1.
Thermohaline circulation
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Thermohaline circulation is a part of the large-scale ocean circulation that is driven by global density gradients created by surface heat and freshwater fluxes. The adjective thermohaline derives from thermo- referring to temperature and -haline referring to salt content, wind-driven surface currents travel polewards from the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, cooling en route, and eventually sinking at high latitudes. This dense water then flows into the ocean basins, while the bulk of it upwells in the Southern Ocean, the oldest waters upwell in the North Pacific. Extensive mixing therefore takes place between the basins, reducing differences between them and making the Earths oceans a global system. On their journey, the water masses transport both energy and matter around the globe, as such, the state of the circulation has a large impact on the climate of the Earth. The thermohaline circulation is called the ocean conveyor belt, the great ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor belt. On occasion, it is used to refer to the overturning circulation. Moreover, temperature and salinity gradients can lead to circulation effects that are not included in the MOC itself. The movement of surface currents pushed by the wind is fairly intuitive, for example, the wind easily produces ripples on the surface of a pond. Thus the deep ocean—devoid of wind—was assumed to be perfectly static by early oceanographers, however, modern instrumentation shows that current velocities in deep water masses can be significant. In general ocean water velocities range from fractions of centimeters per second to more than 1 m/s in surface currents like the Gulf Stream. In the deep ocean, the predominant driving force is differences in density, caused by salinity, there is often confusion over the components of the circulation that are wind and density driven. Note that ocean currents due to tides are also significant in places, most prominent in relatively shallow coastal areas. There they are thought to facilitate mixing processes, especially diapycnal mixing. The density of water is not globally homogeneous, but varies significantly and discretely. Sharply defined boundaries exist between water masses which form at the surface, and subsequently maintain their own identity within the ocean, but these sharp boundaries are not to be imagined spatially but rather in a T-S-diagram where water masses are distinguished. They position themselves above or below each other according to their density, warm seawater expands and is thus less dense than cooler seawater. Saltier water is denser than water because the dissolved salts fill interstices between water molecules, resulting in more mass per unit volume
2.
Sulfur
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Sulfur or sulphur is a chemical element with symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundant, multivalent, and nonmetallic, under normal conditions, sulfur atoms form cyclic octatomic molecules with chemical formula S8. Elemental sulfur is a yellow crystalline solid at room temperature. Chemically, sulfur reacts with all elements except for gold, platinum, iridium, tellurium, though sometimes found in pure, native form, sulfur usually occurs as sulfide and sulfate minerals. Being abundant in native form, sulfur was known in ancient times, being mentioned for its uses in ancient India, ancient Greece, China, in the Bible, sulfur is called brimstone. Today, almost all elemental sulfur is produced as a byproduct of removing sulfur-containing contaminants from natural gas, the greatest commercial use of the element is the production of sulfuric acid for sulfate and phosphate fertilizers, and other chemical processes. The element sulfur is used in matches, insecticides, and fungicides, many sulfur compounds are odoriferous, and the smells of odorized natural gas, skunk scent, grapefruit, and garlic are due to organosulfur compounds. Hydrogen sulfide gives the characteristic odor to rotting eggs and other biological processes, sulfur is an essential element for all life, but almost always in the form of organosulfur compounds or metal sulfides. Three amino acids and two vitamins are organosulfur compounds, many cofactors also contain sulfur including glutathione and thioredoxin and iron–sulfur proteins. Disulfides, S–S bonds, confer mechanical strength and insolubility of the keratin, found in outer skin, hair. Sulfur is one of the chemical elements needed for biochemical functioning and is an elemental macronutrient for all organisms. Sulfur is derived from the Latin word sulpur, which was Hellenized to sulphur, the spelling sulfur appears toward the end of the Classical period. In 12th-century Anglo-French, it was sulfre, in the 14th century the Latin ph was restored, for sulphre, the parallel f~ph spellings continued in Britain until the 19th century, when the word was standardized as sulphur. Sulfur was the form chosen in the United States, whereas Canada uses both, the IUPAC adopted the spelling sulfur in 1990, as did the Nomenclature Committee of the Royal Society of Chemistry in 1992, restoring the spelling sulfur to Britain. Sulfur forms polyatomic molecules with different chemical formulas, the best-known allotrope being octasulfur, cyclo-S8. The point group of cyclo-S8 is D4d and its dipole moment is 0 D. Octasulfur is a soft, bright-yellow solid that is odorless and it melts at 115.21 °C, boils at 444.6 °C and sublimes easily. At 95.2 °C, below its melting temperature, cyclo-octasulfur changes from α-octasulfur to the β-polymorph, the structure of the S8 ring is virtually unchanged by this phase change, which affects the intermolecular interactions. At higher temperatures, the viscosity decreases as depolymerization occurs, molten sulfur assumes a dark red color above 200 °C
3.
Conveyor system
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A conveyor system is a common piece of mechanical handling equipment that moves materials from one location to another. Conveyors are especially useful in applications involving the transportation of heavy or bulky materials, Conveyor systems allow quick and efficient transportation for a wide variety of materials, which make them very popular in the material handling and packaging industries. Many kinds of conveying systems are available and are used according to the needs of different industries. There are chain conveyors as well, chain conveyors consist of enclosed tracks, I-Beam, towline, power & free, and hand pushed trolleys. Conveyor systems are used widespread across a range of industries due to the benefits they provide. Conveyors are able to transport materials from one level to another. They can be installed almost anywhere, and are safer than using a forklift or other machine to move materials. They can move loads of all shapes, sizes and weights, also, many have advanced safety features that help prevent accidents. There are a variety of available for running conveying systems, including the hydraulic, mechanical and fully automated systems. Many factors are important in the selection of a conveyor system. It is important to know how the system will be used beforehand. A conveyor system is often the lifeline to an ability to effectively move its product in a timely fashion. Increasing the service life of a conveyor system involves, choosing the right conveyor type, a conveyor system that is designed properly will last a long time with proper maintenance. Here are six of the biggest problems to watch for in overhead type conveyor systems including I-beam monorails, enclosed track conveyors and power, overhead conveyor systems have been used in numerous applications from shop displays, assembly lines to paint finishing plants and more. Poor take-up adjustment, this is an adjustment on most systems yet it is often overlooked. The chain take-up device ensures that the chain is pulled tight as it leaves the drive unit, as wear occurs and the chain lengthens, the take-up extends under the force of its springs. As they extend, the force becomes less and the take-up has less effect. Simply compress the springs and your problem goes away
4.
Material handling
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Material handling involves short-distance movement within the confines of a building or between a building and a transportation vehicle. Material handling plays an important role in manufacturing and logistics, which represent over 20% of the U. S. economy. Almost every item of commerce was transported on a conveyor or lift truck or other type of material handling equipment in manufacturing plants, warehouses. If two activities are adjacent to other, then material might easily be handed from one activity to another. If activities are in sequence, a conveyor can move the material at low cost, if activities are separated, more expensive industrial trucks or overhead conveyors are required for transport. A unit load is either a unit of an item, or multiple units so arranged or restricted that they can be handled as a single unit. Although granular, liquid, and gaseous materials can be transported in bulk, they can also be contained into unit loads using bags, drums, and cylinders. Advantages of unit loads are more items can be handled at the same time. Disadvantages of unit loads include the impact of batching on production system perf load. Unit loads can be used both for handling and for distribution. Unit load design involves determining the type, size, weight, and configuration of the load, the equipment and method used to handle the load, for in-process handling, unit loads should not be larger than the production batch size of parts in process. Also, the size of a unit load may be limited by the equipment and aisle space available. Manual handling refers to the use of a worker’s hands to move individual containers by lifting, lowering, filling, emptying, ergonomic improvements can be used to modify manual handling tasks to reduce injury. These improvements can include reconfiguring the task and using positioning equipment like lift/tilt/turn tables, hoists, balancers, the NIOSH1991 Revised Lifting Equation can be used to evaluate manual lifting tasks. Under ideal circumstances, the recommended weight for manual lifting to avoid back injuries is 51 lb. Using the exact conditions of the lift, six multipliers are used to reduce the maximum recommended weight for less than ideal lifting tasks, whenever technically and economically feasible, equipment can be used to reduce and sometimes replace the need to manually handle material. Assuming a real interest rate of 1. M,1972, Material Handling System Design, New York, Ronald. 2014, Warehouse & Distribution Science, Release 0.96, frazelle, E.2002, World-Class Warehousing and Material Handling, New York, McGraw-Hill
5.
Bulk material handling
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It can also relate to the handling of mixed wastes. Advanced bulk material handling systems feature integrated bulk storage, conveying, other industries using bulk materials handling include flour mills and coal-fired utility boilers. Providing storage and inventory control and possibly material blending is usually part of a material handling system. In ports handling large quantities of bulk materials continuous ship unloaders are replacing gantry cranes, non-bulk materials handling classifications include palletization and containerization. Bulk cargo Bulk carrier Caking Rotary car dumper Self-discharger
6.
Grain
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Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls
7.
Salt
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Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 35 grams of solids per litre, Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues, Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, the scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater or mineral-rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp. Of the annual production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de-icing highways, and agricultural use, edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti-caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Excessive salt consumption can increase the risk of diseases, such as hypertension, in children. Such health effects of salt have long been studied, accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The World Health Organization recommends that adults should consume less than 2,000 mg of sodium, humans have always tended to build communities either around sources of salt, or where they can trade for it. All through history the availability of salt has been pivotal to civilization, the word salary comes from the Latin word for salt because the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, even the name Solnisata means salt works. A very ancient salt-works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a spring in Lunca, Neamț County
8.
