evolved to refer to a body with a seating area extended for added leg room or for an extra row of seating. This often gave the vehicle the appearance that it was meant to be chauffeur-operated and this also led to the term phaeton becoming similar to, and eventually interchangeable with, the term touring car. The phaeton and the car were popular up to the 1930s, after which they were supplanted by the convertible. The Willys-Overland Jeepster was the last true phaeton produced by a major US automaker and these were dual-cowl phaetons custom-built on stretched Chrysler Crown Imperial Limousine chassis. After open cars disappeared from the market, manufacturers used the term phaeton to describe cars that resembled the open phaeton or touring car. Buick included a convertible body style in its line during the 1930s that was actually a four-door convertible, as the doors had windows in them
13.
Brougham (car body)
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A brougham was a car body style based on the earlier brougham carriage. Similar in style to the town car, the brougham style was used on chauffeur-driven petrol. Electric broughams in the United States later evolved, becoming owner-driven cars without the seat for the chauffeur. By World War II the original meaning of the term brougham had been largely forgotten, general Motors has since used the term as a model name several times, while manufacturers in the United States have often used the term as a trim package designation. As a car body style, a brougham was initially a similar to a limousine but with an outside seat in front for the chauffeur. In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, the body style with an outside chauffeur was popular with electric cars. At that time, there were more than 200 manufacturers of cars in the United States. Despite the resulting coupé style, the result was called a brougham, causing the term to be applied to a two-door closed vehicle similar to a coupé. In the United States the term Brougham was used from the 1920s to denote short-roofed two- or four-door enclosed bodies similar to sedans, the name was increasingly used to indicate an up-market trim level. Cadillac first used the name on their Cadillac Brougham, a large, fully closed car, as a trim package, the name is used to denote the more comfortably appointed versions of a given model
14.
Coupe de Ville
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Coupe de Ville or coupé de ville is one of a large number of terms used to describe an automobile with an external or open-topped drivers position and an enclosed compartment for passengers. Among other names for this style are sedanca, town car, victoria. Most versions are variations on one of two main types, the unusual body dates to medieval Europe. In order to identify incoming guests at court as friendly, it was necessary for the host to be able to identify the livery of the visiting guests coachman from a distance, to enable the coachman to be identifiable, he was hence placed high up and in the open. The term coupé de ville is known to be in use in the 19th century before the invention of the automobile, as a carriage, the coupé de ville was a variant of the coupé carriage that was nearly indistinguishable from the British clarence. The term de ville is French for for town and indicates that the vehicle is for use in town or for short distances. When added to the end of a style, de Ville indicated that the top over the drivers compartment could be folded away, retracted. As a vehicle for use, the coupé de ville usually had no facilities for carrying luggage. In North America, manufacturers have used the term liberally to the point where the terms Sedanca, one style of coupé de ville has rear doors to access the enclosed passenger section and a partition, similar to that in a limousine between the enclosed passengers and the open driver. Another style of coupé de ville has a fixed or folding roof over the rear seats, also known as a sedanca or a sedanca coupé, this version may or may not have had sliding or detachable roof panel for covering the front seats. The French-derived term coupé de ville is used for this two-door version without a divider between the driver and the passengers. In the United States, the similar term coupe de ville is used for this version. A coupé de ville is alternatively defined in North America as a drophead coupé with a top which may be fully closed, fully open, or partially closed. Windshields were added to protect the driver from dirt from the roads and dung from draught animals. From the late 1920s onward designs used a metal roof which regressed into a void above the passenger compartment. The same material was also most often used to provide complete curtain coverage for the compartment, the drivers compartment had leather seats to be durable enough to endure the weather. The division between the two compartments often held jump seats for lighter passengers such as children, and it would often accommodate various compartments for drinks, cigars, make-up, or books. The two compartments were separated by a divide, often with a small glass window, or latterly completely made of glass with a manual or electric winding system
15.
Runabout (car)
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A runabout is a car body style that was popular in North America until about 1915. It was a light, basic style with no windshield, top, or doors, runabouts eventually became indistinguishable from roadsters and the term fell out of use in the United States. The approach has evolved into the city car. The runabout was a light, inexpensive, open car with basic bodywork and no windshield, top, most runabouts had just a single row of seats, providing seating for two passengers. Some also had a seat at the rear to provide optional seating for one or two more passengers, those without rumble seats may have had a trunk platform, a box. They differed from buggies and high wheelers mainly by having smaller wheels, early runabouts had their engines under the body toward the middle of the chassis. This sometimes made difficult, as on the Oldsmobile Curved Dash where the body had to be removed in order to access the engine. The Gale runabout dealt with this problem by hinging the body at the rear of the car such that it could be tilted to access the engine, some later runabouts had the engine in what became the conventional position at the front of the car. Runabouts were popular in North America from the late 19th century to about 1915 and they were designed for light use over short distances. By the mid-1910s, they became almost indistinguishable from roadsters, the 1964 GM Runabout was a three wheel concept car first exhibited at Futurama II, part of the 1964 New York Worlds Fair. The car was designed specifically for housewives and had detachable shopping carts built into it, the term runabout is still in use in Britain, denoting a small car used for short journeys. Anderson, Sandra, Crozier, Justin, Gilmour, Lorna, Grandison, Alice, McKeown, Cormac, Stibbs, Anne, Summers, Elspeth, N.1 a small car used for short journeys Clough, Albert L. New York, NY USA, E. P. Dutton, a general term for a light two-passenger car of the early 1900s. Haajanen, Lennart W. Illustrated Dictionary of Automobile Body Styles, the story of Veteran & Vintage Cars. Chapter One The Pioneer Days 1769 –1904, the Oldsmobile merits its niche in history as the first true example of mass-production, some 3,750 being turned out in 1903 alone. Despite the Oldsmobiles known reliability, the makers handbook launches out on the first page of text with the alarming suggestion, in Fox, Richard Wightman, Lears, T. J. Jackson. The Power of Culture, Critical Essays in American History, Chicago, IL US, University of Chicago
16.
Roadster (automobile)
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A roadster, sometimes referred to as a spider or spyder, is an open two-seat car with emphasis on sporting appearance or character. Initially an American term for a car with no weather protection. The roadster is also a style of racing car driven in United States Auto Club Championship Racing, including the Indianapolis 500 and this type of racing car was superseded by mid-engined cars. In the nineteenth century, the word denoted a horse suitable for traveling. By the end of the century the definition had expanded to include bicycles and tricycles. In 1916, the Society of Automobile Engineers defined a roadster as and it may have additional seats on running boards or in rear deck. Additional seating in the deck was known as a rumble seat or a dickey seat. The main seat for the driver and passenger was usually further back in the chassis than it would have been in a touring car, Roadsters usually had a hooded dashboard. The earliest roadster automobiles had only basic bodies without doors, windshields, by the 1920s they were appointed similarly to touring cars, with doors, windshields, simple folding tops, and side curtains. When roadsters of this era were equipped with seats, the seats folded into the body when not in use. They are popular with collectors, often valued over other open styles, the term roadster as applied to automobiles is American in origin, before World War II, the British equivalent was a two-seat tourer. By the 1970s, the roadster was applied to open two-seat cars of sporting appearance or character. Roadsters had become almost as well-equipped as convertibles, including side windows that retract into the doors, Roadsters of that time included the Alfa Romeo Spider, MGB, and Triumph TR4. A roadster is still defined as a car with two seats, with some roadsters having power tops or retractable hardtops. A few manufacturers and fabricators still offer roadsters that meet the older definitions and these include Morgan, with the windowless Roadster, Caterham, with the doorless Seven, and Ariel, with the bodyless Atom. The American hot rod is based on pre–World War II roadsters, late run Model Ts and 1932 Fords were the most popular starting points. The term roadster applies to front-engined AAA/USAC Championship cars, associated with the Indianapolis 500, the roadster engine and drive shaft are offset from the centerline of the car. This allows the driver to sit lower in the chassis and facilitates a weight offset which is beneficial on oval tracks, one story of why this type of racing car is referred to as a roadster is that a team was preparing a new car for the Indianapolis 500
17.