Coal
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Coal is a combustible black or brownish-black sedimentary rock usually occurring in rock strata in layers or veins called coal beds or coal seams. The harder forms, such as coal, can be regarded as metamorphic rock because of later exposure to elevated temperature and pressure. Coal is composed primarily of carbon, along with quantities of other elements, chiefly hydrogen, sulfur, oxygen. A fossil fuel, coal forms when plant matter is converted into peat, which in turn is converted into lignite, then sub-bituminous coal, after that bituminous coal. This involves biological and geological processes that take place over time, throughout history, coal has been used as an energy resource, primarily burned for the production of electricity and heat, and is also used for industrial purposes, such as refining metals. Coal is the largest source of energy for the generation of electricity worldwide, the extraction of coal, its use in energy production and its byproducts are all associated with environmental and health effects including climate change. Coal is extracted from the ground by coal mining, since 1983, the worlds top coal producer has been China. In 2015 China produced 3,747 million tonnes of coal –47. 7% of 7,861 million tonnes world coal production, in 2015 other large producers were United States, India, European Union and Australia. The word originally took the col in Old English, from Proto-Germanic *kula. In Old Turkic languages, kül is ash, cinders, öčür is quench, the compound charcoal in Turkic is öčür kül, literally quenched ashes, cinders, coals with elided anlaut ö- and inflection affixes -ülmüş. At various times in the geologic past, the Earth had dense forests in low-lying wetland areas, due to natural processes such as flooding, these forests were buried underneath soil. As more and more soil deposited over them, they were compressed, the temperature also rose as they sank deeper and deeper. As the process continued the plant matter was protected from biodegradation and oxidation and this trapped the carbon in immense peat bogs that were eventually covered and deeply buried by sediments. Under high pressure and high temperature, dead vegetation was slowly converted to coal, as coal contains mainly carbon, the conversion of dead vegetation into coal is called carbonization. The wide, shallow seas of the Carboniferous Period provided ideal conditions for coal formation, the exception is the coal gap in the Permian–Triassic extinction event, where coal is rare. Coal is known from Precambrian strata, which predate land plants — this coal is presumed to have originated from residues of algae, in its dehydrated form, peat is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also used as a conditioner for soil to make it able to retain. Lignite, or brown coal, is the lowest rank of coal, jet, a compact form of lignite, is sometimes polished and has been used as an ornamental stone since the Upper Palaeolithic
9.
Ore
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An ore is a type of rock that contains sufficient minerals with important elements including metals that can be economically extracted from the rock. The ores are extracted from the earth through mining, they are refined to extract the valuable element. The grade or concentration of an ore mineral, or metal, as well as its form of occurrence, will directly affect the costs associated with mining the ore. The cost of extraction must thus be weighed against the value contained in the rock to determine what ore can be processed. Metal ores are generally oxides, sulfides, silicates, or native metals that are not commonly concentrated in the Earths crust, the ores must be processed to extract the metals of interest from the waste rock and from the ore minerals. Ore bodies are formed by a variety of geological processes, the process of ore formation is called ore genesis. An ore deposit is an accumulation of ore and this is distinct from a mineral resource as defined by the mineral resource classification criteria. An ore deposit is one occurrence of a particular ore type, Ore deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic geology, or ore genesis. Stratiform arkose-hosted and shale-hosted copper, typified by the Zambian copperbelt and this identifies, early on, whether further investment in estimation and engineering studies is warranted and identifies key risks and areas for further work. This is because the distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand. Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices and this generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include lithium, niobium-tantalum, bismuth, antimony and rare earths, most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the worlds reserves. The London Metal Exchange aims to add uranium to its list of metals on warrant, the World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the USA and Japan. Economic geology Mineral resource classification Ore genesis Petrology Froth Flotation Extractive metallurgy DILL, the “chessboard” classification scheme of mineral deposits, Mineralogy and geology from aluminum to zirconium, Earth-Science Reviews, Volume 100, Issue 1-4, June 2010, Pages 1-420
10.
Sand
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Sand is a naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles. It is defined by size, being finer than gravel and coarser than silt, Sand can also refer to a textural class of soil or soil type, i. e. a soil containing more than 85% sand-sized particles by mass. The second most common type of sand is calcium carbonate, for example aragonite, for example, it is the primary form of sand apparent in areas where reefs have dominated the ecosystem for millions of years like the Caribbean. Sand is a non renewable resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand, in terms of particle size as used by geologists, sand particles range in diameter from 0.0625 mm to 2 mm. An individual particle in this size is termed a sand grain. Sand grains are between gravel and silt, a 1953 engineering standard published by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials set the minimum sand size at 0.074 mm. A1938 specification of the United States Department of Agriculture was 0.05 mm. Sand feels gritty when rubbed between the fingers. ISO14688 grades sands as fine, medium and coarse with ranges 0.063 mm to 0.2 mm to 0.63 mm to 2.0 mm. In the United States, sand is commonly divided into five sub-categories based on size, very fine sand, fine sand, medium sand, coarse sand, and very coarse sand. These sizes are based on the Krumbein phi scale, where size in Φ = -log2D, on this scale, for sand the value of Φ varies from −1 to +4, with the divisions between sub-categories at whole numbers. The composition of sand is highly variable, depending on the local rock sources. The gypsum sand dunes of the White Sands National Monument in New Mexico are famous for their bright, arkose is a sand or sandstone with considerable feldspar content, derived from weathering and erosion of a granitic rock outcrop. Some sands contain magnetite, chlorite, glauconite or gypsum, Sands rich in magnetite are dark to black in color, as are sands derived from volcanic basalts and obsidian. Chlorite-glauconite bearing sands are typically green in color, as are sands derived from basaltic with a high olivine content, many sands, especially those found extensively in Southern Europe, have iron impurities within the quartz crystals of the sand, giving a deep yellow color. Sand deposits in some areas contain garnets and other resistant minerals, the study of individual grains can reveal much historical information as to the origin and kind of transport of the grain. Quartz sand that is weathered from granite or gneiss quartz crystals will be angular. It is called grus in geology or sharp sand in the trade where it is preferred for concrete. Sand that is transported long distances by water or wind will be rounded, people who collect sand as a hobby are known as arenophiles
11.
Overburden
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In mining, overburden is the material that lies above an area that lends itself to economical exploitation, such as the rock, soil, and ecosystem that lies above a coal seam or ore body. Overburden is distinct from tailings, the material that remains after economically valuable components have been extracted from the generally finely milled ore, a related term is interburden, meaning material that lies between two areas of economic interest, such as the material separating coal seams within strata. Overburden may also be used as a term to describe all soil, in particle physics, the overburden of an underground laboratory may be important to shield the facility from cosmic radiation that can interfere with experiments. In arboriculture, the word is used for the soil over the top of the roots of a tree collected from the wild. Gangue Spoil tip Bates, R. L. and Jackson, glossary of geology American Geological Institute, Alexandria, Virginia. Haering, K. C. Daniels W. L. changes in mine soil properties resulting from overburden weathering Journal of environmental quality 22, pp. 194–200. Characteristics of coal mine overburden important to plant growth Journal of environmental quality 10, the dictionary definition of overburden at Wiktionary
12.
Retail
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Retail markets and shops have a very ancient history, dating back to antiquity. Retailing involves the process of selling goods or services to customers through multiple channels of distribution to earn a profit. Retailers satisfy demand is identified through a supply chain, Once the strategic retail plan is in place, retailers devise the retail mix which includes product, price, place, promotion, personnel and presentation. In the digital age, a number of retailers are seeking to reach broader markets by selling through multiple channels. Digital technologies are changing the way that consumers pay for goods. Retailing support services may include the provision of credit, delivery services. Shopping generally refers to the act of buying products, sometimes this is done to obtain final goods, including necessities such as food and clothing, sometimes it takes place as a recreational activity. Recreational shopping often involves window shopping and browsing, it not always result in a purchase. Retail shops occur in a range of types and in many different contexts - from strip shopping centres in residential streets through to large. Shopping streets may restrict traffic to pedestrians only, forms of non-shop retailing include online retailing and mail order. Retail comes from the Old French word tailler, which means to cut off, clip, pare and it was first recorded as a noun with the meaning of a sale in small quantities in 1433. Like in French, the retail in both Dutch and German also refers to the sale of small quantities of items. Also see History of merchants, History of the market place, open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria. These markets typically occupied a place in the towns centre, surrounding the market, skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers, occupied premises in alley ways that led to the open market-place. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In antiquity, exchange involved direct selling, merchants or peddlers, the Phoenicians, noted for their seafaring skills, plied their ships across the Mediterranean, becoming a major trading power by 9th century BCE. The Phoenicians imported and exported wood, textiles, glass and produce such as wine, oil, dried fruit, the Phoenicians extensive trade networks necessitated considerable book-keeping and correspondence. In around 1500 BCE, the Phoenicians developed an alphabet which was much easier to learn that the complex scripts used in ancient Egypt
13.