Plymouth (automobile)
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Plymouth was a brand of automobiles based in the United States, produced by the Chrysler Corporation and its successor DaimlerChrysler. The brand first appeared in 1928 in the United States to compete in what was described as the low-priced market segment dominated by Chevrolet. The Plymouth was the seller for the automaker until the late 1990s. The brand was withdrawn from the marketplace in 2001, the Plymouth models that were produced up to then were either discontinued or rebranded as Chrysler. The Plymouth automobile was introduced at Madison Square Garden on July 7,1928 and it was Chrysler Corporations first entry in the low-priced field, which at the time was already dominated by Chevrolet and Ford. Plymouths were actually priced slightly higher than their competition, but offered standard features such as internal expanding hydraulic brakes that the competition did not provide, Plymouths were originally sold exclusively through Chrysler dealerships, offering a low-cost alternative to the upscale Chrysler-brand cars. The logo featured a view of the ship Mayflower which landed at Plymouth Rock in Plymouth. However, the inspiration for the Plymouth brand name came from Plymouth binder twine, produced by the Plymouth Cordage Company, the name was chosen by Joe Frazer due to the popularity of the twine among farmers. The origins of Plymouth can be traced back to the Maxwell automobile, Chrysler took over control of the troubled Maxwell-Chalmers car company in the early 1920s, he inherited the Maxwell as part of the package. After he used the facilities to help create and launch the six-cylinder Chrysler automobile in 1924. So for 1926, the Maxwell was reworked and rebadged as the low-end four-cylinder Chrysler 52 model, in 1928, the 52 was once again redesigned to create the Chrysler-Plymouth Model Q. The Chrysler portion of the nameplate was dropped with the introduction of the Plymouth Model U in 1929, beginning in 1930, Plymouths were sold by all three Chrysler divisions. Plymouth sales were a spot during this dismal automotive period. In 1931 with the Model PA, the company introduced floating power and boasted, The economy of a four, in 1933, Chrysler decided to catch up with Ford and Chevrolet with respect to engine cylinder count. The 190 cu in version of Chryslers flathead-six engine was equipped with a carburetor and installed in the new 1933 Plymouth PC. However, Chrysler had reduced the PCs wheelbase from 112 to 107 in, by April 1933, the Dodge divisions Model DP chassis, with a 112-inch wheelbase, was put under the PC body with DP front fenders, hood, and radiator shell. The model designation was advanced to PD and the car was marketed as the DeLuxe 1933 Plymouth and this car sold very well and is the 1933 model most commonly found in collections. The PC became the Standard Six and it had been the Plymouth Six at introduction, and was sold through to the end of 1933, but in much lower numbers
18.
MG T-type
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The MG T series is a range of body-on-frame convertible sports cars that were produced by MG from 1936 to 1955. The series included the MG TA, MG TB, MG TC, MG TD, the last of these models, the TF, was replaced by the MGA. The TF name was reinstated in 2002 on the mid-engined MG TF sports car, the MG TA Midget replaced the PB in 1936. It was an evolution of the car and was 3 inches wider in its track at 45 inches and 7 inches longer in its wheelbase at 94 inches. The engine displaced just 1292 cc, with a stroke of 102 mm, the four-speed manual gearbox now had synchromesh on the two top ratios and was connected to the engine by a cork-faced clutch running in oil. Unlike the PB, hydraulic brakes were fitted with 9-inch drums, like the PB, most were two-seat open cars with a steel body on an ash frame. A bench-type seat was fitted with storage space behind, from 1938 the car could also be had with a more luxurious Tickford drophead coupé body by Salmons of Newport Pagnell and 252 were made. The soft top could be used in three positions, fully open, closed or open just over the seats, wind-up windows were fitted to the higher topped doors making the car more weathertight and individual bucket seats used in the fully carpeted interior. Complete chassis were fitted with a very basic body at the Abingdon factory, a closed Airline coupé made by Carbodies, as fitted to the P type, was also offered but only one or two is thought to have been made. The T-type was capable of reaching almost 80 mph in standard tune with a 0–60 mph time of 23.1 seconds,3,003 were made and in 1936 it cost £222 on the home market, the same as had been asked for the PB. When first introduced the model was known as the T Type, allan Tomlinson won the 1939 Australian Grand Prix driving an MG TA. The TA was replaced by the TB Midget in May 1939 and it had a smaller but more modern XPAG engine as fitted to the Morris Ten Series M, but in a more highly tuned state and like the TA with twin SU carburettors. This 1250 cc I4 unit featured a slightly less undersquare 66.6 mm bore and 90 mm stroke and had a power output of 54 hp at 5200 rpm. The oil-immersed clutch was replaced by a dry-plate type and gear ratios revised. Available as an open 2-seater or more luxurious Tickford drophead coupé, the TC Midget was the first postwar MG, launched in 1945. It was quite similar to the pre-war TB, sharing the same 1,250 cc pushrod-OHV engine with a higher compression ratio of 7.4,1 giving 54.5 bhp at 5200 rpm. The makers also provided several alternative stages of tuning for specific purposes and it was exported to the United States, even though only ever built in right-hand drive. The export version had slightly smaller US specification sealed-beam headlights and larger rear lights, as well as turn signals and chrome-plated front
19.
Triumph Roadster
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The Triumph Roadster is an automobile which was produced by Britains Standard Motor Company from 1946 to 1949. It was first available as the Triumph 1800 Roadster from 1946 to 1948, the 1800 Roadster, model number 18TR, was designed in the closing days of World War II. Frank Callaby was selected to style the new car, after getting Blacks approval for the general shape, Callaby worked with Arthur Ballard to design the details of the body. Design of the chassis was by Ray Turner. Walter Belgrove, who had styled the pre-war Triumphs and was employed as Chief Body Engineer, had no part in the design, the frame was hand welded up from steel tube. The Triumph version differed from the Jaguar version in having a 6.7,1 compression ratio instead of the Jaguars 7.6,1, a four-speed gearbox with synchromesh on the top three ratios was used. The rear track was wider than the front by some 4 inches, the front had large separate headlamps and the radiator was well back from the front between large coal scuttle wings. The cars unusual width also made it necessary to fit three screen wipers in a row, a followed by early shallow windscreen Jaguar E Types. Additional room for two was provided at the rear in a seat with its own folding windscreen, this was outside the hood that could be erected to cover the front seat. Entry and exit to the seat was never easy and a step was provided on the rear bumper. The Roadster was the last production car with a dickey seat, on test by Autocar magazine in 1947 top speed was found to be 75 mph and 0–60 mph took 34.4 seconds. Evidently keen to be positive without misleading their readers, the described the maximum speed as satisfying. The only significant update in the Roadsters production came in September 1948 for the 1949 models, when the 2088 cc Vanguard engine, transmission, a retrograde step was the fitting of a three-speed gearbox even though it now had synchromesh on bottom gear. Apart from minor modifications to the points, the chassis, suspension. This later version of the Roadster was given the model designation TRA, on test the changes resulted in the top speed increasing marginally to 77 mph but the 0-60 mph time was much better at 27.9 seconds. The car was never made in numbers and was mainly hand built. 2501 examples of the 1800 and 2000 of the larger-engined version were made, the actor, John Nettles, drove a Roadster 2000 in the 1980s television series, Bergerac. This car was announced and a sample displayed at the October 1950 motor shows in Paris and its full-width body was built on a Standard Vanguard chassis with an engine given twin down-draught carburettors and a higher output
20.
Rambler American
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The Rambler American is an automobile manufactured by the American Motors Corporation between 1958 and 1969. The American was the incarnation of AMCs forerunner Nash Motors second-generation Rambler compact that was sold under the Nash. The American can be classified in three distinct model year generations,1958 to 1960,1961 to 1963, and 1964 to 1969. During the entire length of its production, the car was sold under the Rambler brand name, the compact Rambler American was most often the lowest priced car built in the U. S. It was popular for its economy in ownership, as was proven by numerous Mobilgas Economy Run championships, the compact Rambler Americans were exported from the U. S. and Canada, as well as produced in other markets by AMC subsidiaries or assembled under license. In Iran it was assembled from knocked down kits and the models were named Aria. Rambler Americans were built in South Africa starting in 1961 by Stanley Motors, the genesis of the Rambler American began with the Nash Rambler, introduced in 1950. AMC President George Mason believed in small cars, and had introduced the Austin built/Nash designed Metropolitan in 1954, the Rambler line grew to a larger size in 1956. With costs to produce the Metropolitan rising, AMC decided to reintroduce a version of the 1955 Nash Rambler. The domestically produced replacement let AMC control costs more closely, new AMC president George Romney also wanted to build momentum in AMCs challenge to the domestic Big Three automakers by adding a third car line. The introduction of the new low priced sub compact Rambler was ideal—America had just entered into a recession in 1958 as the car was introduced. The first proposals were to modify AMCs captive import by extending the Metropolitan with a wagon type roof design to make room for four passengers. However the 85-inch wheelbase of the Metropolitan severely limited the necessary interior room, on the other hand, the company had retained the tooling from its 1955 model Rambler. The old models 100-inch wheelbase fit between its bigger family-sized 108-inch wheelbase Ramblers and the small import, the old design could be slightly modified and then used for the basis of the new American. American Motors financial condition meant it could not afford to develop a new model. The original taillights were turned upside down, saving money on retooling and this design was originally mandated by Nashs Airflyte styling motif, which sought to reach for the blinding optimism of post-World War II transportation. The cars seemingly narrow 55-inch track was not much different from the industry standard, the American went on sale late January 1958, with a minimum of marketing and promotion. It was available in two trims, a base Deluxe model priced at US$1,789 allowing AMC to claim the lowest-priced car made in America, the car was advertised as being the only small car with an automatic transmission
21.
Studebaker Lark
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The Studebaker Lark is a compact car which was produced by Studebaker from 1959 to 1966. From its introduction in early 1959 until 1962, the Lark was a product of the Studebaker-Packard Corporation, in mid-1962, the company dropped Packard from its name and reverted to its pre-1954 name, the Studebaker Corporation. The cars were exported to a number of countries around the world as completed units. Lark-based variants represented the bulk of the produced by Studebaker after 1958 and sold in far greater volume than the contemporary Hawk. The Studebaker company, which celebrated its 100th anniversary in 1952, at the time the Lark was conceived, Studebaker-Packard Corporation was under a management contract with Curtiss-Wright Aircraft Company. The Lark was ingeniously designed around the core bodyshell of the full-sized 1953–1958 Studebakers, by reducing the front and rear overhangs and shortening the wheelbase ahead of the firewall, the car could still seat six people comfortably and hold a surprising amount of luggage. In fact, it was the Champion which Churchill specifically took as his inspiration for the Lark, two series of Larks were available, the Lark VI and the Lark VIII, both designations indicated engine type of the cars. Both series were available in Deluxe and Regal trim levels, initial models included two- and four-door sedans, a two-door hardtop coupe and a two-door station wagon, with two levels of trim offered on most. Aside from American Motors Corporations Rambler line, the Lark offered the broadest line of compacts on the U. S. market, the lineup grew for 1960, when the company issued a convertible and a four-door station wagon. A taxicab version of the Lark, originally called the Econ-O-Miler, was built on the station wagons longer 113 in wheelbase, the extra 4.5 in of wheelbase translated into extra rear seat legroom, which was important in the taxi trade. For 1959 and 1960, Larks were available with either an L-head 170 cu in engine or the companys 259 cu in V8. Testers at the time gave high marks to the V8s performance, a V8 Lark could turn out a 0 to 60 mph time of around 10 seconds, which was on par with much larger cars. By comparison, among the early Big Three compacts that arrived on the scene in 1960, none of the Big Three compacts offered a V8 until the second wave of such cars — the so-called senior compacts — arrived for 1961. To meet the challenge of new cars head-on, for 1961 Studebaker created a new four-door sedan. The resulting car harked back to the long-wheelbase Studebaker Land Cruiser sedans of the late Forties, a new option, a canvas-covered folding sunroof dubbed the Skytop was introduced as an extra-cost feature for sedans and the two-door hardtop. A mild restyling, too, was carried out, non-Cruiser sedans and the two-door hardtop received a squared-off roofline, and a new front end design gave the Lark a broader grille and the availability of quad headlamps. Although the styling was modified, engineering enhancements were the big news for 1961, the bigger news, as far as the general public was concerned, involved the six-cylinder engine. Studebakers engineers had long known that their little flathead mill, which dated in its form to 1939, was falling farther and farther behind the competition in both power and fuel economy
22.
Packard Caribbean
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The Packard Caribbean was a personal luxury car produced by the Packard Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan, during model years 1953 through 1956. Some of the Caribbeans styling was derived from the Pan American Packard show car of the previous year and it was produced only as a convertible from 1953 to 1955, but a hardtop model was added in its final year of 1956. The band also helped to delineate the cars wheel openings. A steel continental spare tire was also standard, the hood featured a broad, low leaded-in hood scoop. Bodies for the Caribbean were modified by Mitchell-Bentley Corporation of Ionia, available advertised colors for the car were limited to Polaris Blue, Gulf Green Metallic, Maroon Metallic or Sahara Sand. However, a handful of special-ordered cars were built in Ivory or Black. Interiors of the Caribbean were richly upholstered in leather, most Caribbeans were also generously optioned, although the Ultramatic transmission and power windows were optional cost items on the first year model. At total of 750 Caribbeans were built for the first model year, restored cars regularly sell in the six-figure ranges. Beginning in 1954 the Caribbean was elevated to senior Packard status, a four-way power seat was available. Like the Patrician, the Caribbean also gained heavier finned headlight housings, the 359-cubic-inch straight eight senior engine was used in this final incarnation of Packards straight eight engine. A total of only 400 Caribbeans were produced for the model year, model year 1955 saw the Caribbean line, now with V8 engine, fully adopt the Senior Packard line styling, the car was also available in two or three-tone paint patterns. Designer Richard Teague succeeded in restyling the old Packard Senior body into a sensational, the single hood scoop was split into two units. The car also received Packards torsion level suspension, production for 1955 stood at 500 units. For 1956, the Caribbean was broken out into its own luxury series, trim differences between the 1955 and 1956 cars were slight. Grille textures changed, and matched the ones used on concurrent Patricians, the headlights also received slightly more exaggerated hoods. Total model year production equaled 263 hardtops and 276 convertibles, the model was discontinued when Packard production ended in Detroit. The Standard Catalog of American Cars 1946-1975, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list George, Vance- The Packard Club 53-54 Caribbean Roster Keeper
23.
Oldsmobile 98
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The Oldsmobile 98 is the full-size flagship model of Oldsmobile that was produced from 1940 until 1996. The name — reflecting a Series 90 fitted with an 8-cylinder engine — first appeared in 1941 and was used again after American consumer automobile production resumed post-World War II. It was, as it would remain, the divisions top-of-the-line model, with lesser Oldsmobiles having lower numbers such as the A-body 66 and 68, the Series 60 was retired in 1949, the same year the Oldsmobile 78 was replaced by the 88. The Oldsmobile 76 was retired after 1950 and this left the two remaining number-names to carry on into the 1990s as the bread and butter of the full-size Oldsmobile lineup until the Oldsmobile Regency replaced the 98 in 1997. Occasionally additional nomenclature was used with the name, such as L/S and Holiday, the 98 shared its General Motors C-body platform with Buick and Cadillac. Naming standards were in flux at Oldsmobile during the late 1930s and 1940s, from 1932 through 1938 Oldsmobile had two series, F and L. Series F came with a straight-6 engine and Series L came with a larger body and a straight-8 engine. Series F was renamed Series 60 in 1939 and Series L was replaced with the Series 70 and 80, with the Series 70 and 80 being powered by the straight-6, the Series 60 used the GM A-body and the Series 70 and 80 used the B-body. In 1940 the even larger C-body was introduced to Oldsmobile and it alone was powered by the straight-8, in order to differentiate it from the previous years Series 80 it was named Series 90. The series were given names for the first time that year with the Series 60,70, and 90 being called the Special, Dynamic. In 1942 Oldsmobile dropped the six cylinder Series 90 model leaving only the Custom Cruiser 98, the new C-body that the 1940 Oldsmobile Custom Cruiser 90 shared with Cadillac Series 62, Buick Roadmaster and Super, and the Pontiac Torpedo featured cutting-edge torpedo styling. Shoulder and hip room was over 5 in wider, running boards were eliminated, when combined with a column mounted shift lever the cars offered true six passenger comfort. These changes had clearly been influenced by the Cadillac Sixty Special, the 90 rode on a wheelbase of 124.0 in. A total of 43,658 90s were sold in four body styles, the rarest was the 4-door convertible with only 50 being sold. In 1941 the wheelbase was increased to 125.0 in, a deluxe equipment package was now offered. The top-of-the line Oldsmobile was available in three styles on the 96 and in four body styles on the 98. Rarest of these was the 4-door convertible which was exclusive to the 98, only 119 were sold in 1941 and this would be the only time this body style was ever offered on the 98. The other three body styles were a convertible coupe, a coupe and a 4-door sedan. This was also the year in Oldsmobile history that a 96
24.
Imperial (automobile)
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Imperial was the Chrysler Corporations luxury automobile brand between 1955 and 1975, with a brief reappearance in 1981 to 1983, and a second reapearance from 1990-1993. The Imperial name had been used since 1926, but was never a separate make, for the 1955 model year, the Imperial was launched and registered as a separate marque, apart from the Chrysler brand. It was a product of the new Imperial Division of Chrysler Corporation, meaning that the Imperial would be a make and division unto itself, and not bear the Chrysler name. Chrysler Corporation sent notices to all state licensing agencies in the states that the Imperial, beginning in 1955, would no longer be registered as a Chrysler. Chrysler introduced Forward Look Styling by Virgil Exner, who would define Imperials look from 1955 to 1963, once the Imperial brand was introduced, Cadillac no longer used the imperial name for its top-level limousines starting in 1955. The 1955 models are said to be inspired by Exners own 1952 Chrysler Imperial Parade Phaeton show cars, the platform and bodyshell were shared with that years big Chryslers, but the Imperial had a wheelbase that was 4. Gunsight taillights were also known as sparrow-strainer taillights, named after the device used to keep out of jet-engines. Such taillights were separated from the fender and surrounded by a ring and became an Imperial fixture through 1962, although they would only be free-standing in 1955-56 and again in 1961-62. Two C-69 models were available, including the two-door Newport hardtop coupe and pillared four-door sedan, the FirePower V8 engine was Chryslers first-generation Hemi with a displacement of 331 cu in and developing 250 brake horsepower. Power brakes and power steering were standard, along with Chryslers PowerFlite automatic transmission, one major option on the 1955 and 1956 Imperials was air conditioning, at a cost of $535. Production totaled 11,430, more than twice the 1954 figure, the 1956 models were similar, but had small tailfins, a larger engine displacement of 354 cu in with 280 brake horsepower, and a four-door Southampton hardtop sedan was added to the range. With a wheelbase of 133.0 inches, longer than the years by 3.0 inches. On April 28,1955, Chrysler and Philco announced the development and production of the worlds first all-transistor car radio and it was developed and produced by Chrysler and Philco and was a $150.00 option on the 1956 Imperial car models. Philco manufactured the Mopar 914HR starting in the fall of 1955 at its Sandusky Ohio plant, for the 1957 model year, the Imperial received its own platform, setting it apart from any other division of Chrysler. This would last through the 1966 model year, Imperials during this period were substantially wider, both inside and out, than other Mopars with front and rear shoulder room equal to 64.0 in and 62.0 in respectively. The front seat shoulder room measurement remains a record for Imperial. Exterior width reached a maximum of 81.7 in for 1961–1963, after Lincoln downsized for 1961 this generation of Imperial had no real competitor for the title of largest car for the remainder of its decade-long lifespan. One advantage of Imperials of this vintage was their strength, their crashworthiness got them banned from most demolition derbies for being too durable and too tough to take down
25.