Wholesaling
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In general, it is the sale of goods to anyone other than a standard consumer. Wholesalers frequently physically assemble, sort and grade goods in large lots, break bulk, repack, while wholesalers of most products usually operate from independent premises, wholesale marketing for foodstuffs can take place at specific wholesale markets where all traders are congregated. Traditionally, wholesalers were closer to the markets they supplied than the source from which they got the products, however, with the advent of the internet and e-procurement there are an increasing number of wholesalers located nearer to the manufacturers in China, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia. Often, in the United States, wholesalers are not required to charge their buyers sales tax, the alternative to selling wholesale to distributors or retailers is to sell retail either through company owned stores or online. Advantages include receiving a slice of the price paid by the consumer. Top U. S wholesalers according to report in 2012. Cash and carry Distribution Jobbing house Retail Supply chain Supply network B2B
14.
Manufacturing
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Manufacturing is the value added to production of merchandise for use or sale using labour and machines, tools, chemical and biological processing, or formulation. Manufacturing engineering or manufacturing process are the steps through which raw materials are transformed into a final product, the manufacturing process begins with the product design, and materials specification from which the product is made. These materials are modified through manufacturing processes to become the required part. Manufacturing takes turns under all types of economic systems, in a free market economy, manufacturing is usually directed toward the mass production of products for sale to consumers at a profit. In a collectivist economy, manufacturing is more directed by the state to supply a centrally planned economy. In mixed market economies, manufacturing occurs under some degree of government regulation, modern manufacturing includes all intermediate processes required the production and integration of a products components. Some industries, such as semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term fabrication instead, the manufacturing sector is closely connected with engineering and industrial design. Examples of major manufacturers in North America include General Motors Corporation, General Electric, Procter & Gamble, General Dynamics, Boeing, Pfizer, examples in Europe include Volkswagen Group, Siemens, and Michelin. Examples in Asia include Sony, Huawei, Lenovo, Toyota, Samsung, in its earliest form, manufacturing was usually carried out by a single skilled artisan with assistants. In much of the world, the guild system protected the privileges. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufacturing occurred in rural areas, entrepreneurs organized a number of manufacturing households into a single enterprise through the putting-out system. Toll manufacturing is an arrangement whereby a first firm with specialized equipment processes raw materials or semi-finished goods for a second firm, manufacturing provides important material support for national infrastructure and for national defense. On the other hand, most manufacturing may involve significant social and environmental costs, the clean-up costs of hazardous waste, for example, may outweigh the benefits of a product that creates it. Hazardous materials may expose workers to health risks and these costs are now well known and there is effort to address them by improving efficiency, reducing waste, using industrial symbiosis, and eliminating harmful chemicals. The negative costs of manufacturing can also be addressed legally, developed countries regulate manufacturing activity with labor laws and environmental laws. Across the globe, manufacturers can be subject to regulations and pollution taxes to offset the costs of manufacturing activities. Labor unions and craft guilds have played a role in the negotiation of worker rights. Environment laws and labor protections that are available in developed nations may not be available in the third world, tort law and product liability impose additional costs on manufacturing
15.
Ship
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Historically, a ship was a sailing vessel with at least three square-rigged masts and a full bowsprit. Ships are generally distinguished from boats, based on size, shape, Ships have been important contributors to human migration and commerce. They have supported the spread of colonization and the trade, but have also served scientific, cultural. After the 16th century, new crops that had come from, Ship transport is responsible for the largest portion of world commerce. As of 2016, there were more than 49,000 merchant ships, of these 28% were oil tankers, 43% were bulk carriers, and 13% were container ships. Military forces operate vessels for naval warfare and to transport and support forces ashore, the top 50 navies had a median fleet of 88 surface vessels each, according to various sources. There is no definition of what distinguishes a ship from a boat. Ships can usually be distinguished from boats based on size and the ability to operate independently for extended periods. A legal definition of ship from Indian case law is a vessel that carries goods by sea, a common notion is that a ship can carry a boat, but not vice versa. American and British 19th Century maritime law distinguished vessels from other craft, ships and boats fall in one legal category, a number of large vessels are usually referred to as boats. Other types of vessel which are traditionally called boats are Great Lakes freighters, riverboats. Though large enough to carry their own boats and heavy cargoes, in most maritime traditions ships have individual names, and modern ships may belong to a ship class often named after its first ship. The first known vessels date back about 10,000 years ago, the first navigators began to use animal skins or woven fabrics as sails. Affixed to the top of a pole set upright in a boat and this allowed men to explore widely, allowing for the settlement of Oceania for example. By around 3000 BC, Ancient Egyptians knew how to assemble wooden planks into a hull and they used woven straps to lash the planks together, and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams. Sneferus ancient cedar wood ship Praise of the Two Lands is the first reference recorded to a ship being referred to by name, the ancient Egyptians were perfectly at ease building sailboats. A remarkable example of their skills was the Khufu ship. Aksum was known by the Greeks for having seaports for ships from Greece, a panel found at Mohenjodaro depicted a sailing craft
16.
Expense
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For the row about members expenses in the UK Parliament which started about May 2009, see United Kingdom Parliamentary expenses scandal. In common usage, an expense or expenditure is an outflow of money to another person or group to pay for an item or service, for a tenant, rent is an expense. For students or parents, tuition is an expense, buying food, clothing, furniture or an automobile is often referred to as an expense. An expense is a cost that is paid or remitted, usually in exchange for something of value, something that seems to cost a great deal is expensive. Something that seems to cost little is inexpensive, expenses of the table are expenses of dining, refreshments, a feast, etc. In accounting, expense has a specific meaning. It is an outflow of cash or other assets from a person or company to another person or company. This outflow of cash is generally one side of a trade for products or services that have equal or better current or future value to the buyer than to the seller, technically, an expense is an event in which an asset is used up or a liability is incurred. In terms of the equation, expenses reduce owners equity. The International Accounting Standards Board defines expenses as, in double-entry bookkeeping, expenses are recorded as a debit to an expense account and a credit to either an asset account or a liability account, which are balance sheet accounts. An expense decreases assets or increases liabilities, typical business expenses include salaries, utilities, depreciation of capital assets, and interest expense for loans. The purchase of an asset such as a building or equipment is not an expense. In a cash flow statement, expenditures are divided into operating, investing, operational expense – salary for employees. These latter types of expenditures are reported as expenses when they are depreciated by businesses that use accrual-basis accounting, the most common interpretation of whether an expense is of capital or income variety depends upon its term. Viewing an expense as a purchase helps alleviate this distinction, if, soon after the purchase, that which was expenses holds no value then it is usually identified as an expense. If it retains value soon and long after the purchase, it will be viewed as capital with life that should be amortized/depreciated and retained on the balance sheet. For tax purposes, the Internal Revenue Code permits the deduction of expenses in the For tax payable year in which those expenses are paid or incurred. This is in contrast to capital expenditures that are paid or incurred to acquire an asset, expenses are costs that do not acquire, improve, or prolong the life of an asset
17.
Conveyor belt sushi
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Conveyor belt sushi, literally rotation sushi, also called sushi-go-round, is a form of sushi restaurant common in Japan. In Australia, it is known as a sushi train. Kaiten-zushi is a restaurant where the plates with the sushi are placed on a rotating conveyor belt or moat that winds through the restaurant and moves past every table. Customers may place special orders, but most simply pick their selections from a stream of fresh sushi moving along the conveyor belt. The final bill is based on the number and type of plates of the consumed sushi, some restaurants use a fancier presentation such as miniature wooden sushi boats traveling small canals or miniature locomotive cars. The most remarkable feature of conveyor belt sushi is the stream of plates winding through the restaurant, the selection is usually not limited to sushi, it may also include drinks, fruits, desserts, soups, and other foods. Some restaurants have RFID tags or other systems in place to remove sushi that has rotated for too long, if customers cannot find their desired sushi, they can make special orders. Sometimes speaker phones are available for this purpose above the conveyor belt, if a small quantity of sushi is ordered, it is placed on the conveyor belt but marked so other customers know that this dish was ordered by someone. Usually, the plate with the sushi sits on a labeled cylindrical stand to indicate that this is a special order, for large orders the sushi may also be brought to the customer by the attendants. Some restaurants in Japan also have touch screen displays for ordering specific dishes which might be delivered on a conveyor belt or by waiters. Condiments and tools are found near the seats, for example pickled ginger, chopsticks, soy sauce. Wasabi may be either at the seat or on the conveyor belt, self-served tea and ice water is usually complementary, with cups stacked on a shelf above the conveyor belt and teabags or green tea powder in a storage container on the table. There is also a hot water faucet at the tables to make tea, on the shelves are usually wet paper towels and plastic boxes to store sushi for take-out customers. The bill is calculated by counting the number and type of plates of the consumed sushi, plates with different colors, patterns, or shapes have different prices, usually ranging from 100 yen to 500 yen. The cost of each plate is shown on signboards or posters in the restaurant, in general, cheap items come on plain plates, and the level of plate decoration is related to the price. The most expensive items tend to come on gold colored plates, expensive items may be placed on two plates, with the price being the sum of the prices of the individual plates. Some conveyor belt sushi restaurant chains, such as Kappa Sushi or Otaru Zushi, have a price of 100 yen for every plate. This is similar to the phenomenon of 100-yen shops, a button above the conveyor belt can be used to call the attendants to count the plates
18.
Electric motor
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An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy. The reverse of this is the conversion of energy into electrical energy and is done by an electric generator. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate through the interaction between an electric motors magnetic field and winding currents to generate force within the motor, small motors may be found in electric watches. General-purpose motors with highly standardized dimensions and characteristics provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use, the largest of electric motors are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-storage applications with ratings reaching 100 megawatts. Electric motors may be classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type of motion output, perhaps the first electric motors were simple electrostatic devices created by the Scottish monk Andrew Gordon in the 1740s. The theoretical principle behind production of force by the interactions of an electric current. The conversion of energy into mechanical energy by electromagnetic means was demonstrated by the British scientist Michael Faraday in 1821. A free-hanging wire was dipped into a pool of mercury, on which a permanent magnet was placed, when a current was passed through the wire, the wire rotated around the magnet, showing that the current gave rise to a close circular magnetic field around the wire. This motor is often demonstrated in experiments, brine substituting for toxic mercury. Though Barlows wheel was a refinement to this Faraday demonstration. In 1827, Hungarian physicist Ányos Jedlik started experimenting with electromagnetic coils, after Jedlik solved the technical problems of the continuous rotation with the invention of the commutator, he called his early devices electromagnetic self-rotors. Although they were used only for instructional purposes, in 1828 Jedlik demonstrated the first device to contain the three components of practical DC motors, the stator, rotor and commutator. The device employed no permanent magnets, as the fields of both the stationary and revolving components were produced solely by the currents flowing through their windings. His motor set a record which was improved only four years later in September 1838 by Jacobi himself. His second motor was powerful enough to drive a boat with 14 people across a wide river and it was not until 1839/40 that other developers worldwide managed to build motors of similar and later also of higher performance. The first commutator DC electric motor capable of turning machinery was invented by the British scientist William Sturgeon in 1832, following Sturgeons work, a commutator-type direct-current electric motor made with the intention of commercial use was built by the American inventor Thomas Davenport, which he patented in 1837. The motors ran at up to 600 revolutions per minute, and powered machine tools, due to the high cost of primary battery power, the motors were commercially unsuccessful and Davenport went bankrupt. Several inventors followed Sturgeon in the development of DC motors but all encountered the same battery power cost issues, no electricity distribution had been developed at the time
19.
Baggage handling system
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A baggage handling system is a type of conveyor system installed in airports that transports checked luggage from ticket counters to areas where the bags can be loaded onto airplanes. A BHS also transports checked baggage coming from airplanes to baggage claims or to an area where the bag can be loaded onto another airplane. Although the primary function of a BHS is the transportation of bags, the process of identifying a bag, and the information associated with it, to make a decision on where the bag should be directed within the system is known as sortation. There has also been a breakthrough with mobile BHS software where managers of the system can check, post September 11,2001, majority of airports around the world began to implement baggage screening directly into BHS. These systems are referred to as Checked Baggage Inspection System by the Transportation Security Administration in the USA, a CBIS can sort baggage based on each bags security status assigned by an EDS machine or by a security screening operator. CBIS design standards and guidelines are issued by the TSA once every year since 2008, all CBIS built in the USA must comply with the standard set forth by the TSA. The latest standards can be downloaded from the TSAs website here
20.
Bavaria
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Bavaria is a free state and one of 16 federal states of Germany. Located in the German southeast with an area of 70,548 square kilometres and its territory comprises roughly a fifth of the total land area of Germany, and, with 12.9 million inhabitants, it is Germanys second most populous state. Munich, Bavarias capital and largest city, is the third largest city in Germany, the Duchy of Bavaria dates back to the year 555. In the 17th century CE, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, when Bavaria became a republic. In 1946, the Free State of Bavaria re-organised itself on democratic lines after the Second World War, Bavaria has a unique culture, largely because of the states Catholic majority and conservative traditions. Bavarians have traditionally been proud of their culture, which includes such as Oktoberfest. The state also has the second largest economy among the German states by GDP figures, modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia, Upper Palatinate and Swabia. The Bavarians emerged in a north of the Alps, previously inhabited by Celts. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, the name Bavarian means Men of Baia which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources circa 520, a 17th century Jewish chronicler David Solomon Ganz, citing Cyriacus Spangenberg, claimed that the diocese was named after an ancient Bohemian king, Boiia, in the 14th century BCE. From about 554 to 788, the house of Agilolfing ruled the Duchy of Bavaria and their daughter, Theodelinde, became Queen of the Lombards in northern Italy and Garibald was forced to flee to her when he fell out with his Frankish overlords. Garibalds successor, Tassilo I, tried unsuccessfully to hold the frontier against the expansion of Slavs. Tassilos son Garibald II seems to have achieved a balance of power between 610 and 616, after Garibald II little is known of the Bavarians until Duke Theodo I, whose reign may have begun as early as 680. From 696 onwards he invited churchmen from the west to organize churches and his son, Theudebert, led a decisive Bavarian campaign to intervene in a succession dispute in the Lombard Kingdom in 714, and married his sister Guntrud to the Lombard King Liutprand. At Theodos death the duchy was divided among his sons, at Hugberts death the duchy passed to a distant relative named Odilo, from neighbouring Alemannia. He was defeated near Augsburg in 743 but continued to rule until his death in 748, saint Boniface completed the peoples conversion to Christianity in the early 8th century. Bavaria was in ways affected by the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century
21.
Sandvik
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Sandvik is a global company founded in 1862 by Göran Fredrik Göransson in Sandviken, Sweden. Sandvik has about 43,000 employees and sales in more than 150 countries, invoiced sales is approximately SEK82 billion. Sandvik was the first company to exploit the Bessemer Steel process. The first blast furnace was installed by an English engineer and is now on display in a park in Sandviken, in March 2016, Sandvik announced that it would restructure its business, merging Sandvik Mining and Sandvik Construction to form Sandvik Mining and Rock Technology. The new structure became effective on 1 July 2016, Sandvik consists of three principal business areas. A manufacturer of tools and tooling systems for advanced industrial metal cutting, products are manufactured in cemented carbide and other hard materials such as diamond, cubic boron nitride and special ceramics. This includes the work of Sandvik Coromant, a supplier in equipment, tools, service and technical solutions for the mining and construction industries. Application areas include rock drilling, rock cutting, crushing and screening, loading and hauling, tunneling, quarrying and breaking, a manufacturer of advanced stainless steels and special alloys for the most demanding industries. The UK headquarters is now in nearby Halesowen, list of Swedish companies In Q32015, intention to divest Mining Systems business was announced. Numbers in facts box reflect Group excl
22.
Steel
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Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, that is widely used in construction and other applications because of its high tensile strength and low cost. Steels base metal is iron, which is able to take on two forms, body centered cubic and face centered cubic, depending on its temperature. It is the interaction of those allotropes with the elements, primarily carbon. In the body-centred cubic arrangement, there is an atom in the centre of each cube. Carbon, other elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of dislocations that otherwise occur in the lattices of iron atoms. The carbon in steel alloys may contribute up to 2. 1% of its weight. Steels strength compared to pure iron is possible at the expense of irons ductility. With the invention of the Bessemer process in the mid-19th century and this was followed by Siemens-Martin process and then Gilchrist-Thomas process that refined the quality of steel. With their introductions, mild steel replaced wrought iron, further refinements in the process, such as basic oxygen steelmaking, largely replaced earlier methods by further lowering the cost of production and increasing the quality of the product. Today, steel is one of the most common materials in the world and it is a major component in buildings, infrastructure, tools, ships, automobiles, machines, appliances, and weapons. Modern steel is generally identified by various grades defined by assorted standards organizations, the noun steel originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective stakhlijan, which is related to stakhla. The carbon content of steel is between 0. 002% and 2. 1% by weight for plain iron–carbon alloys and these values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an alloy that does not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction, too little carbon content leaves iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron, while iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common alloying elements include, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are important in steel, phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a higher than 2. 1% carbon content, depending on other element content, cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good castability properties
23.
Coal mines
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Coal mining is the process of extracting coal from the ground. Coal is valued for its content, and, since the 1880s, has been widely used to generate electricity. Steel and cement industries use coal as a fuel for extraction of iron from iron ore, in the United Kingdom and South Africa a coal mine and its structures are a colliery, a coal mine a pit, the above-ground structures the pit head. In Australia, colliery generally refers to a coal mine. In the United States colliery has been used to describe a coal mine operation, Coal mining has had many developments over the recent years, from the early days of men tunnelling, digging and manually extracting the coal on carts, to large open cut and long wall mines. Mining at this scale requires the use of draglines, trucks, conveyors, hydraulic jacks, small-scale mining of surface deposits dates back thousands of years. For example, in Roman Britain, the Romans were exploiting most of the major coalfields by the late 2nd century AD. The Industrial Revolution, which began in Britain in the 18th century and later spread to continental Europe, international trade expanded rapidly when coal-fed steam engines were built for the railways and steamships. Until the late nineteenth century coal was mined using a pick and shovel. Coal-cutting machines were introduced in the 1880s, by 1912, surface mining was conducted with steam shovels designed for coal mining. The most economical method of extraction from coal seams depends on the depth and quality of the seams. Coal mining processes are differentiated by whether they operate on the surface or underground, many coals extracted from both surface and underground mines require washing in a coal preparation plant. Surface mining and deep underground mining are the two methods of mining. Coal that occurs at depths of 180 to 300 ft are usually deep mined, for example, some western U. S. coal that occur at depths in excess of 200 ft are mined by the open pit methods, due to thickness of the seam 60–90 feet. Coals occurring below 300 ft are usually deep mined, However, there are open pit mining operations working on coal seams up to 1000–1500 feet below ground level, for instance Tagebau Hambach in Germany. When coal seams are near the surface, it may be economical to extract the coal using open cut mining methods, open cast coal mining recovers a greater proportion of the coal deposit than underground methods, as more of the coal seams in the strata may be exploited. In this mining method, explosives are first used in order to break through the surface or overburden, the overburden is then removed by draglines or by shovel and truck. Once the coal seam is exposed, it is drilled, fractured, the coal is then loaded onto large trucks or conveyors for transport to either the coal preparation plant or directly to where it will be used
24.