Automobile air conditioning
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Automobile air conditioning systems use air conditioning to cool the air in a vehicle. A company in New York City in the United States first offered installation of air conditioning for cars in 1933, most of their customers operated limousines and luxury cars. In 1939, Packard became the first automobile manufacturer to offer an air conditioning unit in its cars and these were manufactured by Bishop and Babcock Co, of Cleveland, Ohio. The Bishop and Babcock Weather Conditioner also incorporated a heater, cars ordered with the new Weather Conditioner were shipped from Packards East Grand Boulevard facility to the B&B factory where the conversion was performed. Once complete, the car was shipped to a local dealer where the customer would take delivery, Packard fully warranted and supported this conversion, and marketed it well. However, it was not commercially successful for a number of reasons, The main evaporator and it was superseded by more efficient systems in the post-war years. It had no temperature thermostat or shut-off mechanism other than switching the blower off, the several feet of plumbing going back and forth between the engine compartment and trunk proved unreliable in service. The price, at US $274, was unaffordable to most people in post-depression/pre-war America, the option was discontinued after 1941. Walter Chrysler had seen to the invention of Airtemp air conditioning in the 1930s for the Chrysler Building, and had offered it on cars in 1941-42, the Airtemp was more advanced than rival automobile air conditioners by 1953. It was operated by a switch on the dashboard marked with low, medium. As the highest capacity unit available at time, the system was capable of quickly cooling the passenger compartment and also reducing humidity, dust, pollen. The system drew in more air than contemporary systems, thus. Cadillac, Buick, and Oldsmobile added air conditioning as an option on some of their models in the 1953 model year, all of these Frigidaire systems used separate engine and trunk mounted components. In 1954, the Nash Ambassador was the first American automobile to have a front-end, fully integrated heating, ventilating and this was the first mass market system with controls on the dash and an electric clutch. This system was also compact and serviceable with all of its components installed under the hood or in the cowl area, combining heating, cooling, and ventilating, the new air conditioning system for the Nash cars was called the All-Weather Eye. This followed the name of Weather Eye for Nashs fresh-air automotive heating and ventilating system that was first used in 1938. With a single control, the Nash passenger compartment air cooling option was a good. The system had cold air for passengers enter through dash-mounted vents, Nashs exclusive remarkable advance was not only the sophisticated unified system, but also its $345 price that beat all other systems
26.
Sunroof
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An automotive sunroof is a fixed or operable opening in an automobile roof which allows light and/or fresh air to enter the passenger compartment. Sunroofs are either manually operated or motor driven, and are available in many shapes, sizes and styles, sunroofs, by historical definition are opaque. The first car company to offer a sunroof as an option was the Nash Motor Company as an option on some of its 1937 models. For the first year, Ford sent out its Mark IVs to American Sunroof Company for offline installation, variations of both the sunroof and moonroof have become the norm in both factory installed and aftermarket offerings, creating a wide range of features and choices. Sunroof systems may be manual or electric, while most moonroof systems are electric/electronic, manual sunroofs may be lever actuated, as in venting type pop-ups, manual lever or crank operated for sliding systems. Electric roof systems are usually driven by a motor and feature some form of sliding opening. Most moonroof systems today are electric and have either a combination pop-up/inbuilt or a pop-up/spoiler configuration, roof systems may be original equipment, factory options, or installed aftermarket by a roof installation professional for the car dealer or retail customer. Once the vehicle leaves the line, the factory option can no longer be integrated into the roof. Roof systems are available in many shapes, sizes and styles, the generally accepted sunroof/moonroof industry terms are as follows, Pop-up sunroofs are simply a manually operated tilting panel. These panels are removable, and like T-roofs, must be stored when removed. The tilting action provides a vent in the roof, or an opening when the panel is removed. Pop-ups can be installed in most vehicles, and are relatively inexpensive, examples include metal panels in Porsche 944, early Mazda RX-7 and many glass panel factory and aftermarket installations. Spoiler sunroofs combine the features of a pop-up with those of a roof system. They tilt to vent and slide open above the roof, requiring little headroom or roof length, spoilers typically do not provide as large an opening as other roof systems, but offer the convenience of a self-storing panel. Most spoiler roofs are electric, with features like integrated sun shades. Spoilers are ideal for vehicles where other types of sliders cant be installed. Examples include Honda CRX, Toyota Celica and the Mazda RX-7, inbuilt sunroof systems have a panel which slides between the metal roof and interior headliner, requiring some loss of headroom but providing a full opening in the roof. All inbuilts slide inside the roof, while some include a rear venting feature
27.
Toyota Soarer
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The Toyota Soarer was a personal luxury GT coupé sold by Toyota in Japan from 1981 to 2005. In 1986, the Z20 series was launched, based on the then new A70 Supra platform, in 1991, the third-generation Toyota Soarer premiered in Japan, while its Lexus equivalent, the SC 300/400 débuted in the US market. While externally identical to the Lexus SC, the Z30 series Soarer lineup offered different powertrain specifications, in 2001, Toyota introduced a convertible-only successor which appeared in Japan as the fourth-generation Toyota Soarer, and elsewhere as the Lexus SC430. In contrast to previous series, the fourth-generation Soarer and Lexus SC were based on a model and were largely equivalent. In 2005, following the introduction of Lexus in Japan, the Soarer name and emblem were discontinued, all versions of the Soarer featured a unique winged lion emblem as the logo throughout the vehicle. At its introduction in 1981, it won the Car of the Year Japan Award, the first-generation Soarer debuted with a rear-wheel-drive configuration based on the A60 Supra. It boasted numerous technological items, such as touchscreen computer-controlled air conditioning climate control, digital speed and tachometer display using LED, due to the compliance of Japanese external dimension and engine displacement regulations, the first-generation models were classified as compacts, which gave Japanese buyers tax saving advantages. The suspension utilized MacPherson struts for the front, with trailing arm type IRS, the vehicle also came with self-diagnosis maintenance reminders. There were a number of different engines available, gZ10=1G-EU, 1G-GEU MZ10=M-TEU MZ11=5M-GEU MZ12=6M-GEU Early M-TEU powered MZ10s were different in some regards to later MZ10s. Some of the difference are listed below, the styling of the second-generation Soarer is similar of that of the X80 series Cressida, Mark II, Chaser and Cresta. The Soarer shared its platform with the newly introduced A70 series Supra, the Z20 Soarer introduced a vehicle information display system with Electro Multi Vision and visual information cassettes. In 1988, TOMS released a limited model package named the C5, the 7M-GTE in the Toms C5 Soarer saw the power upgrades similar to those seen in the Turbo-A Supra of the same year. In April 1989 a limited 500 unit production of the Aerocabin version was also available and this came with only 2 seats and an electric folding roof. The Aerocabin came with the same specs as the GT-Limited and were available with the 7M-GTE engine, 4sp automatic transmission, tan leather interior. In 1988 Soarer Z20 got restyling -grill and rear taillights changed, other than that engines were improved, 1G-GTEU180 ->157 kW 7M-GTEU230 ->179 kW Unlike the A70, the Z20 did not pick up the 2. 5L twin turbo 1JZ-GTE. However all models built from May 1989 including the Aerocabin did have a revised crossmember, in 1986, Toyota Soarer introduced a world first electronically controlled, semi-active full air suspension. In 1987, following the design freeze of Lexus divisions flagship UCF10 LS400 sedan, due in 1989, in mid 1991, this vehicle debuted in the U. S. as the Lexus SC 300/400. That same year, Toyota debuted the third-generation Z30 series Soarer in Japan, the Z30 series Soarer shared the body and key components with the Lexus SC, with different interior features, powertrain configurations, and enhanced performance
28.
Porsche Boxster/Cayman
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The Porsche Boxster and Cayman are both mid-engined two-seater sport compact cars built by Porsche. The Boxster, a 2-door, 2-seater roadster, was released in 1996, the Porsche Boxster is a mid-engined two-seater roadster built by Porsche. The Boxster is Porsches first road vehicle to be designed as a roadster since the 550 Spyder. The first-generation Boxster was introduced in late 1996, it was powered by a 2. 5-litre flat six-cylinder engine, the design was heavily influenced by the 1992 Boxster Concept. In 2000, the model was upgraded to a 2. 7-litre engine. In 2003, styling and engine output was upgraded on both variants, in 2005, Porsche unveiled the second generation of Boxster, the type 987. The 987 is more powerful than its predecessor and featured styling inspired by the Carrera GT, engine output increased in 2007, when both Boxster models received the engines from their corresponding Porsche Cayman variants. In 2009, the Boxster models received several new cosmetic and mechanical upgrades, further increasing engine output, the third generation Boxster was launched at the 2012 Geneva Motor Show. Production of the 986 began at the former Porsche 928 facility in Stuttgart, Valmet Automotive also manufactured Boxsters under contract to Porsche at a facility in Uusikaupunki, Finland. The Boxster was Porsches biggest volume seller from its introduction in 1996 until the company introduced the Cayenne sport utility vehicle in 2003, as of September 2012, additional production of the 981 started at the former Karmann-factory in Osnabrück. The Boxsters name is derived from the boxer, referring to the vehicles flat or boxer engine. The Porsche Cayman is a rear mid-engined, rear wheel drive 2-seat sports car produced by Porsche AG of Germany, first launched in the 2006 model year, the Cayman is a coupé derived from Porsches second and third generation Boxster roadster. The designer of the first generation of Porsche Cayman was Pinky Lai, like the Boxster, most Caymans were assembled in Finland for Porsche by Valmet Automotive. Porsches Deputy Chairman, Holger P. Haerter stated that the contract with Valmet Automotive will end in 2012, Cayman is an alternative spelling of caiman, a reptile in the same family as the alligator. The car is not named after the Cayman Islands, rather the islands derive their name from the caiman. When the first Caymans arrived at dealerships for sale, the automaker adopted four caimans at Stuttgarts Wilhelma Zoo, Porsche brought an infringement lawsuit in 2009 against Crocs, the maker of the popular rubber shoes. At issue was the footwear companys clog name also called Cayman, an injunction was granted against Crocs Europe, a division of the Longmont, Colorado-based shoe company preventing their use in Germany of the Cayman name. The new 718 Cayman was also repositioned with a price lower than that of the 718 Boxster
29.
Audi TT
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This changed with the third generation model that uses parts made entirely by the Hungarian factory. For each of its three generations, the TT has been available as a 2+2 Coupé and as a two-seater roadster employing consecutive generations of the Volkswagen Group A platform, the styling of the Audi TT began in the spring of 1994 at the Volkswagen Group Design Center in California. The TT was first shown as a car at the 1995 Frankfurt Motor Show. The design is credited to J Mays and Freeman Thomas, with Hartmut Warkuss, Peter Schreyer, Martin Smith, a previously unused laser beam welding adaptation, which enabled seamless design features on the first-generation TT, delayed its introduction. Audi did not initially offer any type of automatic transmission option for the TT, the Audi TT takes its name from the successful motor racing tradition of NSU in the British Isle of Man TT motorcycle race. NSU began competing in the TT in 1911, and later merged into the now known as Audi. The Audi TT also follows the NSU 1000TT, 1200TT and TTS cars of the 1960s in taking their names from the race, the TT name has also been attributed to the phrase Technology & Tradition. The production model was launched as a Coupé in September 1998 and it is based on the Volkswagen Group A4 platform as used for the Volkswagen Golf Mk4, the original Audi A3, the Škoda Octavia, and others. The styling differed little from the concept, except for slightly reprofiled bumpers, both the Coupé and Roadster models were recalled in late 1999/early 2000, to improve predictability of the cars handling at very high speeds. Audis Electronic Stability Programme, or Anti Slip Regulation and rear spoiler were added, all changes were subsequently incorporated into future series production versions of the car. The original generation Audi TT was nominated for the North American Car of the Year award for 2000 and it was also on Car and Driver magazines Ten Best list for 2000 and 2001. By 2003 Audi had provided a face-lift to the TT, with a number of small styling, factory production of this generation ended in June 2006. Mechanically, the TT shares an identical powertrain layout with its related Volkswagen Group platform-mates, the TT uses a transversely mounted internal combustion engine, with either front-wheel drive, or quattro on-demand four-wheel drive. It was first available with a 1. 8-litre inline four-cylinder 20-valve turbocharged engine in two states of DIN-rated power outputs,180 PS and 225 PS. Haldex Traction enabled four-wheel drive, branded as Quattro was optional on the 180 engine, the original four-cylinder engine range was complemented with a 250 PS3. 2-litre VR6 engine in early 2003, which came as standard with the quattro four-wheel-drive system. In July 2003, a new six-speed dual clutch transmission – dubbed the Direct-Shift Gearbox, in 2005, Audi released the Coupé-only limited edition Audi TT quattro Sport. Built by AUDI AG high-performance specialist subsidiary quattro GmbH, it had increased power from its 1.9 seconds, and this weight reduction was achieved by removing the spare wheel, rear counterweight, rear parcel shelf and rear seats, and the standard fitment air conditioning. The main battery was relocated to the rear of the vehicle in order to maintain weight distribution as much as possible
30.
AMC Ambassador
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The Ambassador was the top-of-the-line automobile produced by the American Motors Corporation from 1958 until 1974. The vehicle was known as the AMC Ambassador, Ambassador V-8 by Rambler, previously, the name Ambassador had applied to Nashs senior full-size cars. The Ambassador nameplate was used continuously from 1927 until 1974, at the time it was discontinued, most Ambassador models were built in Kenosha, Wisconsin. They were also built at AMCs Brampton Assembly in Brampton, Ontario from 1963 to 1966, Australian Motor Industries assembled Ambassadors from knock-down kits with right-hand drive. The U. S. fifth generation Ambassadors were produced by Industrias Kaiser Argentina in Córdoba, Argentina from 1965 to 1972, fifth and seventh generation Ambassadors were modified into custom stretch limousines in Argentina and the U. S. Following George W. Masons unexpected death in the fall of 1954, George Romney, succeeded him as president and CEO of the newly formed American Motors. Toward that end, he set out to increase AMCs market share with its Rambler models that were selling in market segment in which the domestic Big Three automakers did not yet compete. However, as sales of the large-sized Nash Ambassador and Hudson Hornet models slowed, it clear to Romney that consumer confidence in the historic Nash. Reluctantly, he decided that 1957 would be the end of both nameplates, and the company would concentrate on the new Rambler line, which was registered as a marque for 1957. American Motors planned to produce a stretched a 117-inch wheelbase version of the Rambler platform for Nash dealers to be the new Nash Ambassador, and another for Hudson dealers. Shortly before committing to production of the new versions of the Hudson. Its features included a 327 cu in V8 mated to a BorgWarner supplied 3-speed automatic transmission with push button gear selection. In 1956, AMC first produced its own V8, an overhead valve V8 displacing 250 cu in, with a forged steel crank shaft. In 1957, AMC bored and stroked the 250 CID V8 to 327 cu in displacement which when offered in the Rambler Rebel used solid lifters, in 1958, the Ambassador was equipped with a hydraulic lifter version of AMCs 327 CID V8 rated at 270 hp. Although AMCs 327 CID V8 shares its displacement with the Chevrolet small-block, the Ambassador was available in a body style exclusive to its line, a pillarless hardtop Cross Country station wagon. However, the car wore Rambler Ambassador badges on its front fenders, the 1958 Ambassador is a substantially longer car than the 108-inch wheelbase Rambler Six and Rebel V8, although both lines shared the same basic body, styling, and visual cues. However, all of the Ambassadors extra nine inches of wheelbase were added ahead of the cowl, the Ambassadors came with plusher interior and exterior trims while the front end incorporated the Rebel V-Line grille from the prototype Hudson model. Through effective market segmentation, the Ambassador was positioned to compete with the models offered by other automakers
31.
Canvas
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Canvas is an extremely durable plain-woven fabric used for making sails, tents, marquees, backpacks, and other items for which sturdiness is required. It is also used by artists as a painting surface. It is also used in such objects as handbags, electronic device cases. The word canvas is derived from the 13th century Anglo-French canevaz, both may be derivatives of the Vulgar Latin cannapaceus for made of hemp, originating from the Greek κάνναβις. Modern canvas is made of cotton or linen, although. It differs from other cotton fabrics, such as denim. Canvas comes in two types, plain and duck. The threads in duck canvas are more tightly woven, the term duck comes from the Dutch word for cloth, doek. In the United States, canvas is classified in two ways, by weight and by a number system. The numbers run in reverse of the weight so a number 10 canvas is lighter than number 4, canvas has become the most common support medium for oil painting, replacing wooden panels. One of the earliest surviving oils on canvas is a French Madonna with angels from around 1410 in the Gemäldegalerie, however, panel painting remained more common until the 16th century in Italy and the 17th century in Northern Europe. Mantegna and Venetian artists were among those leading the change, Venetian sail canvas was readily available, as lead-based paint is poisonous, care has to be taken in using it. Early canvas was made of linen, a sturdy brownish fabric of considerable strength, linen is particularly suitable for the use of oil paint. In the early 20th century, cotton canvas, often referred to as cotton duck, linen is composed of higher quality material, and remains popular with many professional artists, especially those who work with oil paint. Cotton duck, which stretches more fully and has an even, mechanical weave, the advent of acrylic paint has greatly increased the popularity and use of cotton duck canvas. Linen and cotton derive from two different plants, the flax plant and the cotton plant, respectively. Gessoed canvases on stretchers are also available and they are available in a variety of weights, light-weight is about 4 oz or 5 oz, medium-weight is about 7 oz or 8 oz, heavy-weight is about 10 oz or 12 oz. They are prepared with two or three coats of gesso and are ready for use straight away, artists desiring greater control of their painting surface may add a coat or two of their preferred gesso
32.