Henry Ford
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Henry Ford was an American industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, and the sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production. Although Ford invented neither the nor the assembly line, he developed and manufactured the first automobile that many middle class Americans could afford. In doing so, Ford converted the automobile from an expensive curiosity into a practical conveyance that would impact the landscape of the 20th Century. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry, as the owner of the Ford Motor Company, he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world. He is credited with Fordism, mass production of inexpensive goods coupled with high wages for workers, Ford had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the Ford Foundation, Ford was also widely known for his pacifism during the first years of World War I, and for promoting antisemitism through his newspaper The Dearborn Independent and the book The International Jew. Henry Ford was born July 30,1863, on a farm in Greenfield Township, Henry Fords siblings were Margaret Ford, Jane Ford, William Ford and Robert Ford. His father gave him a watch in his early teens. At 15, Ford dismantled and reassembled the timepieces of friends and neighbors dozens of times, at twenty, Ford walked four miles to their Episcopal church every Sunday. Ford was devastated when his mother died in 1876 and his father expected him to eventually take over the family farm, but he despised farm work. He later wrote, I never had any love for the farm—it was the mother on the farm I loved. In 1879, Ford left home to work as an apprentice machinist in Detroit, flower & Bros. and later with the Detroit Dry Dock Co. In 1882, he returned to Dearborn to work on the family farm and he was later hired by Westinghouse to service their steam engines. During this period Ford also studied bookkeeping at Goldsmith, Bryant & Stratton Business College in Detroit, Ford married Clara Jane Bryant on April 11,1888 and supported himself by farming and running a sawmill. They had one child, Edsel Ford, in 1891, Ford became an engineer with the Edison Illuminating Company. After his promotion to Chief Engineer in 1893, he had enough time and these experiments culminated in 1896 with the completion of a self-propelled vehicle which he named the Ford Quadricycle. He test-drove it on June 4, after various test drives, Ford brainstormed ways to improve the Quadricycle. Also in 1896, Ford attended a meeting of Edison executives, Edison approved of Fords automobile experimentation
25.
Ford Motor Company
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The Ford Motor Company is an American multinational automaker headquartered in Dearborn, Michigan, a suburb of Detroit. It was founded by Henry Ford and incorporated on June 16,1903, the company sells automobiles and commercial vehicles under the Ford brand and most luxury cars under the Lincoln brand. Ford also owns Brazilian SUV manufacturer, Troller, and Australian performance car manufacturer FPV, in the past, it has also produced tractors and automotive components. Ford owns an 8% stake in Aston Martin of the United Kingdom, and it also has a number of joint-ventures, one in China, one in Taiwan, one in Thailand, one in Turkey, and one in Russia. It is listed on the New York Stock Exchange and is controlled by the Ford family, Fords former UK subsidiaries Jaguar and Land Rover, acquired in 1989 and 2000 respectively, were sold to Tata Motors in March 2008. Ford owned the Swedish automaker Volvo from 1999 to 2010, in 2011, Ford discontinued the Mercury brand, under which it had marketed entry-level luxury cars in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Middle East since 1938. During the financial crisis at the beginning of the 21st century, it was close to bankruptcy, Ford is the second-largest U. S. -based automaker and the fifth-largest in the world based on 2015 vehicle production. At the end of 2010, Ford was the fifth largest automaker in Europe, Ford is the eighth-ranked overall American-based company in the 2010 Fortune 500 list, based on global revenues in 2009 of $118.3 billion. In 2008, Ford produced 5.532 million automobiles and employed about 213,000 employees at around 90 plants, the company went public in 1956 but the Ford family, through special Class B shares, still retain 40 percent voting rights. The Ford Motor Company was launched in a factory in 1903 with $28,000 in cash from twelve investors, most notably John. During its early years, the company produced just a few cars a day at its factory on Mack Avenue and later its factory on Piquette Avenue in Detroit, Michigan. Groups of two or three men worked on car, assembling it from parts made mostly by supplier companies contracting for Ford. Henry Ford was 39 years old when he founded the Ford Motor Company and it has been in continuous family control for over 100 years and is one of the largest family-controlled companies in the world. The first gasoline powered automobile had been created in 1885 by the German inventor Carl Benz, between 1903 and 1908, Ford produced the Models A, B, C, F, K, N, R, and S. Hundreds or a few thousand of most of these were sold per year, in 1908, Ford introduced the mass-produced Model T, which totalled millions sold over nearly 20 years. In 1927, Ford replaced the T with the Model A, Ford launched the first low-priced car with a V8 engine in 1932. In an attempt to compete with General Motors mid-priced Pontiac, Oldsmobile, Henry Ford purchased the Lincoln Motor Company in 1922, in order to compete with such brands as Cadillac and Packard for the luxury segment of the automobile market. The creation of a laboratory in Dearborn, Michigan in 1951, doing unfettered basic research
26.
Belt (mechanical)
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A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to transmit power efficiently, belts are looped over pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel. In a two pulley system, the belt can either drive the pulleys normally in one direction, or the belt may be crossed, as a source of motion, a conveyor belt is one application where the belt is adapted to carry a load continuously between two points. Belts are the cheapest utility for power transmission between shafts that may not be axially aligned, power transmission is achieved by specially designed belts and pulleys. The demands on a transmission system are large, and this has led to many variations on the theme. They run smoothly and with noise, and cushion motor and bearings against load changes. However, improvements in belt engineering allow use of belts in systems that only formerly allowed chains or gears. They are related as T1 T2 = e μ α, where, μ is the coefficient of friction, Belt drives are simple, inexpensive, and do not require axially aligned shafts. They help protect machinery from overload and jam, and damp and isolate noise and they need no lubrication and minimal maintenance. They have high efficiency, high tolerance for misalignment, and are of low cost if the shafts are far apart. Clutch action is activated by releasing belt tension, different speeds can be obtained by stepped or tapered pulleys. The angular-velocity ratio may not be constant or equal to that of the diameters, due to slip. However, this problem has largely solved by the use of toothed belts. Working temperatures range from −31 °F to 185 °F, adjustment of center distance or addition of an idler pulley is crucial to compensate for wear and stretch. Flat belts were used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in line shafting to transmit power in factories. Flat belts are used today, although not nearly as much as in the line-shaft era. The flat belt is a system of power transmission that was well suited for its day. It can deliver power at high speeds, in cases of wide belts
27.
Warp and weft
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In weaving, the weft is the term for the thread or yarn which is drawn through, inserted over-and-under, the lengthwise warp yarns that are held in tension on a frame or loom to create cloth. Warp is the lengthwise or longitudinal thread in a roll, while weft is the transverse thread, a single thread of the weft, crossing the warp, is called a pick. Each individual warp thread in a fabric is called an end or end. The weft is a thread or yarn usually made of spun fibre, the original fibres used were wool, flax or cotton. Today, man-made fibres are used in weaving. Because the weft does not have to be stretched on a loom in the way that the warp is, the weft is threaded through the warp using a shuttle, air jets or rapier grippers. Hand looms were the original weavers tool, with the shuttle being threaded through alternately raised warps by hand, inventions during the 18th century spurred the Industrial Revolution, with the picking stick and the flying shuttle speeding up production of cloth. The power loom patented by Edmund Cartwright in 1785 allowed sixty picks per minute, a useful way of remembering which is warp and which is weft is, one of them goes from weft to wight. The words woof and weft derive ultimately from the Old English word wefan, Warp means that which is thrown away. Very simple looms use a warp, in which a single. Because the warp is held under tension during the entire process of weaving and warp yarn must be strong, yarn for warp ends is usually spun. Traditional fibres for warping are wool, linen, alpaca, with the improvements in spinning technology during the Industrial Revolution, it became possible to make cotton yarn of sufficient strength to be used as the warp in mechanized weaving. Later, artificial or man-made fibres such as nylon or rayon were employed, while most people are familiar with weft-faced weavings, it is possible to create warp-faced weavings using densely arranged warp threads. In warp-faced weavings, the design for the textile is in the warp, warp-faced weavings are defined by length-wise stripes and vertical designs due to the limitations of color placement. The expression woof and warp is used metaphorically as one might similarly use fabric, e. g. the warp. The expression is used as a metaphor for the structure on which something is built. Warp or woof are also found in the Bible in the discussion of mildews found in cloth materials in Leviticus 13. Weft is also a term for temporary hair extensions
28.
Polyester
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Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate, polyesters include naturally occurring chemicals, such as in the cutin of plant cuticles, as well as synthetics through step-growth polymerization such as polybutyrate. Natural polyesters and a few synthetic ones are biodegradable, but most synthetic polyesters are not and this material is used very widely in clothing. Depending on the structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners, however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics, industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters, Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant— in fact, the only class of dyes which can be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyester fibers are spun together with natural fibers to produce a cloth with blended properties. Cotton-polyester blends can be strong, wrinkle and tear-resistant, and reduce shrinking, synthetic fibers in polyester also create materials with water, wind and environmental resistance compared to plant-derived fibers. Disadvantages of cotton and polyester blends include being less breathable than cotton and they are also less fire resistant and can melt when ignited. Polyester blends have been renamed so as to suggest their similarity or even superiority to natural fibers. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire, polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish. Liquid crystalline polyesters are among the first industrially used liquid crystal polymers and they are used for their mechanical properties and heat-resistance. These traits are important in their application as an abradable seal in jet engines. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat, while combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and they are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as parts of cars
29.