Butyl rubber
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Butyl rubber is a synthetic rubber, a copolymer of isobutylene with isoprene. The abbreviation IIR stands for isobutylene isoprene rubber, Polyisobutylene, also known as PIB or polyisobutene, n, is the homopolymer of isobutylene, or 2-methyl-1-propene, on which butyl rubber is based. Butyl rubber is produced by polymerization of about 98% of isobutylene with about 2% of isoprene, structurally, polyisobutylene resembles polypropylene, having two methyl groups substituted on every other carbon atom. Polyisobutylene is a colorless to light yellow viscoelastic material and it is generally odorless and tasteless, though it may exhibit a slight characteristic odor. Butyl rubber has excellent impermeability, and the long segments of its polymer chains give it good flex properties. The formula for PIB is, –n– The formula for IIR is, a synthetic rubber, or elastomer, butyl rubber is impermeable to air and used in many applications requiring an airtight rubber. The first major application of butyl rubber was tire inner tubes and this remains an important segment of its market even today. Isobutylene was discovered by Michael Faraday in 1825, Polyisobutylene was first developed by the BASF unit of IG Farben in 1931 using a boron trifluoride catalyst at low temperatures and sold under the trade name Oppanol B. PIB remains a business for BASF to this day. It was later developed into butyl rubber in 1937, by researchers William J. Sparks and Robert M. Thomas, at Standard Oil of New Jerseys Linden and it was renamed Polysar in 1976 and the rubber component became a subsidiary, Polysar Rubber Corp. The company was privatized in 1988 with its sale to NOVA Corp which, in turn, in 2005 Bayer AG spun off chemical divisions, including most of the Sarnia site, creating LANXESS AG, also of Germany. Halobutyl is today the most important material for the linings of tubeless tires. In the spring of 2013 two incidents of PIB contamination in the English Channel, believed to be connected, were described as the worst UK marine pollution for decades, the RSPB estimated over 2,600 seabirds were killed by the chemical and hundreds more were rescued and decontaminated. Polyisobutylene can be reacted with maleic anhydride to make polyisobutenylsuccinic anhydride and these derivatives have interesting properties when used as an additive in lubricating oils and motor fuels. It is also used to clean up oil spills as part of the commercial product Elastol. When added to crude oil it increases the oils viscoelasticity when pulled, as a fuel additive, polyisobutylene has detergent properties. When added to fuel, it resists fouling of fuel injectors, leading to reduced hydrocarbon. It is blended with other detergents and additives to make a detergent package that is added to gasoline and diesel fuel to resist buildup of deposits, Polyisobutylene is used in some formulations as a thickening agent
33.
Jute
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Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fiber that can be spun into coarse, strong threads. It is produced primarily from plants in the genus Corchorus, which was classified with the family Tiliaceae. The primary source of the fiber is Corchorus olitorius, but it is considered inferior to Corchorus capsularis, Jute is the name of the plant or fiber that is used to make burlap, hessian or gunny cloth. The word jute is probably coined from the word jhuta or jota, Jute is one of the most affordable natural fibers and it is second only to cotton in amount produced and variety of uses of vegetable fibers. Jute fibers are composed primarily of the plant materials cellulose and lignin and it falls into the bast fiber category along with kenaf, industrial hemp, flax, ramie, etc. The industrial term for jute fiber is raw jute, the fibers are off-white to brown, and 1–4 metres long. Jute is also called the fiber for its color and high cash value. Jute needs a plain alluvial soil and standing water, the suitable climate for growing jute is offered by the monsoon climate, during the monsoon season. Temperatures from 20˚C to 40˚C and relative humidity of 70%–80% are favourable for successful cultivation, Jute requires 5–8 cm of rainfall weekly, and more during the sowing time. Soft water is necessary for the jute production, historical documents state that the poor villagers of India used to wear clothes made of jute. Simple handlooms and hand spinning wheels were used by the weavers, history also suggests that Indians, especially Bengalis, used ropes and twines made of white jute from ancient times for household and other uses. It is highly functional in carrying grains or other agricultural products, tossa jute is a variety thought to be native to India, and is also the worlds top producer. It is grown for fiber and culinary purposes. The leaves are used as an ingredient in a mucilaginous potherb called molokhiya and it is very popular in some Arabian countries such as Egypt, Jordan, and Syria as a soup-based dish, sometimes with meat over rice or lentils. The Book of Job, in the King James translation of the Hebrew Bible מלוח MaLOo-aĤ salty, giving rise to the term Jews Mallow It is high in protein, vitamin C, beta-carotene, calcium, and iron. On the other hand, it is used mainly for its fiber in Bangladesh, in countries in Southeast Asia. Tossa jute fiber is softer, silkier, and stronger than white jute and this variety astonishingly shows good sustainability in the climate of the Ganges Delta. Along with white jute, tossa jute has also cultivated in the soil of Bengal where it is known as paat from the start of the 19th century
34.
Rayon
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Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulose fiber. It is made from purified cellulose, primarily from wood pulp and it is then dissolved and forced through a spinneret to produce filaments which are chemically solidified, resulting in synthetic fibers of nearly pure cellulose. Because rayon is manufactured from naturally occurring polymers, it is considered a semi-synthetic fiber, specific types of rayon include viscose, modal and lyocell, each of which differs in manufacturing process and properties of the finished product. The solubility of nitrocellulose in organic solvents such as ether and acetone was the basis for the first artificial silk by Georges Audemars in about 1855, commercial production started in 1891, but the result was flammable and more expensive than cellulose acetate or cuprammonium rayon. Because of this expense, production ceased early in the 1900s, nitrocellulose was briefly known as mother-in-law silk. Nathan Rosenstein invented the process by which he turned rayon from a hard fiber to a fabric. This allowed rayon to become a popular raw material in textiles, paul Schützenberger discovered that cellulose reacts with acetic anhydride to form cellulose acetate. The triacetate is soluble only in making the method expensive. The discovery that hydrolyzed cellulose acetate is soluble in polar solvents, like acetone, made production of cellulose acetate fibers cheap. The Swiss chemist Matthias Eduard Schweizer discovered that dissolved in tetraaminecopper dihydroxide. Max Fremery and Johann Urban developed a method to produce carbon fibers for use in light bulbs in 1897, Production of cuprammonium rayon for textiles started in 1899 in the Vereinigte Glanzstoff Fabriken AG in Oberbruch near Aachen. Improvement by the J. P. Bemberg AG in 1904 made the artificial silk a product comparable to real silk, in 1894, English chemist Charles Frederick Cross, and his collaborators Edward John Bevan, and Clayton Beadle patented their artificial silk. They named their material viscose, because its production involved the intermediacy of a viscous solution. The process built on the reaction of cellulose with a strong base, the xanthate is then converted back to a cellulose fiber in a subsequent step. The first commercial viscose rayon was produced by the U. K. company Courtaulds Fibres in 1905, Courtaulds formed an American division, American Viscose, to produce their formulation in the United States in 1910. The name rayon was adopted in 1924, with viscose being used for the organic liquid used to make both rayon and cellophane. In Europe, though, the fabric itself became known as viscose, the viscose method can use wood as a source of cellulose, whereas other routes to rayon require lignin-free cellulose as starting material. The use of sources of cellulose makes viscose cheaper, so it was used on a larger scale than the other methods
35.