Nylon
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Nylon is a generic designation for a family of synthetic polymers, more specifically aliphatic or semi-aromatic polyamides. They can be melt-processed into fibers, films or shapes, the first example of nylon was produced on February 28,1935, by Wallace Carothers at DuPonts research facility at the DuPont Experimental Station. Nylon polymers have significant commercial applications in fibers, in shapes. Nylon is made of repeating units linked by bonds and is a type of polyamide and is frequently referred to as such. Nylon was the first commercially successful synthetic thermoplastic polymer, commercially, nylon polymer is made by reacting monomers which are either lactams, acid/amines or stoichiometric mixtures of diamines and diacids. Mixtures of these can be polymerized together to make copolymers, Nylon polymers can be mixed with a wide variety of additives to achieve many different property variations. Nylon was invented accidentally by Julian W. Hill, a chemist for DuPont under Wallace Carotherss supervision and it was only given this name at the 1939 New York Worlds Fair. The patents were owned by DuPont, Nylon was intended to be a synthetic replacement for silk and substituted for it in many different products after silk became scarce during World War II. It replaced silk in military applications such as parachutes and flak vests, after initial commercialization of nylon as a fiber, applications in the form of shapes and films were also developed. The main market for nylon shapes now is in auto components, in 1940, John W. Eckelberry of DuPont stated that the letters nyl were arbitrary and the on was copied from the suffixes of other fibers such as cotton and rayon. A later publication by DuPont explained that the name was intended to be No-Run. Since the products were not really run-proof, the vowels were swapped to produce nuron, for clarity in pronunciation, the i was changed to y. Most nylons are made from the reaction of an acid with a diamine or a lactam or amino acid with itself. In the first case, the structure is so-called ABAB similar to polyesters and polyurethanes, in the second case, the repeating unit corresponds to the single monomer. It is difficult to get the proportions exactly correct, and deviations can lead to termination at molecular weights less than a desirable 10,000 daltons. To overcome this problem, a crystalline, solid nylon salt can be formed at room temperature, using an exact 1,1 ratio of the acid, the salt is crystallized to purify it and obtain the desired precise stoichiometry. Heated to 285 °C, the salt reacts to form nylon polymer with the production of water, Wallace Carothers at DuPont patented nylon 66, but overlooked the possibility to use lactams. That synthetic route was developed by Paul Schlack at IG Farben, leading to nylon 6, the peptide bond within the caprolactam is broken with the exposed active groups on each side being incorporated into two new bonds as the monomer becomes part of the polymer backbone
30.
Cotton
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Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus Gossypium in the family of Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, under natural conditions, the cotton bolls will tend to increase the dispersal of the seeds. The plant is a native to tropical and subtropical regions around the world, including the Americas, Africa. The greatest diversity of wild species is found in Mexico, followed by Australia. Cotton was independently domesticated in the Old and New Worlds, the fiber is most often spun into yarn or thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. Current estimates for world production are about 25 million tonnes or 110 million bales annually, China is the worlds largest producer of cotton, but most of this is used domestically. The United States has been the largest exporter for many years, in the United States, cotton is usually measured in bales, which measure approximately 0.48 cubic meters and weigh 226.8 kilograms. Cotton cultivation in the region is dated to the Indus Valley Civilization, the Indus cotton industry was well-developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be used until the industrialization of India. Between 2000 and 1000 BC cotton became widespread across much of India, for example, it has been found at the site of Hallus in Karnataka dating from around 1000 BC. Cotton fabrics discovered in a cave near Tehuacán, Mexico have been dated to around 5800 BC, the domestication of Gossypium hirsutum in Mexico is dated between 3400 and 2300 BC. Cotton was grown upriver, made into nets, and traded with fishing villages along the coast for supplies of fish. The Spanish who came to Mexico and Peru in the early 16th century found the people growing cotton and this may be a reference to tree cotton, Gossypium arboreum, which is a native of the Indian subcontinent. According to the Columbia Encyclopedia, Cotton has been spun, woven and it clothed the people of ancient India, Egypt, and China. Hundreds of years before the Christian era, cotton textiles were woven in India with matchless skill, in Iran, the history of cotton dates back to the Achaemenid era, however, there are few sources about the planting of cotton in pre-Islamic Iran. The planting of cotton was common in Merv, Ray and Pars of Iran, in Persian poets poems, especially Ferdowsis Shahname, there are references to cotton. Marco Polo refers to the products of Persia, including cotton. John Chardin, a French traveler of the 17th century who visited the Safavid Persia, during the Han dynasty, cotton was grown by Chinese peoples in the southern Chinese province of Yunnan. Mohamed Ali Pasha accepted the proposition and granted himself the monopoly on the sale and export of cotton in Egypt, and later dictated cotton should be grown in preference to other crops
31.
Aramid
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Aramid fibers are a class of heat-resistant and strong synthetic fibers. They are used in aerospace and military applications, for ballistic-rated body armor fabric and ballistic composites, in bicycle tires, the name is a portmanteau of aromatic polyamide. They are fibers in which the molecules are highly oriented along the fiber axis. Aromatic polyamides were first introduced in commercial applications in the early 1960s, with a fiber produced by DuPont as HT-1. This fiber, which similarly to normal textile apparel fibers, is characterized by its excellent resistance to heat. It is used extensively in the production of protective apparel, air filtration, much work was done by Stephanie Kwolek in 1961 while working at DuPont, and that company was the first to introduce a para-aramid called Kevlar in 1973. A similar fiber called Twaron with roughly the same structure was introduced by Akzo in 1978. Due to earlier patents on the process, Akzo and DuPont engaged in a patent dispute in the 1980s. Twaron is currently owned by the Teijin company, para-aramids are used in many high-tech applications, such as aerospace and military applications, for bullet-proof body armor fabric. However, in 2009, it was shown that inhaled aramid fibrils are shortened and quickly cleared from the body, world capacity of para-aramid production was estimated at about 41,000 tonnes per year in 2002 and increases each year by 5–10%. In 2007 this means a total capacity of around 55,000 tonnes per year. Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between a group and a carboxylic acid halide group. Simple AB homopolymers may look like n NH2−Ar−COCl → −n− + n HCl The most well-known aramids are AABB polymers, Nomex, Teijinconex and New Star contain predominantly the meta-linkage and are poly-metaphenylene isophthalamides. Kevlar and Twaron are both p-phenylene terephthalamides, the simplest form of the AABB para-polyaramide, PPTA is a product of p-phenylene diamine and terephthaloyl dichloride. Production of PPTA relies on a co-solvent with a component to occupy the hydrogen bonds of the amide groups. This process was invented by Leo Vollbracht, who worked at the Dutch chemical firm Akzo, apart from the carcinogenic Hexamethylphosphorous Triamide, still no practical alternative of dissolving the polymer is known. The use of the NMP/CaCl2 system led to a patent dispute between Akzo and DuPont. After production of the polymer, the fiber is produced by spinning the dissolved polymer to a solid fiber from a liquid chemical blend
32.
Chuquicamata
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Flotation and smelting facilities were installed in 1952, and expansion of the refining facilities in 1968 made 500,000 ton annual copper production possible in the late 1970s. The mine is owned and operated by Codelco, a Chilean state enterprise, since the Chilean nationalization of copper in the late 1960s and its depth of 850 metres makes it the second deepest open-pit mine in the world. There are several versions of the meaning of Chuquicamata, the most widely known seems to be that it means the limit of the land of the Chucos. Another says that it means metal tipped wooden spear, a third says that it means the distance that a spear was thrown by an Atacameño to determine the size of the copper orebody that a god intended to give him as a reward. Yet another theory is that it means Pico de Oro or Peak of Gold, the name Chuquicamata is a word from the Aymara language and refers to the chuco or chuqui Native American Indian group. They worked the copper deposits here in times to make their weapons. Besides the Incas and Spanish explorers, Chilean and English companies mined the brochantite veins from 1879 to 1912, the opencast was the biggest pit in the world during the nineties. It is also said that Pedro de Valdivia obtained copper horseshoes from the natives when he passed through in the early 16th Century. Mining activity was small scale until the War of the Pacific when Chile annexed large areas of both Peru and Bolivia north of its old border, which included Chuquicamata. There was then an influx of miners into the area drawn in by Red Gold Fever and soon Chuquicamata was covered with mines and mining claims. It was a wild and disorganised camp, as late as 1918 the army had to be sent in to keep order. The towns were eventually buried under the waste dumps to the east of the mine and these early operations mined veins such as the Zaragoza and Balmaceda, which were high grade with values up to 10-15% copper, and disregarded the low grade disseminated ore. One attempt was made to process the low grade ore in 1899-1900 by Norman Walker, a partner in La Compañia de Cobres de Antofagasta, but it failed leaving the company deeply in debt. However, mining never really developed satisfactorily in the early days because of the lack of water, the modern era started when the American engineer Bradley finally developed a method of working low grade oxidised copper ores. In 1910 he approached the lawyer and industrialist Albert C Burrage who sent engineers to examine Chuquicamata and it was the start of copper mining by the Chile Exploration Company of the Guggenheim Group. Their reports were good and in April 1911 he started to buy up mines and claims, mainly from the mining companies. Since Burrage did not have the capital to develop a mine and they examined his claims and estimated reserves at 690 million tonnes grading 2. 58% copper. E. A. Cappelen Smith, consulting metallurgist for M. Chilex then went ahead with the development, the 10,000 tons per day leaching plant was planned to produce 50,000 tons of electrolytic copper annually
33.