Acrylic fiber
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Acrylic fibers are synthetic fibers made from a polymer with an average molecular weight of ~100,000, about 1900 monomer units. For a fiber to be called acrylic in the US, the polymer must contain at least 85% acrylonitrile monomer, typical comonomers are vinyl acetate or methyl acrylate. DuPont created the first acrylic fibers in 1941 and trademarked them under the name Orlon and it was first developed in the mid-1940s but was not produced in large quantities until the 1950s. Strong and warm, acrylic fiber is used for sweaters and tracksuits and as linings for boots and gloves, as well as in furnishing fabrics. It is manufactured as a filament, then cut into short staple lengths similar to wool hairs, modacrylic is a modified acrylic fiber that contains at least 35% and at most 85% acrylonitrile monomer. The comonomers vinyl chloride, vinylidene chloride or vinyl bromide used in modacrylic give the fiber flame retardant properties, end-uses of modacrylic include faux fur, wigs, hair extensions and protective clothing. The polymer is formed by free-radical polymerization in aqueous suspension, washing, stretching, drying and crimping complete the processing. Acrylic fibers are produced in a range of deniers, typically from 0.9 to 15, end uses include sweaters, hats, hand-knitting yarns, socks, rugs, awnings, boat covers, and upholstery, the fiber is also used as PAN precursor for carbon fiber. Production of acrylic fibers is centered in the Far East, Turkey, India, Mexico, US producers have ended production, though acrylic tow and staple are still spun into yarns in the USA. Former U. S. brands of acrylic included Acrilan, other brand names that are still in use include Dralon and Drytex. Acrylic is lightweight, soft, and warm, with a wool-like feel and it can also be made to mimic other fibers, such as cotton, when spun on short staple equipment. Some acrylic is extruded in colored or pigmented form, other is extruded in ecru, otherwise known as natural, raw white and its fibers are very resilient compared to both other synthetics and natural fibers. Some acrylic is used in clothing as an expensive alternative to cashmere. Some acrylic fabrics may fuzz or pill easily, though there are low-pilling variants, acrylic takes color well, is washable, and is generally hypoallergenic. End-uses include socks, hats, gloves, scarves, sweaters, home furnishing fabrics, acrylic can also be used to make fake fur and to make many different knitted clothes. As acrylic is a fiber, the larvae of clothes moths are unable to digest it. However, acrylic fibers that are blended with wool or soiled may be eaten as a consequence of having blended fibers, the fiber requires heat to relax or set the shape of the finished garment, and it isnt as warm when wet as alternatives like wool. Some hand-knitters also complain that the fiber squeaks when knitted, or that it is painful to knit with because of a lack of give or stretch in the yarn, on the other hand, it is machine-washable and extremely color-fast
36.
Daimler SP250
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The Daimler SP250 is a sports car built by the Daimler Company, a British manufacturer in Coventry, from 1959 to 1964. It was the last car to be launched by Daimler before its parent company, shortly after being appointed Managing Director of BSAs Automotive Division in 1956, Edward Turner was asked to design a saloon car powered by a V8 engine. The committees evaluation centred on the prototypes being tested at the time, two-thirds of the sales of the car were expected to be in the United States. Bumpers were originally an optional extra, with the basic specification not including full bumpers, the A-spec. Cars had recesses behind the handles, but these were phased out. The SP250 had a body, four-wheel Girling disc brakes. The car was described as a 2+2, but the rear seat offered very limited leg-room unless the front seats were pushed fully forward. Engine, V8 iron block, water cooled, OHV, bore 76 mm x stroke 70 mm, stiff 5 main bearing crankshaft, dynamically balanced. Max Torque 155 lb·ft at 3600 rpm, ignition, Coil and distributor with conventional automatic advance & retard. Lubrication, Submerged gear oil pump with full flow filter, cooling, Pressurised radiator with fan, pump and thermostat control. Transmission,4 speeds with synchromesh on top three ratios, rear Axle, Hypoid bevel 3.58,1 Steering, Cam & follower. Suspension, Front independent with coil springs, rear live axle with half-elliptic leaf springs. Brakes, Girling Discs on all four wheels, hydraulic operation, the management of Daimler decided to make a large number of the cars features optional extras because automotive import duties into the United States were not applied to optional extras. Chrysler, whose Dodge division owned the trademark for the Dart model name, with little time to come up with a new name, Daimler used the project number, SP250, as the model number. Between twenty-six and thirty black SP250s were used by the British Metropolitan Police in London and these were used by the Traffic Department to catch up with speeders, especially café racers. Traffic police in Bristol, Cambridge, Liverpool, Manchester, Southend and Surrey also used the SP250 for speed enforcement, as did forces in Australia. After the opening of the first section of the M1 in 1959, Jaguar bought Daimler in 1960, and were immediately concerned about the chassis flex. Version with extra outriggers on the chassis and a hoop between the A-posts
37.
Ford Thunderbird
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The Ford Thunderbird is a rear wheel drive automobile which was manufactured by Ford in the United States over eleven model generations from 1955 through 2005. The Thunderbird created a niche that eventually became known as the personal luxury car. The Thunderbird entered production for the 1955 model year as a sporty two-seat convertible, unlike the Chevrolet Corvette, it was not marketed as a sports car. Ford positioned the Thunderbird as a model and is credited in developing a new market segment. In 1958, the Thunderbird gained a second row of seats, succeeding generations became larger until the line was downsized in 1977, again in 1980, and once again in 1983. Sales were good until the 1990s, when large 2-door coupes became unpopular, in 2002 production of the Thunderbird started again, a revived 2-seat model was launched, which was available through the end of the 2005 model year. From its introduction in 1955 to its phaseout in 2005, Ford produced over 4.4 million Thunderbirds, the Second to Fourth Generation Thunderbird convertibles were similar in design to the Lincoln convertible of the time and borrowed from earlier Ford hardtop/convertible designs. While these Thunderbird models had a convertible soft top, the top was lowered to stow in the forward trunk area. This design reduced available space when the top was down. The trunk lid was rear-hinged, raised and lowered via hydraulic cylinders during the top raising or lowering cycle, the forward end of the trunk lid contained a metal plate that extended upward to cover the area that the top is stowed in. With the top down and the trunk lid lowered, there is no sight of the soft top, the overall appearance was a sleek look with no trace of a convertible top at all. However, this design could present a challenge to one who is troubleshooting a convertible top malfunction, the system consists of a spiderweb of solenoids, relays, limit switches, electric motors, a hydraulic pump/reservoir, hydraulic directional valves and cylinders. While the hydraulics are not often a cause for trouble, the relays are known to fail. Failure of any of the relays, motors or limit switches will prevent the system from completing the cycle. Unlike hardtop models that utilized a conventional key-secured, forward hinged design, as a result of this design, the trunks of convertible models were notorious for leaking. A smaller two-seater sports roadster was created at the behest of Henry Ford II in 1953 called the Vega, the completed one-off generated interest at the time, but had meager power, European looks, and a correspondingly high cost, so it never proceeded to production. The Thunderbird was similar in concept, but would be more American in style, more luxurious, the men and their teams generally credited with the creation of the original Thunderbird are, Lewis D. Boyer was lead stylist on the original 1955 two-seater Thunderbird and also had a hand in designing the series of Thunderbirds including the 30th Anniversary Edition
38.
Mercedes-Benz SL-Class
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The Mercedes-Benz SL-Class is a grand touring roadster manufactured by Mercedes since 1954. The designation SL derives from the German Sportlich-Leicht, the SL designation was first applied to the 300 SL, often referred to as the Gullwing due to its gullwing or upward-opening doors. The term SL refers to the variations of the vehicle. The 300 SL was introduced in 1954 in coupé form, featuring gullwing doors, the 300 SL roadster succeeded the coupé in 1957. The four-cylinder 190 SL was more widely produced with 25,881 units, cars of the open SL-Class were available as a coupe with a removable hardtop or as a roadster with convertible soft top or with both tops. Production for the 190 SL and 300 SL ended in 1963 and it featured a low waistline and big curved greenhouse windows, and a Coupe Roadster with detachable hardtop, whose distinctive roofline earned the nickname pagoda top. The design was by Paul Bracq, around 1967, the engine received a displacement increase and the model became known as the 250 SL. Within a year the displacement was increased for the final time. Beginning with later versions of the 250 SL changes were made to dashboard padding, switches and knobs, door pockets, in addition, on the 230 SL formerly separate centre hub caps and wheel trim rings became full wheel covers. The body itself is built with a modern paint system designed to improve protection from rust,300 SL, 1986–1989 The 300 SL base model was available as standard in a 5-speed manual although very few were sold. The SOHC6 cylinder M103 is typically considered to have handling advantages with its lighter weight engine, the 1990 Mercedes SL base model was the 228 hp 3. 0-litre inline 6300 SL version in the US. In Europe the base model was the 190 hp 3. 0-litre inline 6300 SL with 12 valves, but it was the 322 hp 500 SL which made the most headlines. The specification was high, with windows, mirrors, seats. The R129 model was the first convertible/roadster to offer the automatic deployment in event of rollover. The motorist can also raise and lower the rollbar should he choose to. This facilitates the clean look of R129 without compromising the occupants safety,1994 saw a minor facelift for the SL with changes to the taillamps and white turn signal indicators in the front, and the 300 SL was replaced in Europe by the SL280 and SL320. The SL500 continued with the powerful engine. A389 hp 6. 0-litre V12 SL600 topped the range, introduced in 1993 as the 600 SL, it was re-badged the SL600 in 1994
39.
Jeep Wrangler
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The Jeep Wrangler is a compact and mid-size four-wheel drive off-road vehicle manufactured by Jeep, currently in its third generation. Neither AMC nor Chrysler have claimed that the Wrangler was a descendant of the original military model. Outwardly resembling the Jeep CJ-7, the Wrangler, which was announced in February 1986 at the 1986 Chicago Auto Show, was based on a new set of design parameters. The product philosophy behind the two vehicles François Castaing explained, is completely different. Just like the Willys MB and the Jeep CJ, Wranglers continue to use a body and frame. But its suspension, drivetrain, and interior were borrowed from the new Cherokee model, the Wrangler debuted in 1986 as a new model after discontinuance of the famous Jeep model. It was revised in 1996, and completely redesigned in 2006, in addition to the model name Wrangler, each model received a designation corresponding to its generation, YJ, TJ, TJUs, JKU and JK. Foreign military versions of the Wrangler have carried the J8 designation which was initially dubbed TJL when first produced at Arab American Vehicles Egyptian plant, Jeep YJ models were manufactured between 1986 and 1995 at Brampton Assembly, and subsequently at the Toledo South Assembly plant. A major difference in the 1987–1995 models were the rectangular headlights, in 2006, Wrangler production was moved to Toledo Complex. Post-2006 Wranglers were set apart from their predecessors by the angle of the grille, in all previous models, the grille was flat and even with the front fenders. The newer Wrangler was constructed with a grille which angled out from the top and this decreased the hood length, while increasing the length of the fenders. In more recent models, this angle has been lowered more toward the bottom of the grille, in Egypt, the YJ was produced as well as a long wheel-base version, dubbed LJ, and which has retained the 2-door design. The YJL is considered as the first predecessor of the JKs long wheel-base by continuing as TJL which has inspired the JKs 4-door. There is a Jeep Wrangler Pickup coming into production in 2017, development of a potential CJ7 replacement was green-lighted in 1982, with engineering and design work commencing. After approval earlier in 1983, a design freeze occurred by the fall of 1983, with CJ7-based mules being built in late 1983. By late 1985, development concluded, as the transition from pilot to series production began, in February 1986, the 1987 Jeep Wrangler was unveiled, entering production that March, and going on sale on May 13,1986. The Jeep YJ, sold as the Wrangler in the United States, replaced the Jeep CJ in 1986 and was built in Brampton, Ontario, Canada, production was then moved to Toledo, Ohio, using the same plant that produced the Willys Jeeps during World War II. American Motors Corporation had designed the new Jeep to be more comfortable on-road in an attempt to more daily drivers
40.
Volvo C70
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The Volvo C70 is a two-door, four-passenger compact manufactured and marketed by Volvo Cars from 1996 to 2013 across two generations. The first generation C70 was available as both a coupé and softtop convertible, the second generation C70 was available as a retractable hardtop convertible. Volvo unveiled the first generation C70 at the 1996 Paris Motor Show, followed by introducing it on the European market as a 1997 model, — with 2.0, a low-pressure turbo and a high-pressure turbo, 5-cylinder, turbocharged petrol engines and manual and automatic transmissions. Peter Horbury designed the exterior and Mexican designer Jose Diaz de la Vega led the design team. The C70 broke Volvos decades-long styling tradition of boxy, rectilinear designs and was Volvos first luxury coupe since the 780, according to Peter Horbury, Volvos design chief from 1991 to 2002, with the C70, Volvo threw away the box, but kept the toy inside. In a development program of 30 months and working with a Volvo 850-derived platform, Britain’s TWR co-designed the cars basic design and suspension tuning with Volvo. Manufacture of the C70 was a joint venture until the two companies experienced disputes that threatened to interrupt production, TWR did not contribute to the second generation C70. Volvos first modern convertible, the C70 was manufactured in Uddevalla, Sweden on an assembly line from the 70-series sedan. The cloth convertible top, initially available in four colors, was automatic, operated by a single. The top stored automatically under a rigid tonneau cover in a system pioneered in modern convertibles with the fourth generation Mercedes SL. The total number of cars produced with the signature saffron pearl metallic paint was reportedly 145 There was no 2005 model C70 in North America,72,000 first generation C70s were produced in the seven years up to 2006, fewer than 50,000 were convertibles. Volvo cosmetically updated the convertible with new headlights and rear light clusters for model year 2004. Of the 72,000 first generation C70s produced worldwide only 603 had the 2.3 liter engine with high pressure turbo, only 135 of the C70 T5M coupes made it to the US market. The C70 retractable hardtop replaces its predecessors two models, both the convertible and the coupé, the latter which had been absent from Volvos lineup since 2003, the retractable hardtop went on sale in the U. S. in spring 2006. The Insurance Institute for Highway Safety in the United States conducted its first crash tests of several convertibles, the blocker has zippered openings for parcel storage and folds in half for trunk stowage. The trunk lid, which both in a rear-hinged mode to stow the folding roof as well as standard a front-hinged mode for luggage loading, is aluminum — while the three roof sections are steel. A trunk divider enables assessment of precisely how much can be loaded with the roof down, trunk space is 13 cubic feet with the top raised and seven cubic feet with the top lowered. A hatch in the backrest of the rear seat enables transport of long objects inside the car, overall body rigidity is improved by approximately 15 percent when the roof is raised
41.
Hardtop
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A hardtop is a rigid form of automobile roof. They may be detachable for separate storing, retractable within the vehicle itself, the term is also used to describe such vehicles, principally the last. Hardtops may be either two-door or four-door, and tend to be more expensive, early automobiles were open, described as having a torpedo, runabout, phaeton, or touring car bodystyle. In time, some were made with rudimentary weather protection composed of a canvas top. Some instead had removable rigid roofs, which were cumbersome and laborious to seasonally alternate, once fully closed bodies became the norm, it was considered fashionable to remove the central roof support post to give them a more open touring look. The Springfield design featured folding upper frames on the doors and the glass frames is removable. By the time of World War I some automakers offered a removable roof, typically with a frame with a canvas or leather covering. They typically used side curtains like the conventional folding soft tops, the elaborate cloth covered California top originated in the West, with either a permanent or a folding frame. These were designed with an emphasis on proportions to accent and provide distinctiveness to the appearance of the automobile, one objective of these aftermarket tops was to bring the cost of the closed car nearer to the prices of corresponding open cars. Automobile dealers were encouraged to equip a car with a California top to demonstrate that they were cool and clean in summer. The hard tops were frequently equipped with windows that retracted like a roller blind for open sided motoring offering a low-cost compromise between an open and closed car. The metal-framed Carson top was an addition for the 1930s Ford convertibles or roadsters because it turned these models into an almost instant hardtop. The design mimicked a convertible top, but lacking the bulky folding mechanisms enabled the removable hardtop to have a much lower, following the ascendancy of steel tops for closed bodies in the 1930s, detachable hardtops with metal roofs began to appear. After World War II, the availability of new types of plastic, because the convertible top mechanism is itself expensive, the hardtop was customarily offered as an additional, extra-cost option. On early Thunderbirds, buyers could choose between a detachable hardtop and a canvas top at no additional cost, but paid extra for both. Some open cars continue to offer it as an option, for example, some Mazda MX-5s are believed to have been delivered with an accessory hardtop, which is compulsory for some auto racing series. The automotive usage of the term hardtop is most often applied for a roof body style without a b or center pillar. They were sometimes called a hardtop convertible because they were designed to look like a convertible with the top raised, while some early models retained side window frames and B-pillars, by the 1950s, most were pillarless hardtops
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Tonneau
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Tonneau cover describes a hard or soft cover used to protect unoccupied passenger seats in a convertible or roadster, or the cargo bed in a pickup truck. Hard tonneau covers open by a hinging or folding mechanism while soft covers open by rolling up, the tonneau cover is used to conceal and or cover cargo. When the cover is pulled out, it keeps out of the sun. A tonneau is a rear passenger compartment, rounded like a barrel, on an automobile and, by extension. The word is French, meaning cask, most tonneau covers were fixed in place as an optional element at purchase, but some could be removed as on the Crestmobile or the two-part of the early MGB. Early tonneaus normally had a hinged door, but single. The first US side-door tonneau was made by Peerless, and others quickly followed and this led to the development of the modern sedan/saloon, with Cadillac manufacturing the first US production closed-body four-door car in 1910. When the street was muddy or dirty the car would be backed up to the curb so tonneau passengers could exit on the sidewalk, early open-bodied touring-type automobiles used tonneau covers to protect unoccupied rear seats. The skins covered gaping cockpits that would otherwise disturb airflow and create undue drag, as a result, tonneau covers are available for open sports cars such as the Porsche Boxster, MGA, Triumph, and Austin-Healey. These covers, made of leather or vinyl, cover the passenger compartment. Tonneau covers may be used in lieu of hard or soft convertible tops, as air courses over the windshield at speed, it creates turbulence as it cascades into and bounces out of the cockpit. This condition is called buffeting, and can be annoying, a tonneau cover reduces buffeting at all speeds. Heat produced by a heater leaves as that turbulence exchanges the cockpits warmer air for cooler ambient air, a tonneau cover is capable of both retaining heat and shielding a driver from UV exposure. Tonneau covers are used in utility vehicles and pickup trucks to cover and secure the truck bed, the most common style is the roll-up tonneau made from cloth or vinyl, which uses a rib-like structure to support the fabric and keep it taut. A snap-based system is used, but has become less common due to truck owners not wanting to install the snaps on their vehicle as they typically require drilling or permanent adhesive. Roll-up Tonneaus are opened by rolling the cover up toward the cab of the truck, another style of truck bed tonneau cover is a retractable unit, which is mounted at the front and sides of the bed and rolls up or retracts from the tailgate towards the cab. The retractable tonneau is typically made of vinyl, plastic or aluminum, fiberglass, hard plastic or aluminum tonneau covers are also common. Some may be painted to match the truck, are solid in construction and these covers are usually heavy and require gas struts to assist in opening and closing
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