Chile
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Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a South American country occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island in Oceania. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres of Antarctica, the arid Atacama Desert in northern Chile contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes, the southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands. Spain conquered and colonized Chile in the century, replacing Inca rule in northern and central Chile. After declaring its independence from Spain in 1818, Chile emerged in the 1830s as a relatively stable authoritarian republic, in the 1960s and 1970s the country experienced severe left-right political polarization and turmoil. The regime, headed by Augusto Pinochet, ended in 1990 after it lost a referendum in 1988 and was succeeded by a coalition which ruled through four presidencies until 2010. Chile is today one of South Americas most stable and prosperous nations and it leads Latin American nations in rankings of human development, competitiveness, income per capita, globalization, state of peace, economic freedom, and low perception of corruption. It also ranks high regionally in sustainability of the state, Chile is a founding member of the United Nations, the Union of South American Nations and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States. There are various theories about the origin of the word Chile, another theory points to the similarity of the valley of the Aconcagua with that of the Casma Valley in Peru, where there was a town and valley named Chili. Another origin attributed to chilli is the onomatopoeic cheele-cheele—the Mapuche imitation of the warble of a locally known as trile. The Spanish conquistadors heard about this name from the Incas, ultimately, Almagro is credited with the universalization of the name Chile, after naming the Mapocho valley as such. The older spelling Chili was in use in English until at least 1900 before switching over to Chile, stone tool evidence indicates humans sporadically frequented the Monte Verde valley area as long as 18,500 years ago. About 10,000 years ago, migrating Native Americans settled in fertile valleys, settlement sites from very early human habitation include Monte Verde, Cueva del Milodon and the Pali Aike Craters lava tube. They fought against the Sapa Inca Tupac Yupanqui and his army, the result of the bloody three-day confrontation known as the Battle of the Maule was that the Inca conquest of the territories of Chile ended at the Maule river. The next Europeans to reach Chile were Diego de Almagro and his band of Spanish conquistadors, the Spanish encountered various cultures that supported themselves principally through slash-and-burn agriculture and hunting. The conquest of Chile began in earnest in 1540 and was carried out by Pedro de Valdivia, one of Francisco Pizarros lieutenants, who founded the city of Santiago on 12 February 1541. Although the Spanish did not find the gold and silver they sought, they recognized the agricultural potential of Chiles central valley
34.
Yanzhou Coal Mining Company
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Yanzhou Coal Mining Company, majority owned by Yankuang Group, is a coal mining company in Mainland China. It is engaged in mining coal preparation and sales. Its products are mainly low-sulphur coal which is suitable for power plant. As of their June 2015 filing, Yanzhou Coal Mining Company ranked no.1 amongst Chinese companies for deferred tax assets and its headquarters is located in Zoucheng, Jining, Shandong. Its chairman is Mr. Zhang Xinwen, the Company’s parent and ultimate holding company is Yankuang Group Corporation Limited. Its stock is listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange, Shanghai Stock Exchange, Yanzhou Coal is principally engaged in underground coal mining, preparation and processing, sales, and railway transportation of coal. The Company is organized into three operating divisions, coal mining, coal railway transportation and methanol and electrical power, the coal mining segment is engaged in the underground mining, preparation and sales of coal. The coal railway transportation segment is engaged in the provision of transportation services. The methanol and electricity power segment is engaged in the production and sales of methanol, Yanzhou Coal’s subsidiaries include Austar Coal Mine Pty, Limited, Heze, Felix Resources, Yancoal Australia Pty, Limited, Shandong Yanmei Shipping Co. Ltd. Yanzhou Coal Yulin Power Chemical Co. Ltd, Ltd, Shanxi Neng Hua, Shanxi Tianchi and Shanxi Tianhao. During the year ended December 31,2008, the Company sold 37.56 million tons of salable coal, the customers of Yanzhou Coal are mainly located in Eastern China, Southern China and the East Asia such as Japan and South Korea. Yanzhou Coal Mining Company Yanzhou Coal
35.
China
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China, officially the Peoples Republic of China, is a unitary sovereign state in East Asia and the worlds most populous country, with a population of over 1.381 billion. The state is governed by the Communist Party of China and its capital is Beijing, the countrys major urban areas include Shanghai, Guangzhou, Beijing, Chongqing, Shenzhen, Tianjin and Hong Kong. China is a power and a major regional power within Asia. Chinas landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from forest steppes, the Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third and sixth longest in the world, respectively, Chinas coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 kilometers long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China emerged as one of the worlds earliest civilizations in the basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain. For millennia, Chinas political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties, in 1912, the Republic of China replaced the last dynasty and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949, when it was defeated by the communist Peoples Liberation Army in the Chinese Civil War. The Communist Party established the Peoples Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949, both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China, though the latter has more recognition in the world and controls more territory. China had the largest economy in the world for much of the last two years, during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline. Since the introduction of reforms in 1978, China has become one of the worlds fastest-growing major economies. As of 2016, it is the worlds second-largest economy by nominal GDP, China is also the worlds largest exporter and second-largest importer of goods. China is a nuclear weapons state and has the worlds largest standing army. The PRC is a member of the United Nations, as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U. N. Security Council in 1971. China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations, including the WTO, APEC, BRICS, the Shanghai Cooperation Organization, the BCIM, the English name China is first attested in Richard Edens 1555 translation of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa. The demonym, that is, the name for the people, Portuguese China is thought to derive from Persian Chīn, and perhaps ultimately from Sanskrit Cīna. Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahābhārata, there are, however, other suggestions for the derivation of China. The official name of the state is the Peoples Republic of China. The shorter form is China Zhōngguó, from zhōng and guó and it was then applied to the area around Luoyi during the Eastern Zhou and then to Chinas Central Plain before being used as an occasional synonym for the state under the Qing
36.
Moving walkway
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Moving walkways can be used by standing or walking on them. They are often installed in pairs, one for each direction, the first moving walkway debuted at the Worlds Columbian Exposition of 1893, in Chicago, Illinois, in the United States. It had two different divisions, one where passengers were seated, and one where riders could stand or walk and it ran in a loop down the length of a lakefront pier to a casino. Six years later a moving walkway was also presented to the public at the Paris Exposition Universelle in 1900, the walkway consisted of three elevated platforms, the first was stationary, the second moved at a moderate speed, and the third at about six miles per hour. These demonstrations likely served as inspiration for some of H. G. Wells settings mentioned in the Science Fiction section below, the proposed drive system used a linear induction motor. The first commercial moving walkway in the United States was installed in 1954 in Jersey City, NJ, named the Speedwalk and built by Goodyear, it was 277 ft long and moved up a 10 percent grade at a speed of 1.5 mph. The walkway was removed a few years later when traffic patterns at the station changed, the first moving walkway in an airport was installed in 1958 at Love Field in Dallas, Texas. On January 1,1960, Tina Marie Brandon, age 2, was killed on the moving sidewalk, most have a metal surface, though some models have a rubber surface for extra traction. Moving belt — these are built with mesh metal belts or rubber walking surfaces over metal rollers. The walking surface may have a feel or a bouncy feel. Both types of moving walkway have a surface to mesh with combplates at the ends. Also, nearly all moving walkways are built with moving handrails similar to those on escalators, pallet-types consists of one-piece, die-cast aluminium pallets. Example dimensions are, widths, between 32 inches and 56 inches, with a speed of 100 feet per minute, powered by an AC induction motor, in the 1970s, Dunlop developed the Speedaway system. It was in fact an invention by Gabriel Bouladon and Paul Zuppiger of the Battelle Memorial Institute at their former Geneva, Switzerland facility. A prototype was built and demonstrated at the Battelle Institute in Geneva in the early 1970s, the entrance to the system was like a very wide escalator, with broad metal tread plates of a parallelogram shape. The passenger was accelerated through a path to a maximum design speed of 15 km/h. The experience was unfamiliar to passengers, who needed to understand how to use the system to be able to do so safely, developing a moving hand-rail for the system presented a challenge, also solved by the Battelle team. The system was still in development in 1975 but never went into commercial production, another attempt at an accelerated walkway in the 1980s was the TRAX, which was developed by Dassault and RATP and whose prototype was installed in the Paris Invalides metro station
37.
Escalator
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An escalator is a vertical transportation device in the form of a moving staircase – a conveyor which carries people between floors of a building. It consists of a chain of individually linked steps. These steps are guided on either side by a pair of tracks which force them to remain horizontal, escalators are used around the world in places where elevators would be impractical. Principal areas of usage include department stores, shopping malls, airports, transit systems, convention centers, hotels, arenas, stadiums, escalators have the capacity to move a large number of people, and they can be placed in the same physical space as a staircase. They have no waiting interval, they can be used to guide people toward main exits or special exhibits, a non-functioning escalator can function as a normal staircase, whereas many other conveyances become useless when they break down. Escalators, like moving walkways, move at constant speeds of around 0. 3–0.6 metres per second, the typical angle of inclination of an escalator to the horizontal is 30 degrees, and the total difference in height can be about 18 metres or more. Modern escalators have single-piece aluminum or stainless steel steps that move on a system of tracks in a continuous loop, escalators have three typical configuration options, parallel, crisscross, and multiple parallel. As a safety measure, escalators are required to have moving handrails that keep pace with the movement of the steps and this helps riders steady themselves, especially when stepping onto the moving stairs. Occasionally, a handrail will move at a different speed from the steps. The loss of synchronization between handrail and step speed can result from slippage and wear, as a result, escalators must have moving handrails that move at the same speed as the moving stairs of the escalator. The direction of movement can be permanently set, or controlled manually depending on the predominant flow of the crowd. In some setups, the direction is controlled by whoever arrives first, a number of factors affect escalator design. These include physical requirements, location, traffic patterns, safety considerations, foremost, physical factors like the vertical and horizontal distance to be spanned must be considered. These factors will determine the length and pitch of the escalator, the building infrastructure must be able to support the heavy components. The escalator should be located where it can be seen by the general public. Furthermore, up and down escalator traffic should be physically separated, traffic patterns must also be anticipated. The escalators must be designed to carry the number of passengers. For example, a single-width escalator traveling at about 0.5 metres per second can move about 2000 people per hour, the carrying capacity of an escalator system must match the expected peak traffic demand
38.
Assembly line
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Assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods. Assembly lines are designed for the organization of workers, tools or machines. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible, all parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as fork lifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by such as overhead cranes or fork lifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation, use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are delivered at convenient distances. Consider the assembly of a car, assume that certain steps in the line are to install the engine, install the hood. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time, if engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes. In an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously, when one station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, a total of three different cars can be operated on at the time, each one at a different stage of its assembly. After finishing its work on the first car, the installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station. After the engine has been installed on the car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car’s engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the station, meanwhile. Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand, a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts and they would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together. Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book The Wealth of Nations, the Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed, although the Venice Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then
39.
Check-out counter
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The point of sale or point of purchase is the time and place where a retail transaction is completed. It is also the point at which a customer makes a payment to the merchant in exchange for goods or after provision of a service. After receiving payment, the merchant may issue a receipt for the transaction, which is usually printed, to calculate the amount owed by a customer, the merchant may use any of a variety of aids available, such as weighing scales, barcode scanners, and cash registers. To make a payment, payment terminals, touch screens, the point of sale is often referred to as the point of service because it is not just a point of sale but also a point of return or customer order. Additionally, current POS terminal software may include features to cater for different functionality, such as inventory management, CRM, financials. Businesses are increasingly adopting POS systems and one of the most obvious, selling prices are linked to the product code of an item when adding stock, so the cashier merely needs to scan this code to process a sale. If there is a change, this can also be easily done through the inventory window. Other advantages include ability to implement various types of discounts, a loyalty scheme for customers, retailers and marketers will often refer to the area around the checkout instead as the point of purchase when they are discussing it from the retailers perspective. This is particularly the case when planning and designing the area as well as considering a marketing strategy. Nevertheless, it is the term POS system rather than retail management system that is in vogue among both end-users and vendors, early electronic cash registers were controlled with proprietary software and were limited in function and communication capability. This system was the first commercial use of technology, peer-to-peer communications, local area network simultaneous backup. By mid-1974, it was installed in Pathmark stores in New Jersey, one of the first microprocessor-controlled cash register systems was built by William Brobeck and Associates in 1974, for McDonalds Restaurants. It used the Intel 8008, an early microprocessor. By pressing the button, a second or third order could be worked on while the first transaction was in progress, when the customer was ready to pay, the button would calculate the bill, including sales tax for almost any jurisdiction in the United States. This made it accurate for McDonalds and very convenient for the servers, up to eight devices were connected to one of two interconnected computers so that printed reports, prices, and taxes could be handled from any desired device by putting it into Manager Mode. In addition to the memory, accuracy was enhanced by having three copies of all important data with many numbers stored only as multiples of 3. Should one computer fail, the other could handle the entire store, in 1986, Gene Mosher introduced the first graphical point of sale software featuring a touchscreen interface under the ViewTouch trademark on the 16-bit Atari 520ST color computer. It featured a color touchscreen widget-driven interface that allowed configuration of widgets representing menu items without low level programming, the ViewTouch point of sale software was first demonstrated in public at Fall Comdex,1986, in Las Vegas Nevada to large crowds visiting the Atari Computer booth
40.
Ski resort
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A ski resort is a resort developed for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter sports. In Europe, most ski resorts are towns or villages in or adjacent to a ski area – a mountainous area with pistes, ski trails, the ski industry has identified advancing generations of ski resorts, First generation Developed around a well-established summer resort or village. Second generation Created from a non-tourist village or pasture, third generation or integrated Designed from scratch on virgin territory to be a purpose-built ski resort, all the amenities and services nearby. Fourth generation or village resorts Created from virgin territory or around an existing village, the term ski station is also used, particularly in Europe, for a skiing facility which is not located in or near a town or village. A ski resort which is open for summer activities is often referred to as a mountain resort. Ski areas have marked paths for skiing known as runs, trails or pistes, Ski areas typically have one or more chairlifts for moving skiers rapidly to the top of hills, and to interconnect the various trails. Rope tows can also be used on short slopes, larger ski areas may use gondolas or aerial trams for transportation across longer distances within the ski area. Ski areas usually have at least a basic first aid facility, the ski patrol is usually responsible for rule enforcement, marking hazards, closing individual runs, and removing dangerous participants from the area. Some ski resorts offer lodging options on the slopes themselves, with ski-in, après-ski is a term for entertainment, nightlife or social events that occur specifically at ski resorts. These add to the enjoyment of resort-goers and provide something to do besides skiing and snowboarding, the culture originated in the Alps, where it is most popular and where skiers often stop at bars on their last run of the day while still wearing all their ski gear. People that browse ski resort & hotel websites will commonly seek mention of the quality of après-ski in the area and it is therefore seen as an important factor for skiers to consider before booking a holiday. The concept is similar to the hole in golf. The process of development have progressed since the birth of the skiing industry. Amenities and infrastructure such as buildings, ski-lifts, gondolas, access roads, parking lots. In recent years, the use of snow cannons have increased due to the fall in the volume of snow, in order to obtain good quality snow, dust or bacteria is mixed with the water in the process of snow making to form better snowflakes. Not only that the manufacture of artificial snow is costly and uses large amounts of water, snow cannons redistributes a large amount of water unnaturally over the land and freezes the ground vegetation late into spring, preventing growth and leaving pistes bare. With enough amount of water, and the likelihood of landslides and avalanches would be drastically higher. The required space for hotels, flats and secondary residences has increased the amount of space occupied by roads, while a large amount of people requires special water, sewage and electricity systems, a great deal of construction work is needed
41.
Surface lift
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A surface lift is a means of cable transport and is a transportation system used to transport skiers and snowboarders where riders remain on the ground as they are pulled uphill. Once prevalent, they have gradually been overtaken in popularity by higher capacity aerial lifts like chairlifts, today, surface lifts are most often found on beginner slopes and very small ski areas. Surface lifts have many disadvantages compared to aerial lifts, they require more passenger skills, surface must be continuous, they impede skiable terrain, slow speed, with the increase in snowboarding, surface lifts are replaced by chairlifts. They are often utilized at glacier skiing resorts because their supports can be anchored in glacier ice due to the lower forces, the first surface lift was built in 1908 by German Robert Winterhalder in Schollach/Eisenbach, Hochschwarzwald. A steam-powered toboggan tow,950 feet in length, was built in Truckee, California, the first skier-specific tow in North America was apparently installed in 1933 by Alec Foster at Shawbridge in the Laurentians outside Montreal, Quebec. The Shawbridge tow was quickly copied at Woodstock, Vermont in New England in 1934 by Bob and Betty Royce and their tow was driven by the rear wheel of a Ford Model A. Their relative simplicity made tows widespread and contributed to an explosion of the sport in the United States, before tows, only people willing to walk uphill could ski. Suddenly relatively unathletic people could participate, greatly increasing the appeal of the sport, within five years, more than 100 tow ropes were operating in North America. A rope tow consists of a cable or rope running through a bullwheel at the bottom and one at the top, in the simplest case, passengers grab hold of the rope and are pulled along while standing on their skis or snowboards and sliding up the hill. The grade of this style of rope tow is limited by passenger grip strength, metal handles can be attached to the rope to help grip. Steeper, faster and longer rope tows require the use of a nutcracker, the rider wears a harness around the hips. To this is attached a clamp, much like the nutcracker from which it derives its name and this eliminates the need to hold on and allows the rope to be supported at waist height by pulleys. This ssystem was used on many fields worldwide from the 1940s, a T-bar or J-bar lift is employed for low-capacity slopes in large resorts and small local areas. It consists of a cable loop running over a series of wheels. Hanging from the rope are a series of vertical recoiling cables, the horizontal bar is placed behind the skiers buttocks or between the snowboarders legs, and pushes the passengers uphill while they slide across the ground. The first T-bar lift in the United States was installed in 1940 at the Pico Mountain ski area and it was considered a great improvement over the rope tow. An earlier, potentially home-grown, T-bar was installed at Rib Mountain, Wisconsin, in 1937, invented in the 1930s, J-Bars were installed in the 1930s in North America and Australia, with the Ski Hoist at Charlotte Pass in Australia dating from 1938. J-bars have been superseded by T-bars which have twice the capacity, a J-bar closely resembles a T-bar, except that each carrier holds only one passenger
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Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Robins, Thomas". Encyclopedia Americana.
Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "