1.
Queensland
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Queensland is the second-largest and third-most-populous state in the Commonwealth of Australia. Situated in the north-east of the country, it is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Australia and New South Wales to the west, south-west, to the east, Queensland is bordered by the Coral Sea and Pacific Ocean. Queensland has a population of 4,750,500, concentrated along the coast, the state is the worlds sixth largest sub-national entity, with an area of 1,852,642 km2. The capital and largest city in the state is Brisbane, Australias third largest city, often referred to as the Sunshine State, Queensland is home to 10 of Australias 30 largest cities and is the nations third largest economy. Tourism in the state, fuelled largely by its tropical climate, is a major industry. Queensland was first inhabited by Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders, the first European to land in Queensland was Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon in 1606, who explored the west coast of the Cape York Peninsula near present-day Weipa. In 1770, Lieutenant James Cook claimed the east coast of Australia for the Kingdom of Great Britain. The colony of New South Wales was founded in 1788 by Governor Arthur Phillip at Sydney, New South Wales at that time included all of what is now Queensland, Queensland was explored in subsequent decades until the establishment of a penal colony at Brisbane in 1824 by John Oxley. Penal transportation ceased in 1839 and free settlement was allowed from 1842, the state was named in honour of Queen Victoria, who on 6 June 1859 signed Letters Patent separating the colony from New South Wales. The 6th of June is now celebrated statewide as Queensland Day. Queensland achieved statehood with the Federation of Australia on 1 January 1901, the history of Queensland spans thousands of years, encompassing both a lengthy indigenous presence, as well as the eventful times of post-European settlement. The north-eastern Australian region was explored by Dutch, Spanish and French navigators before being encountered by Lieutenant James Cook in 1770, the Australian Labor Party has its origin as a formal organisation in Queensland and the town of Barcaldine is the symbolic birthplace of the party. June 2009 marked the 150th anniversary of its creation as a colony from New South Wales. The Aboriginal occupation of Queensland is thought to predate 50,000 BC, likely via boat or land bridge across Torres Strait, during the last ice age Queenslands landscape became more arid and largely desolate, making food and other supplies scarce. This led to the worlds first seed-grinding technology, warming again made the land hospitable, which brought high rainfall along the eastern coast, stimulating the growth of the states tropical rainforests. In February 1606, Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon landed near the site of what is now Weipa and this was the first recorded landing of a European in Australia, and it also marked the first reported contact between European and Aboriginal Australian people. The region was explored by French and Spanish explorers prior to the arrival of Lieutenant James Cook in 1770. Cook claimed the east coast under instruction from King George III of the United Kingdom on 22 August 1770 at Possession Island, naming Eastern Australia, including Queensland, the Aboriginal population declined significantly after a smallpox epidemic during the late 18th century
2.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
3.
Census in Australia
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The census in Australia, or officially, the Census of Population and Housing, is a descriptive count of population of Australia on one night, and of their dwellings, generally held quinquennially. Participation in the census is compulsory, though answering some questions is optional, the count is taken every five years and is managed by the Australian Bureau of Statistics. The first Australian census was held in 1911, on the night of 2 April, in 1961 the five-year period was introduced. Censuses are held on the second Tuesday of August, the most recent was held on 9 August 2016. The cost of the 2011 census was $440 million, a separate census of Norfolk Island has been conducted by the Norfolk Island Government every five years since 1981, and occurs on the same day as the Australian census. The census examines data such as age, gender, incomes, occupations, dwelling types and occupancy, transportation modes, ancestry, languages spoken, the Census and Statistics Act 1905 led to the 1906 establishment of the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics. The Bureau was renamed the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 1975, the census is collected and published against geographic areas defined by the Australian Standard Geographical Classification. The ASGC provides a set of classifications for the dissemination of all ABS statistics. In 2007 the ABS published a set of spatial units called mesh blocks. The primary aim of mesh blocks is to provide a block for constructing alternative. Only data on persons and total dwellings is released at the mesh block level. Mesh blocks will form the basis of a new statistical geography, the traditional concept of a Collection District is that it was the area that one census collector can cover in about a ten-day period. In the 2001 census, collectors may be allocated more than one urban district because of their size. In urban areas collection districts average about 220 dwellings, in rural areas the number of dwellings per collection district reduces as population densities decrease. For the 2001 census there were 37,209 collection districts and 1,353 Statistical Local Areas defined throughout Australia, the Census and Statistics Act 1905 and Privacy Act 1988 guarantee that no personally-identifiable information is released from the ABS to other government organisations, or the public. However the ABS makes confidential census data available to researchers, who must make various legal commitments before being given access, in the 1970s there was public debate about privacy and the census. In 1979 the Law Reform Commission reported on Privacy and the Census, one of the key elements under question was the inclusion of names. It was found that excluding names reduced the accuracy of the data, individuals were likely to leave questions blank
4.
Postcodes in Australia
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Postcodes are used in Australia to more efficiently sort and route mail within the postal system. All postcodes in Australia have four digits and are placed at the end of the Australian address, Australian postcodes are managed by Australia Post. Postcodes are published in booklets available from post offices or online from the Australia Post website, Australian envelopes and postcards often have four square boxes printed in orange at the bottom right for the postcode. These are used when addressing mail by hand, use of the Australian postcode system commenced in 1967, implemented by the Postmaster-Generals Department, now called Australia Post. It replaced earlier postal sorting systems, such as Melbournes letter and number codes, if addressing a letter from outside Australia, the postcode is recorded before Australia. They are often linked with one area, due to post code rationalization, But are now sometimes they can be quite complex, especially in country areas. The south-western Victoria 3221 postcode of the Geelong Mail Centre also includes twenty places around Geelong with very few people and this means that mail for these places is not fully sorted until it gets to Geelong. Some postcodes cover large populations, while other postcodes have much smaller populations, Australian postcodes range from 0200 for the Australian National University to 9944 for Cannonvale, Queensland. Some towns and suburbs have two postcodes — one for deliveries and one for post office boxes. g. The Royal Brisbane and Womens Hospital has the postcode 4029, the Australian National University had the postcode 0200, more postcode ranges were made available for LVRs in the 1990s. Australia Post has been progressively discontinuing the LVR programme since 2006, Australian National Universitys postcode 0200 was the last LVR to be closed in September 2014. For example, postcode 2620 covers both a locality in NSW as well as a locality in the ACT, and postcode 0872 covers a number of localities across WA, SA, NT and QLD. Jervis Bay Territory, once an exclave of the ACT but now a territory, is geographically located on the coast of NSW. It is just south of the towns of Vincentia and Huskisson, Mail to the Jervis Bay Territory is still addressed to the ACT. The numbers used to show the state on each radio callsign in Australia are the number as the first number for postcodes in that state, e. g. 2xx in New South Wales, 3xx in Victoria. Radio callsigns pre-date postcodes in Australia by more than forty years, australias external territories are also included in Australia Posts postcode system. Capital city postcodes were the lowest postcodes in their state or territory range, before new ranges for LVRs, however, postcodes with the same second number are not always next to each other. As an example, postcodes in the range 2200–2299 are split between the suburbs of Sydney and the Central Coast of New South Wales
5.
Brisbane
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Brisbane is the capital of and most populous city in the Australian state of Queensland, and the third most populous city in Australia. Brisbanes metropolitan area has a population of 2.35 million, the Brisbane central business district stands on the original European settlement and is situated inside a bend of the Brisbane River, about 15 kilometres from its mouth at Moreton Bay. The demonym of Brisbane is Brisbanite, one of the oldest cities in Australia, Brisbane was founded upon the ancient homelands of the indigenous Turrbal and Jagera peoples. A penal settlement was founded in 1824 at Redcliffe,28 kilometres north of the business district. The city was marred by the Australian frontier wars between 1843 and 1855, and development was set back by the Great Fire of Brisbane. Brisbane was chosen as the capital when Queensland was proclaimed a colony from New South Wales in 1859. During World War II, Brisbane played a role in the Allied campaign. Today, Brisbane is well known for its distinct Queenslander architecture which forms much of the built heritage. It also receives attention for its damaging flood events, most notably in 1974 and 2011. Several large cultural, international and sporting events have held at Brisbane, including the 1982 Commonwealth Games, World Expo 88, the final Goodwill Games in 2001. Prior to white settlement, the Brisbane area was inhabited by the Turrbal and they knew the area that is now the central business district as Mian-jin, meaning place shaped as a spike. The Moreton Bay area was explored by Matthew Flinders. On 17 July 1799, Flinders landed at what is now known as Woody Point, in 1823 Governor of New South Wales Sir Thomas Brisbane instructed that a new northern penal settlement be developed, and an exploration party led by John Oxley further explored Moreton Bay. Oxley discovered, named, and explored the Brisbane River as far as Goodna,20 kilometres upstream from the Brisbane central business district, Oxley recommended Red Cliff Point for the new colony, reporting that ships could land at any tide and easily get close to the shore. The party settled in Redcliffe on 13 September 1824, under the command of Lieutenant Henry Miller with 14 soldiers and 29 convicts. However, this settlement was abandoned after a year and the colony was moved to a site on the Brisbane River now known as North Quay,28 km south, chief Justice Forbes gave the new settlement the name of Edenglassie before it was named Brisbane. Non-convict European settlement of the Brisbane region commenced in 1838, German missionaries settled at Zions Hill, Nundah as early as 1837, five years before Brisbane was officially declared a free settlement. The band consisted of ministers Christopher Eipper and Carl Wilhelm Schmidt and lay missionaries Haussmann, Johann Gottried Wagner, Niquet, Hartenstein, Zillman, Franz, Rode, Doege and they were allocated 260 hectares and set about establishing the mission, which became known as the German Station
6.
Cairns
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Cairns is a major city on the east coast of Far North Queensland in Australia. The city is the 5th-most-populous in Queensland and ranks 14th overall in Australia, Cairns was founded in 1876 and named after William Wellington Cairns, Governor of Queensland from 1875 to 1877. It was formed to serve miners heading for the Hodgkinson River goldfield and it later developed into a railhead and major port for exporting sugar cane, gold and other metals, minerals and agricultural products from surrounding coastal areas and the Atherton Tableland region. The estimated residential population of the Cairns urban area in 2015 was 147,993, based on 2015 data, the associated local government area has experienced an average annual growth rate of 2. 3% over the last 10 years. Cairns is a popular tourist destination because of its climate and access to the Great Barrier Reef. Prior to British settlement, the Cairns area was inhabited by the Gimuy Walubara Yidinji people, the area is known in the local Yidiny language as Gimuy. In 1770, James Cook mapped the site of Cairns. Closer investigation by several official expeditions 100 years later established its potential for development into a port, Cairns was founded in 1876, hastened by the need to export gold discovered on the tablelands to the west of the inlet. The site was predominantly mangrove swamps and sand ridges, labourers gradually cleared the swamps, and the sand ridges were filled with dried mud, sawdust from local sawmills, and ballast from a quarry at Edge Hill. Debris from the construction of a railway to Herberton on the Atherton Tableland, the railway opened up land later used for agriculture on the lowlands, and for fruit and dairy production on the Tableland. The success of local agriculture helped establish Cairns as a port, on 25 April 1926, the Cairns Sailors and Soldiers War Memorial was unveiled by Alexander Frederick Draper, the mayor of the City of Cairns. Combat missions were flown out of Cairns in support of the Battle of the Coral Sea in 1942, Edmonton and White Rock south of Cairns were major military supply areas and US Paratroopers trained at Gordonvale and the Goldsborough Valley. A Special Forces training base was established at the old Fairview homestead on Munros Hill and this base was officially known as the Z Experimental Station, but referred to informally as The House on the Hill. After World War II, Cairns gradually developed into a centre for tourism, the opening of the Cairns International Airport in 1984 helped establish the city as a desirable destination for international tourism. Cairns is located on the east coast of Cape York Peninsula on a strip between the Coral Sea and the Great Dividing Range. The northern part of the city is located on Trinity Bay, to the south of the Trinity Inlet lies the Aboriginal community of Yarrabah. Some of the suburbs are located on flood plains. The Mulgrave River and Barron River flow within the greater Cairns area, the citys centre foreshore is located on a mud flat
7.
Port Douglas
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Port Douglas is a town in Far North Queensland, Australia, approximately 70 km north of Cairns. Its permanent population was 3,205 at the time of the 2011 census, the towns population can often double, however, with the influx of tourists during the peak tourism season May–September. The town is named in honour of former Premier of Queensland, Port Douglas developed quickly based on the mining industry. Other parts of the area were established with timber cutting occurring in the surrounding the Daintree River. Previous names for the town included Terrigal, Island Point, Port Owen, the town is situated adjacent to two World Heritage areas, the Great Barrier Reef and the Daintree Rainforest. Port Douglas was No.3 on Australian Traveller magazines list of 100 Best Towns In Australia, the town is within the Federal electorate of Leichhardt, and within the State electorate of Cook. At local level, It is within the government area of Shire of Douglas. The Port Douglas township was established in 1877 after the discovery of gold at Hodgkinson River by James Venture Mulligan, Port Douglas Post Office opened on 1 September 1877. It grew quickly, and at its peak Port Douglas had a population of 12,000 and 27 hotels, with the construction of the Mulligan Highway it serviced towns as far away as Herberton. When the Kuranda Railway from Cairns to Kuranda was completed in 1891, a cyclone in 1911 which demolished all but two buildings in the town also had a significant impact. At its nadir in 1960 the town, by little more than a fishing village, had a population of 100. The Port Douglas War Memorial was unveiled on 10 February 1923 by Mrs Tresize, in the late-1980s, tourism boomed in the region after investor Christopher Skase financed the construction of the Sheraton Mirage Port Douglas Resort. In November 1996 United States President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Clinton chose the town as their only stop on their historic visit to Australia. When dining at a restaurant they witnessed a couples wedding certificate. On a return visit on 11 September 2001, the then ex-President was again dining at the Salsa Bar and Grill, a local restaurant and he returned to the United States the following day. The town has enjoyed an influx of full-time residents since its rebirth, with most newcomers arriving from Australias south. On 4 September 2006, entertainer a. k. a, irwin was filmed snorkelling directly above the stingray when it lashed him with its tail, embedding its toxic barb. This event was reported both in Australia and overseas
8.
Local government areas of Queensland
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This is a list of local government areas in Queensland, sorted by region. For the history and responsibilities of local government in that state, for former local government areas in Queensland, see List of former local government areas of Queensland. List of former local government areas of Queensland List of places in Queensland by population Shires of Australia
9.
Shire of Cook
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The Shire of Cook is a local government area in Far North Queensland, Australia. The Shire covers most of the eastern and central parts of Cape York Peninsula and it covers an area of 106,188.4 square kilometres, and has existed as a local government entity since 1919. The Daintree and Hann Divisions were created on 11 November 1879 as two of 74 divisions around Queensland under the Divisional Boards Act 1879, with the passage of the Local Authorities Act 1902, they became the Shires of Daintree and Hann on 31 March 1903. On 16 January 1919, they merged to form the Shire of Cook, the Borough of Cooktown was proclaimed as a separate municipality on 3 April 1876 under the Municipal Institutions Act 1864. On 24 August 1932, the Town of Cooktown was absorbed back into Cook Shire and this formed part of the Meeting Challenges, Making Choices strategy developed in response to the Cape York Justice Study undertaken by Justice Fitzgerald QC in November 2001. The council was, however, reduced from seven to six councillors with an elected mayor. Reasons for this cultural and language barriers, transport and geographical spread of the population. As such, all figures are likely to be lower than the population on the census date. Additionally, prior to 1971, Aboriginal people who form a majority of the population were not counted in census statistics, until 1 July 2002, the Australian Bureau of Statistics included the Island and DOGIT councils within the Shire of Cook statistical local area. Information for the reduced Shire back to 1996 has been provided on the ABS website through the Time Series Profile, university of Queensland, Queensland Places, Cook Shire
10.
Lands administrative divisions of Australia
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Many property titles in Australia are listed as being in the parish and county. Parts of South Australia and Western Australia were similarly divided into counties, however South Australia has subdivisions of hundreds instead of parishes, along with the Northern Territory, which was part of South Australia when the hundreds were proclaimed. There were also formerly hundreds in Tasmania, Counties in Australia have no administrative or political function, unlike those in England, the United States or Canada. Australia instead uses local government areas, including shires, districts, councils and municipalities according to the state, below these are groups of land parcels known as deposited plans, registered plans or title plans. Queensland has registered plans, New South Wales and Western Australia have deposited plans, within these are individual land parcels such as lots, in total there are estimated to be about 10.2 million of these in Australia. Counties were used since the earliest British settlement in Australia, with the County of Cumberland proclaimed by Captain Phillip on 4 June 1788, in 1804 Governor King divided Van Diemens Land into two counties, Buckingham in the south and Cornwall in the north. The parishes date to the surveys conducted after 1825, with the given to Governor Brisbane on 23 Jun 1825 to divide the colony into counties, hundreds. At this time there were five counties already proclaimed in New South Wales, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Camden, Argyle, Counties were established soon after the foundation of other Australian colonies. Many of the counties have English names, often the names of counties in England, such as Devon, Dorset, Cornwall, less frequently, some have Aboriginal names such as the County of Yungnulgra in New South Wales, and County of Croajingolong in Victoria. Legal cases referenced counties, and many records for Australia in the 19th century list the county and parish for location of birth, deaths. Counties and parishes are still referenced in property law, and in industrial relations instruments, for example in a New South Wales award. Similar award examples exist in the states and territories that have been subdivided into counties. The County of Yancowinna is also the part of New South Wales which is in a different time zone to the rest of the state. Counties are also used on paperwork for mortgage securities in banks, Parishes and counties are also mentioned in definitions of electoral districts. Counties have since gone out of use in Australia, and are used or even known by most of the population today. The counties which contain the cities have millions of people, while those in remote areas have a very small population. The County of Adelaide, for instance, has a population than all the other counties in South Australia combined. Wangaratta, for instance, is located at the junction of the Ovens and King rivers, some of the county names live on by being the same name of present-day local government areas, general region names, towns or establishments in the area
11.
Electoral district of Cook
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Cook is an electoral district in Queensland, Australia. Cook covers the vast Cape York Peninsula north of Cairns, including the town of Port Douglas. It is named after British navigator James Cook, who charted the coast, in the 1883 election, there were four candidates for the two-member electorate. The unsuccessful candidates, Campbell and Hill, petitioned to overturn the ballot, in December 1883, arrests were made in connection with the ballot stuffing. On 4 March 1884, the Elections and Qualifications Committee determined that Frederick Cooper should not be elected, on 4 August 1885, Thomas Campbell resigned after having been declared insolvent. Charles Lumley Hill won the resulting by-election on 16 September 1885, at the 1888 election, Cook returned to being a single-member electorate. Of the two sitting members, Hamilton contested the seat but Hill did not, saying that he was retiring from politics, however, Hill did not retire, but instead contested the election in Port Curtis, but he was unsuccessful. Electorate Profile ELECTORAL DISTRICT OF COOK, —1931 history of the electorate
12.
Division of Leichhardt
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The Division of Leichhardt is an Australian Electoral Division in Queensland. The division was first contested in 1949 after the expansion of seats in the Parliament of Australia and it is one of Australias largest electorates, covering an area stretching from Cairns to Cape York and the Torres Strait, including the Torres Strait Islands. The division is named after Ludwig Leichhardt, an explorer and scientist, the area was first covered by the seat of Herbert from 1901 to 1934 and then by the seat of Kennedy until 1949. There are small, intensive sugar cane, banana and mango farms in this region, though they are prone to damage from droughts, the seat of Leichhardt was a bellwether seat from the 1972 election until the 2010 election. Additionally,2010 represented the first time that Labor was in government without the seat of Leichhardt, ahead of the 2016 federal election, ABC psephologist Antony Green listed the seat in his election guide as one of eleven which he classed as bellwether electorates. Division of Leichhardt — Australian Electoral Commission
13.
Hope Vale, Queensland
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At the 2011 census, Hopevale had a population of 1,005 people. The Cape Bedford Mission was established by Johann Flierl, a missionary of the Lutheran Church in 1886, the German Lutheran missionaries were sent to internment camps. Most of the people were sent to Woorabinda, near Rockhampton, in Queensland, Hope Vale was re-established as a Lutheran mission in September 1949. Aboriginal people from the Hope Valley and Cape Bedford Missions settled there, a work crew was allowed to return in 1949 and the first families came home in 1950. Hopevale Post Office opened on 1 May 1965 and closed in 1990, Hopevale is no longer run as a mission by the church but by its own elected community council. The Aboriginal Land Act 1991 transferred into Indigenous ownership all previous reserve land under DOGIT titles, the Warra people of the Hopevale Community of Eastern Cape York Peninsula in Queensland received acknowledgement of their native title rights in December 1997. The determination recognised rights of possession, occupation use and enjoyment over 110,000 ha. Hopevale is home to several groups who mostly speak Guugu Yimidhirr and other related languages. Due to a lack of water supplies at Elim, the community was shifted about 20 kilometres inland to its present site. Notable former residents of Hopevale are Queensland rugby league player Matt Bowen and lawyer, Pearson has criticised the level of violence in the community. On 21 July 2008 the Hope Vale community opened the Indigenous Knowledge and Technology Centre and this centre provides a library service, training venue and public Internet access. The Hope Vale community has a choral singing tradition since its evacuation to Woorabinda. The ensemble has performed at the Queensland Music Festival on three occasions—in 2005,2007 and 2009, loose leaves, reminiscences of a pioneer North Queensland Missionary. Originally published as three booklets by The Mission Institute of Neuendettelsau, Bavaria, 1905-1912, ISBN 0-85910-468-0 Roth, W. E.1897. Reprint, Facsimile Edition, Hesperian Press, Victoria Park, W. A.1984, languages of Cape York, Papers presented to a Symposium organised by the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra, Cape York Peninsula, Pathways to Community Economic Development. The Final Report of The Community Economic Development Projects Cook Shire, the Woorabinda Story,7 Years in Exile. The Morning Show with Pat Morrish, Bringing Them Home Oral History Project
14.
Coral Sea
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The Coral Sea is a marginal sea of the South Pacific off the northeast coast of Australia, and classified as an interim Australian bioregion. In the northwest, it reaches to the south coast of eastern New Guinea and it merges with the Tasman Sea in the south, with the Solomon Sea in the north and with the Pacific Ocean in the east. On the west, it is bounded by the mainland coast of Queensland, the sea is characterised by its warm and stable climate, with frequent rains and tropical cyclones. It contains numerous islands and reefs, as well as the worlds largest reef system, the Great Barrier Reef, all previous oil exploration projects were terminated at the GBR in 1975, and fishing is restricted in many areas. The reefs and islands of the Coral Sea are particularly rich in birds and aquatic life and are a popular tourist destination, both nationally and internationally. While the Great Barrier Reef with its islands and cays belong to Queensland, most reefs, in addition, some islands west of and belonging to New Caledonia are also part of the Coral Sea Islands in a geographical sense, such as the Chesterfield Islands and Bellona Reefs. The International Hydrographic Organization defines the limits of the Coral Sea as follows, the parallel of 30° South to the Australian coast. The Eastern limit of the Arafura Sea and the East Coast of Australia as far south as Latitude 30° South, the sea has been an important source of coral for the Great Barrier Reef, both during its formation and after sea level lowering. The geological formation processes are proceeding, as partly evidenced by the seismic activity. Several hundred earthquakes with the magnitude between 2 and 6 were recorded in the period 1866–2000 along the Queensland coast and in the Coral Sea, on 2 April 2007, the Solomon Islands were struck by a major earthquake followed by a several metres tall tsunami. The epicentre of this magnitude 8.1 earthquake was 349 km northwest of Honiara and it was followed by more than 44 aftershocks of a magnitude 5.0 or greater. The resulting tsunami killed at least 52 people and destroyed more than 900 homes, the sea received its name because of its numerous coral formations. They include the GBR, which extends about 2,000 km along the northeast coast of Australia, the Chesterfield Islands and Lihou Reef are the largest atolls of the Coral Sea. Major Coral Sea currents form a counter-clockwise gyro which includes the East Australian Current and it brings warm nutrient-poor waters from the Coral Sea down the east coast of Australia to the cool waters of the Tasman Sea. This current is the strongest along the Australian coasts and transforms 30 million m3/s of water within a band of about 100 kilometres wide and 500 metres deep. The current is strongest around February and weakest around August, the major river flowing into the sea is the Burdekin River, which has its delta southeast of Townsville. Owing to the seasonal and annual variations in occurrence of cyclones and in precipitation and this irregularity results in concomitant fluctuations of the sea water composition near the river delta. The surface water temperature varies on the south of the sea from 19 °C in August to 24 °C in February and it is rather warm and stable at 27–28 °С in the north all through the year
15.
Laura, Queensland
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Laura is a small town and locality in Cook Shire, Cape York Peninsula in northern Queensland, Australia. It is on the road north towards the tip of the peninsula. It also forms the apex of the Scenic Triangle between Cooktown, Lakeland, and Laura. In the 2011 census, Laura had a population of 80 people, some of the worlds most extensive and ancient rock painting galleries surround the tiny town of Laura, some of which are available for public viewing. Laura has an Interpretive Centre from which information on the art and local Aboriginal culture is available. Laura is only a few kilometres from the entrance to Lakefield National Park. Aboriginal people have made their home in the Laura River valley for at least 50,000 years, in the wet season, they would camp under rock shelters on the high ground. This is where their art can be found. Some of the earliest pastoral leases on Cape York Peninsula were taken up in the Laura district, however, the town of Laura did not develop until the discovery of gold on the Palmer River. In 1873 gold was discovered on the Palmer River, travellers coming from Cooktown to the Palmer Goldfields would cross the Laura River at Laura. This was a violent period, as local aboriginal clans waged a war of resistance. A Native Mounted Police camp was established near the Lower Laura crossing to protect travellers, during the gold boom a railway line was planned between Cooktown and the Palmer gold fields. By 1888 the line had been built to Laura, Laura Post Office opened on 8 October 1888. An impressive bridge over the Laura River was opened, to great fanfare, however, since the Palmer gold fields were in decline, a new Queensland government decided to abandon the project. Only one train ever crossed the bridge - the train ran on the day that it opened. The rail line contributed to the growth of Laura and it was used by miners and by peninsula cattle properties. The Cooktown to Laura Railway finally closed in 1961 and it was during the 1960s that Quinkan rock art galleries were reported by Percy Trezise, an airline pilot who surveyed the area from the air for likely sites and later walked in to rediscover them. At the 2006 census, Laura and the area had a population of 225
16.
Lakeland, Queensland
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Lakeland is a town and locality in the Shire of Cook, Queensland, Australia. In the 2011 census, Lakeland had a population of 227 people, Lakeland is a small farming centre on the Cape York Peninsula. It is at the junction of the main Peninsula Developmental Road, and it contains a hotel, a cafe, and roadhouse and a small store. The main products are peanuts, maize, sorghum and cattle, coffee, tea, the village is named for William Lakeland who was one of the earliest prospectors of Cape York Peninsula. Lakeland has a number of heritage-listed sites, including, Mareeba Mining District, Nuggety Gully Water Race and Chinese Camp Trezise, quinkan Country, Adventures in Search of Aboriginal Cave Paintings in Cape York. Dream Road, A Journey of Discovery, allen & Unwin, St. Leonards, Sydney. Reprint, Facsimile Edition, Hesperian Press, Victoria Park, W. A.1984, ISBN 0-85905-054-8 Ryan, Michelle and Burwell, Colin, eds. Wildlife of Tropical North Queensland, Cooktown to Mackay, national Treasures, Flowering plants of Cooktown and Northern Australia. ISBN 0-646-39726-5, ISBN 0-646-39725-7 Limited Edition - Leather Bound, languages of Cape York, Papers presented to a Symposium organised by the Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies. Australian Institute of Aboriginal Studies, Canberra, ISBN 0-85575-046-4 Wynter, Jo and Hill, John. Cape York Peninsula, Pathways to Community Economic Development, the Final Report of The Community Economic Development Projects Cook Shire. Media related to Lakeland, Queensland at Wikimedia Commons
17.
James Cook
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Captain James Cook FRS RN was a British explorer, navigator, cartographer, and captain in the Royal Navy. Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755 and he saw action in the Seven Years War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society, in three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail, as he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage, Cook was attacked and killed while attempting to kidnap the native chief of Hawaii during his third exploratory voyage in the Pacific in 1779. He left a legacy of scientific and geographical knowledge which was to influence his successors well into the 20th century, and numerous memorials worldwide have been dedicated to him. James Cook was born on 7 November 1728 in the village of Marton in Yorkshire and baptised on 14 November in the church of St Cuthbert. He was the second of eight children of James Cook, a Scottish farm labourer from Ednam in Roxburghshire, in 1736, his family moved to Airey Holme farm at Great Ayton, where his fathers employer, Thomas Skottowe, paid for him to attend the local school. In 1741, after five years schooling, he work for his father. For leisure, he would climb a hill, Roseberry Topping, enjoying the opportunity for solitude. Cooks Cottage, his parents last home, which he is likely to have visited, is now in Melbourne, having moved from England and reassembled, brick by brick. In 1745, when he was 16, Cook moved 20 miles to the village of Staithes. Historians have speculated that this is where Cook first felt the lure of the sea while gazing out of the shop window. After 18 months, not proving suitable for work, Cook travelled to the nearby port town of Whitby to be introduced to friends of Sandersons, John. The Walkers, who were Quakers, were prominent local ship-owners in the coal trade and their house is now the Captain Cook Memorial Museum. Cook was taken on as a merchant navy apprentice in their fleet of vessels. His first assignment was aboard the collier Freelove, and he spent several years on this and various other coasters, sailing between the Tyne and London. As part of his apprenticeship, Cook applied himself to the study of algebra, geometry, trigonometry, navigation and his three-year apprenticeship completed, Cook began working on trading ships in the Baltic Sea
18.
HM Bark Endeavour Replica
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HM Bark Endeavour Replica is a replica of HMS Endeavour, the bark commanded by Lieutenant James Cook when he charted New Zealand and discovered the eastern coast of Australia. A specialist shipyard, complete with viewing platform and guided tours for the public, was set up, volunteers maintained the incomplete vessel until the HM Bark Endeavour Foundation was established as a charitable trust in 1991. The Endeavour replica was launched at the end of 1993, after sea trials, the replica sailed from Fremantle to Sydney, where she arrived at the end of 1994. During 1995, the ship recreated Cooks voyage along eastern Australia, in late 1996, the Endeavour replica set out on a circumnavigation of the world, visiting ports in South Africa, the United Kingdom, and North America, before returning to New Zealand in late 1999. The vessel returned to Sydney in mid-2000, in 2001, the replica was used for filming of the BBC documentary The Ship, then sailed to England in 2002. She spent the two years visiting ports in the United Kingdom and Europe, before sailing back to Sydney in 2005. On arrival in Australia, the HM Bark Endeavour Foundation transferred ownership of the vessel to the Australian National Maritime Museum, during 2011 and 2012, the replica circumnavigated Australia. The idea of building a replica of Endeavour was first mooted by the trustees of the under-construction Australian National Maritime Museum, the vessel would serve as the centrepiece of the museum ship fleet. Funding for construction was provided by the Bond Corporation, with the replica to be presented as the companys gift to Australia for the nations bicentenary. Construction was organised through a company, Endeavour Replica Pty Ltd. A specialist shipyard was established at Fremantle Fishing Boat Harbour, a viewing gallery allowed visitors to observe the replicas construction, construction of the vessel started in January 1988, with the keel laid in October. In 1990, Bond Corporation was forced to work on the project because of financial difficulties. The Japanese Yoshiya Corporation joined the project, but withdrew six months later, again, the volunteer complement were able to keep the shipyard ticking over for another eight months. A combination of funding from the Australian government, loans, the Endeavour replica was launched on 9 December 1993, and completed on 16 April 1994. Although some of the wood was fresh-cut, much of it was salvaged from demolished buildings and bridges, or taken from trees felled during construction work or storms. The Endeavour replica is square-rigged with 25 sails made from duradon, the ship is 43.6 metres long from bowsprit to stern, has a beam of 9.28 metres, a draught of 3.4 metres, and a mainmast height of 28 metres. Auxiliary propulsion is provided by two Caterpillar 3046 B diesel engines, which provide 404 horsepower, the Endeavour replica spent six months undergoing sea trials and operating around Fremantle before sailing around southern Australia to Sydney. Departing in October, the ship made port visits along the southern and eastern coasts before arriving in December
19.
Endeavour River
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The river system comprises three branches that are sourced by runoff from the Henderson and Audaer Ranges. The river flows generally east from the Great Dividing Range to the Coral Sea, the Endeavour River has a catchment area of 1,315 square kilometres. In recent years, tilapia fish, which are considered a species in Australia, have infested the river. The river basin remains largely unmodified and the quality is rated as good. James Cook, RN named the river in 1770 after he was forced to beach his ship, HMS Endeavour, for repairs in the river mouth, joseph Banks named the river the Endeavours River but the form Cook used, Endeavour River, has stuck. Botanical specimens were collected by Alan Cunningham after he arrived on the HMS Mermaid. Modern Cooktown which has a population of about 2,000, is located at the mouth of the Endeavour River. It is one of the northernmost towns on the East Coast of Australia and was founded in 1873, around the site of Cooks landing, some of the relatively undisturbed natural features near the mouth of the river have been reserved in the Endeavour River National Park. List of rivers of Queensland Tilapia as exotic species Captain Cooks Journal During the First Voyage Round the World at Project Gutenberg
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Australia
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Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands. It is the worlds sixth-largest country by total area, the neighbouring countries are Papua New Guinea, Indonesia and East Timor to the north, the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu to the north-east, and New Zealand to the south-east. Australias capital is Canberra, and its largest urban area is Sydney, for about 50,000 years before the first British settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who spoke languages classifiable into roughly 250 groups. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades, and by the 1850s most of the continent had been explored, on 1 January 1901, the six colonies federated, forming the Commonwealth of Australia. Australia has since maintained a liberal democratic political system that functions as a federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy comprising six states. The population of 24 million is highly urbanised and heavily concentrated on the eastern seaboard, Australia has the worlds 13th-largest economy and ninth-highest per capita income. With the second-highest human development index globally, the country highly in quality of life, health, education, economic freedom. The name Australia is derived from the Latin Terra Australis a name used for putative lands in the southern hemisphere since ancient times, the Dutch adjectival form Australische was used in a Dutch book in Batavia in 1638, to refer to the newly discovered lands to the south. On 12 December 1817, Macquarie recommended to the Colonial Office that it be formally adopted, in 1824, the Admiralty agreed that the continent should be known officially as Australia. The first official published use of the term Australia came with the 1830 publication of The Australia Directory and these first inhabitants may have been ancestors of modern Indigenous Australians. The Torres Strait Islanders, ethnically Melanesian, were originally horticulturists, the northern coasts and waters of Australia were visited sporadically by fishermen from Maritime Southeast Asia. The first recorded European sighting of the Australian mainland, and the first recorded European landfall on the Australian continent, are attributed to the Dutch. The first ship and crew to chart the Australian coast and meet with Aboriginal people was the Duyfken captained by Dutch navigator, Willem Janszoon. He sighted the coast of Cape York Peninsula in early 1606, the Dutch charted the whole of the western and northern coastlines and named the island continent New Holland during the 17th century, but made no attempt at settlement. William Dampier, an English explorer and privateer, landed on the north-west coast of New Holland in 1688, in 1770, James Cook sailed along and mapped the east coast, which he named New South Wales and claimed for Great Britain. The first settlement led to the foundation of Sydney, and the exploration, a British settlement was established in Van Diemens Land, now known as Tasmania, in 1803, and it became a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally claimed the part of Western Australia in 1828. Separate colonies were carved from parts of New South Wales, South Australia in 1836, Victoria in 1851, the Northern Territory was founded in 1911 when it was excised from South Australia
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Cape York Peninsula
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Cape York Peninsula is a large remote peninsula located in Far North Queensland, Australia. It is the largest unspoiled wilderness in northern Australia and one of the last remaining areas on Earth. The land is flat and about half of the area is used for grazing cattle. Edmund Kennedy was the first European explorer to attempt an expedition of Cape York Peninsula. He had been second-in-command to Thomas Livingstone Mitchell in 1846 when the Barcoo River was discovered, the aim was to blaze a trail to the tip of the peninsula where some Sydney businessmen thought of developing a port for trade with the East Indies. The expedition set out from Rockingham Bay near the present town of Cardwell in May 1848, of the thirteen men who set out, only three survived. The others died of fever or starvation, or were speared by hostile aborigines, Kennedy died of spear wounds almost within sight of his destination in December 1848. The only survivor to complete the journey was Jackey Jackey, an aborigine from New South Wales and he led a rescue party to the other two who had been unable to continue. En route they lost most of their horses, many of their stores and fought pitched battles with aborigines, the west coast borders the Gulf of Carpentaria and the east coast borders the Coral Sea. The peninsula is bordered on three sides, there is no clear demarcation to the south, although the official boundary in the Cape York Peninsula Heritage Act 2007 of Queensland runs along at about 16°S latitude. At the peninsula’s widest point, it is 430 km from the Bloomfield River in the southeast and it is some 660 km from the southern border of Cook Shire, to the tip of Cape York. The largest islands in the strait include Prince of Wales Island, Horn Island, Moa, at the tip of the peninsula lies Cape York, the northernmost point on the Australian continent. The tropical landscapes are among the most stable in the world, the backbone of Cape York Peninsula is the peninsula ridge, part of Australia’s Great Dividing Range. This mountain range is made up of ancient Precambrian and Palaeozoic rocks, to the east and west of the peninsula ridge lie the Carpentaria and Laura Basins, themselves made up of ancient Mesozoic sediments. The soils are remarkably infertile even compared to areas of Australia, being almost entirely laterised and in most cases so old. The temperature is warm to hot, with a climate in higher areas. The mean annual temperatures range from 18 °C at higher elevations to 27 °C on the lowlands in the drier southwest, temperatures over 40 °C and below 5 °C are rare. Annual rainfall is high, ranging from over 2,000 millimetres in the Iron Range, almost all this rain falls between November and April, and only on the eastern slopes of the Iron Range is the median rainfall between June and September above 5 millimetres
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Far North Queensland
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Far North Queensland, or Tropical North Queensland, is the northernmost part of the state of Queensland, Australia. Centered on the city of Cairns, the region north to the Torres Strait. The region has Australias only international border, with the independent nation of Papua New Guinea, the region is home to three World Heritage Sites, the Great Barrier Reef, the Wet Tropics of Queensland and Riversleigh Australias largest fossil mammal site. Far North Queensland lays claim to over 70 national parks, including Mount Bartle Frere with a peak of 1,622 metres it is the highest peak in both Northern Australia and Queensland. The Far North region is the region of Australia that is home to the two oldest continuous cultures on the planet, the Aboriginal Australians and the Torres Strait Islanders. Far North Queensland supports a significant agricultural sector, a number of significant mines and is home to Queenslands largest wind farm, various Government Departments and agencies have different definitions for the region. The main population and administrative centre of the region is the city of Cairns, other key population centres include Cooktown, the Atherton Tableland, Weipa, Innisfail and the Torres Strait Islands. The region also consists of many Aboriginal and farming groups, the north-eastern point of Highway 1 passes through the region in the city of Cairns and connects the southern running Bruce Highway to the western running Savannah Way. Highway 1 circumnavigates the continent at a length of approximately 14,500 kilometres and is second longest national highway in the world after the Pan-American Highway. Despite being Highway 1 not all sections of the Savannah Way are designated as a federally funded National Highway, significant industries include tourism, cattle grazing, agriculture and mining of both sand and bauxite. Agricultural products generate between $600 and $700 million a year, sugar cane, tropical fruits including bananas, mangoes, papaya, lychees and coffee are grown in Far North Queensland. The region is home to the worlds biggest silica mine at Cape Flattery, the mine was established in 1967 and was severely damaged by Cyclone Ita in 2014. Rio Tinto Alcan operates a mine on the western coast of Cape York Peninsula near Weipa which contains one of the largest bauxite deposits in the world. The region supports a tourism industry and is considered a premier tourist destination in Australia. Nearly one third of visitors to the state come to the region. Major attractions around and in Cairns include The Reef Hotel Casino, Kuranda Scenic Railway, Barron Falls, towns and localities attracting large numbers of tourists include Cape Tribulation, Port Douglas, Mission Beach and Cardwell. The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates the population at 280,638 in 2014. The region contains 25. 6% of the states Indigenous population, or 28,909 people, Far North Queensland is the location of the first amber fossils to be found in Australia
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HMS Endeavour
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The navy renamed and commissioned her as His Majestys Bark the Endeavour. She departed Plymouth in August 1768, rounded Cape Horn, and she then set sail into the largely uncharted ocean to the south, stopping at the Pacific islands of Huahine, Bora Bora, and Raiatea to allow Cook to claim them for Great Britain. In September 1769, she anchored off New Zealand, the first European vessel to reach the islands since Abel Tasmans Heemskerck 127 years earlier. In April 1770, Endeavour became the first ship to reach the east coast of Australia, Endeavour then sailed north along the Australian coast. She narrowly avoided disaster after running aground on the Great Barrier Reef and he then beached her on the mainland for seven weeks to permit rudimentary repairs to her hull. On 10 October 1770, she limped into port in Batavia in the Dutch East Indies for more substantial repairs, her crew sworn to secrecy about the lands they had visited. She resumed her journey on 26 December, rounded the Cape of Good Hope on 13 March 1771. Largely forgotten after her voyage, Endeavour spent the next three years sailing to and from the Falkland Islands. As of 2016 her wreck had not been located but was thought to be one of a cluster of five in Newport Harbor. Relics, including six of her cannon and an anchor, are displayed at maritime museums worldwide, a replica of Endeavour was launched in 1994 and is berthed alongside the Australian National Maritime Museum in Sydney Harbour. The US space shuttle Endeavour is named after the ship and she is depicted on the New Zealand fifty-cent coin and she was ship-rigged and sturdily built with a broad, flat bow, a square stern, and a long box-like body with a deep hold. A flat-bottomed design made her well-suited to sailing in waters and allowed her to be beached for loading and unloading of cargo. Her hull, internal floors, and futtocks were built from white oak, her keel and stern post from elm. Plans of the ship also show a double keelson to lock the keel, floors, some doubt exists about the height of her standing masts, as surviving diagrams of Endeavour depict the body of the vessel only, and not the mast plan. If correct, this would produce an oddly truncated mast a full 9 feet shorter than the standards of the day,1794 at the top of this page. The replica standing mizzen is built to this shorter measurement and stepped in the hold on the keelson, on 16 February 1768, the Royal Society petitioned King George III to finance a scientific expedition to the Pacific to study and observe the 1769 transit of Venus across the sun. The Royal Society suggested command be given to Scottish geographer Alexander Dalrymple, whose acceptance was conditional on a brevet commission as a captain in the Royal Navy. However, First Lord of the Admiralty Edward Hawke refused, going so far as to say he would cut off his right hand than give command of a navy vessel to someone not educated as a seaman
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Palmer River
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The Palmer River is a river located in Far North Queensland, Australia. The area surrounding the river was the site of a rush in the late 19th century which started in 1873. The headwaters of the Palmer River rise in the Sussex Range, the river is formed by the confluence of the Prospect Creek and Campbell Creek, near Palmer River Roadhouse, south of Lakeland. The river descends 365 metres over its 327-kilometre course and has a catchment area of 8,335 square kilometres, Palmer River was one of Australias major gold rush locations. William Hann and geologist Norman Taylor found gold in a bed of the river in 1872. Hann named the river after Arthur Hunter Palmer the Premier of Queensland at that time, the main settlement of the gold field was Maytown replacing Palmerville after some months. The settlement began as a camp in 1873, then grew into a town served as the administration centre for the former Hann Local Government Area. The settlements of Byerstown and Idatown were also established along the river, Palmerville Post Office opened on 11 May 1874, Maytown Post Office opened on 7 June 1874, Byerstown Post Office opened on 1 April 1876. There were several confrontations between the settlers and the Aborigines from the area, including one at Battle Camp, the miners in the Palmer River included Chinese, mostly from the Guangdong Province in southern China. The Chinese miners would re-work the diggings of Europeans as they moved on to find richer diggings, in 1876, with the rush to the Hodgkinson River, Chinese miners occupied most of the Palmer Gold Field. As gold reserves were extracted, anti-Chinese sentiment grew, although most of the surface gold has long since been prospected, there remain a handful of deeper mine projects in the area
25.
Guugu Yimithirr language
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It belongs to the Pama-Nyungan language family. Most of the speakers live at the community of Hopevale. Guugu Yimithirr is one of the more famous Aboriginal, or otherwise non-English, the word guugu means speech, language, while yimithirr means yimi-having, yimi being the word for this. The use of the word yi, rather some other word for this, was seen as a distinctive feature of Guugu Yimithirr. The element guugu and the practice of naming based on some distinctive word is found in other languages. The modern town of Cooktown is located within Guugu Yimithirr territory, as of the early 21st century, however, most Guugu Yimithirr speakers live at the mission at Hopevale. Guugu Yimithirr originally consisted of dialects, although even the names of most have now been forgotten. Today two main dialects are distinguished, the dialect, called dhalundhirr with the sea. Missionaries used the dialect to translate hymns and Bible stories. There was once also a Ngegudi or Gugu Nyiguudyi dialect, Joseph Banks described the language as totally different from that of the Islanders, it sounded more like English in its degree of harshness tho it could not be calld harsh neither. Among the words recorded were kangooroo or kanguru, meaning a black or grey kangaroo, which would become the general English term for all kangaroos, and dhigul. Sydney Parkinson, who accompanied Cook, gave a word list in his posthumously published journal. Short /u/ may be realized as unrounded, and unstressed /a/ may be reduced to, the stops are usually voiceless and unaspirated initially and after short vowels, and voiced after consonants and long vowels. The retroflexes may not be single phonemes, but clusters of /ɻd ɻn/, however, there is at least one word which, for older speakers, is pronounced with a word-initial retroflex, run, which is or. The rhotic /r/ is normally a flap, but may be a trill in emphatic speech, all words, with the exception of a couple of interjections, begin with one consonant. The consonant can be a stop, nasal, or semivowel, words can end in either a vowel or a consonant. The allowed word-final consonants are /l r ɻ j n n̪/, within words, any consonant can occur, as well as clusters of up to three consonants, which cannot occur initially or finally. Like many Australian languages, Guugu Yimithirr pronouns have accusative morphology while nouns have ergative morphology
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Indigenous Australians
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Indigenous Australians are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people of Australia, descended from groups that existed in Australia and surrounding islands prior to European colonisation. In present-day Australia these groups are divided into local communities. At the time of initial European settlement, over 250 languages were spoken, it is estimated that 120 to 145 of these remain in use. Aboriginal people today mostly speak English, with Aboriginal phrases and words being added to create Australian Aboriginal English, a population collapse following European settlement, and a smallpox epidemic spreading three years after the arrival of Europeans may have caused a massive and early depopulation. Since 1995, the Australian Aboriginal Flag and the Torres Strait Islander Flag have been among the flags of Australia. The word aboriginal has been in the English language since at least the 16th century, to mean, first or earliest known and it comes from the Latin word aborigines, derived from ab and origo. The word was used in Australia to describe its indigenous peoples as early as 1789 and it soon became capitalised and employed as the common name to refer to all Indigenous Australians. Strictly speaking, Aborigine is the noun and Aboriginal the adjectival form, however, use of either Aborigine or Aboriginal to refer to individuals has acquired negative connotations in some sectors of the community, and it is generally regarded as insensitive and even offensive. The more acceptable and correct expression is Aboriginal Australians or Aboriginal people, the term Indigenous Australians, which also includes Torres Strait Islander peoples, has found increasing acceptance, particularly since the 1980s. The broad term Aboriginal Australians includes many groups that often identify under names from local Indigenous languages. Anindilyakwa on Groote Eylandt off Arnhem Land, Palawah in Tasmania and these larger groups may be further subdivided, for example, Anangu recognises localised subdivisions such as Pitjantjatjara, Yankunytjatjara, Ngaanyatjarra, Luritja and Antikirinya. It is estimated that prior to the arrival of British settlers, the Torres Strait Islanders possess a heritage and cultural history distinct from Aboriginal traditions. The eastern Torres Strait Islanders in particular are related to the Papuan peoples of New Guinea, accordingly, they are not generally included under the designation Aboriginal Australians. This has been another factor in the promotion of the inclusive term Indigenous Australians. Six percent of Indigenous Australians identify themselves fully as Torres Strait Islanders, a further 4% of Indigenous Australians identify themselves as having both Torres Strait Islander and Aboriginal heritage. The Torres Strait Islands comprise over 100 islands which were annexed by Queensland in 1879, eddie Mabo was from Mer or Murray Island in the Torres Strait, which the famous Mabo decision of 1992 involved. The term blacks has been used to refer to Indigenous Australians since European settlement, while originally related to skin colour, the term is used today to indicate Aboriginal heritage or culture in general and refers to people of any skin pigmentation. In the 1970s, many Aboriginal activists, such as Gary Foley, proudly embraced the term black, the book included interviews with several members of the Aboriginal community including Robert Jabanungga reflecting on contemporary Aboriginal culture
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Mossman, Queensland
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Mossman is a town and a locality in Far North Queensland, Australia, on the Mossman River. It is within the government area of Shire of Douglas. In the 2011 census, Mossman had a population of 1,732 people, Mossman is located on the Captain Cook Highway 75 kilometres north of the regional city of Cairns, and 15 kilometres east of the Mount Carbine Tableland. Mossman Gorge, an attraction within Daintree National Park, is located west of town. The district was known as Mossman River after the river which flows through it. The Mossman River, in turn, was named by the explorer George Dalrymple on 6 December 1873 after Hugh Mosman who discovered gold in Charters Towers. Dalrymple wrote I named this river the Mossman River, after Mossman, the town was also known for a brief time as Hartsville after Daniel Hart, an early settler. Later the name was simplified to Mossman, Mossman River Post Office opened by 1895 and was renamed Mossman in 1899. Mossman State School opened in January 1898 under head teacher Thomas Garland, the establishment of the sugar mill at Mossman formed the nucleus of the town, which grew at the expense of Port Douglas. The district was served by two separate 2-foot gauge tramway systems, both at one time handled passengers and general goods, as well as sugar cane. Mossman district owes its present prosperity to these tramways which pioneered the first reasonable transport in the neighbourhood, during World War II, Mossman was attacked in a Japanese air raid on 31 July 1942. A single flying boat dropped a bomb fell near a house, Mossman Central Mill Company Limited started life as a grower owned co-operative sugar mill back in 1894. In 1897, Mrs Annie Rose fed the first sugarcane into the mill, in 1906, Mossman Mill became the first Queensland mill to crush over 100,000 tonnes of cane. That season lasted just under 8 months, extending from June 1906 to late January 1907, initially, sugar was shipped from Port Douglas, however road transport eventually came to the forefront and became the preferred mode of transport for sugar to the bulk sugar terminal in Cairns. Prince pioneered the use of computers for cane payment accounting and, in 1971, prior to 2008, Mossman was the seat of the Shire of Douglas. In 2008, the Shire of Douglas was amalgamated into the Cairns Region, in 2014, the Shire of Douglas was de-amalgamated from Cairns Region and reinstated as Shire of Douglas. A young 9 year old Jermaine Ryan broke the record for the fastest 9 year old 100m track. Jove Thompson an 11 year who has broken the record for catching the worlds biggest jungle perch and also the fastest time for a 100m, 200m and 800m track
28.
Guugu Yimithirr
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The Guugu Yimithirr are an Australian Aboriginal tribe of Far North Queensland, many of whom today live at Hopevale, which is the administrative centre of Hopevale Shire. At the 2011 census, Hopevale had a population of 1,005 people.2011 census and it is about 46 km from Cooktown by road. It is also the name of their language and they were a both a coastal and inland people, the former clans referring to themselves as a saltwater people. The major dialects are dhalun-dhirr, spoken on the areas, and waguurr-ga. It is still spoken by approximately 200 people, and was listed by Peter Austin as one of the languages at immediate risk of extinction, Guugu Yimithirr had several dialects, dhalan-dhirr, wagurrr-ga, guugu nyiiguudyi, guugu nyalaadyi, guugu yinaa and guugu diirrurru. Because they intermarried widely with tribes speaking other tongues, it was not unusual for Guugu Yimithirr people to be familiar with several languages. Dialects of the language were spoken north of Cape Bedford and the McIvor River. Captain Cook left a few pigs on the land, and they bred quickly, Guugu Yimithirr practice certain forms of social avoidance. The language itself has a form of language in which, speaking in the presence of certain family members. In everyday conversation the man is going is bama dhaday, in the presence of certain kin, this must be altered to yambaal bali. Speaking was totally forbidden in the presence of ones mother-in-law, one being obliged to sit, with bowed head, the system of spatial coordination inscribed in the language is totally different from that in Western languages, where the reference system is relative with respect to the subject. The language thus provides them with a map, allowing quite a precise dead-reckoning of all points around them wherever they are. Though the modern population was displaced and pushed 30 miles northwards, the expeditions members found them to be quite friendly, though they initially kept their distance. After a month, the Europeans were approached by five men, and he offered them bread, which they refused with disgust. Different concepts of hospitality and the rules of sharing clashed, soon after, the natives set fire to grass in the bay, and in retaliation, some received injuries from shot. One of the members of the crew, the skilled botanist and he described them as diminutive and small boned, agile, their skin painted with red and white ochre, with wood-sooty skin and generally given to shaving their hair off. They used wood from the ficus riduola as a rasp to sharpen their spears and their languages was quite mellifluous, with clear enunciation. In 1885 a curfew was imposed on them, disallowing their movement after dusk, H. Schwartz, who renamed it Hope Vale
29.
Sailing ship
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A modern sailing ship or sailship is any large wind-powered vessel. Traditionally a sailing ship is a vessel that carries three or more masts with square sails on each. Large sailing vessels that are not ship-rigged may be more referred to by their sail rig, such as schooner, barque, brig. There are many different types of sailing ships, but they all have certain basic things in common, every sailing ship has a hull, rigging and at least one mast to hold up the sails that use the wind to power the ship. The crew who sail a ship are called sailors or hands and they take turns to take the watch, the active managers of the ship and her performance for a period. Watches are traditionally four hours long, some sailing ships use traditional ships bells to tell the time and regulate the watch system, with the bell being rung once for every half hour into the watch and rung eight times at watch end. A severe storm could lead to shipwreck, and the loss of all hands, Sailing ships are limited in their maximum size compared to ships with heat engines, so economies of scale are also limited. The heaviest sailing ships never exceeded 14,000 tons displacement, there are many types of sailing ships, mostly distinguished by their rigging, hull, keel, or number and configuration of masts. There are also types of smaller sailboats not listed here. The steam power was used to drive the winches, hoists, a similar ship Kruzenshtern, a very large sailing vessel without mechanical assists, had a crew of 257 men, compared to the Preussen, which required only 48 men. In 2006, automated control had been taken to the point where sails could be operated by one using a central control unit. The DynaRig technology was first developed in the 1960s in Germany by W. Prolls as an alternative for commercial ships to prepare for a possible future energy crisis. The technology is a version of the same type of sail used by the Preussen. The main difference is that the yards do not swing around a fixed mast but are attached to a rotating mast. DynaRig along with extensive computerization was used in the proof-of-concept Maltese Falcon to enable it to be sailed with no crew aloft, as of 2013, with increasing restrictions on use of bunker fuel, attempts were underway to develop hybrid sailing ships using automated sail and alternative fuels. Tall ship Rigging Sail-plan List of large sailing vessels Cruising Shipbuilding, the History of a Ship from Her Cradle to Her Grave, With a Short Account of Modern Steamships and Torpedoes. The sailing-ship, six years of history. Media related to Sailing ships at Wikimedia Commons
30.
Harbor
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A harbor or harbour, or haven, is a body of water where ships, boats and barges seek shelter from stormy weather, or are stored for future use. Ports are often located in harbors, harbors can be natural or artificial. An artificial harbor can have deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jettys, or they can be constructed by dredging, in contrast, a natural harbor is surrounded on several sides by prominences of land. Examples of natural harbors include Sydney Harbour, Australia and Trincomalee Harbour in Sri Lanka, artificial harbors are frequently built for use as ports. The oldest artificial harbor known is the Ancient Egyptian site at Wadi al-Jarf, on the Red Sea coast, the largest artificially created harbor is Jebel Ali in Dubai. The Ancient Carthaginians constructed fortified, artificial harbors called cothons, a natural harbor is a landform where a part of a body of water is protected and deep enough to furnish anchorage. Natural harbors have long been of great strategic naval and economic importance, having a protected harbor reduces or eliminates the need for breakwaters as it will result in calmer waves inside the harbor. For harbors near the North and South Poles, being ice-free is an important advantage, the worlds southmost harbor, located at Antarcticas Winter Quarters Bay, is potentially ice-free, depending on the summertime pack ice conditions. Although the worlds busiest port is a hotly contested title, in 2006 the worlds busiest harbor by cargo tonnage was the Port of Shanghai
31.
Lieutenant
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A lieutenant is a junior commissioned officer in many nations armed forces, fire service or police. The meaning of lieutenant differs in different military formations, but is often subdivided into senior and junior ranks, in navies it is often equivalent to the army rank of captain, it may also indicate a particular post rather than a rank. The rank is used in fire services, emergency medical services, security services. Lieutenant may also appear as part of a used in various other organisations with a codified command structure. It often designates someone who is second-in-command, and as such, for example, a lieutenant master is likely to be second-in-command to the master in an organisation using both ranks. Political uses include lieutenant governor in various governments, and Quebec lieutenant in Canadian politics, in the United Kingdom, a lord lieutenant is the sovereigns representative in a county or lieutenancy area, while a deputy lieutenant is one of the lord lieutenants deputies. However, their efforts failed, and the French word is used, along with its many variations. The early history of the pronunciation is unclear, Middle English spellings suggest that the /luː-/ and /lɛf-/ pronunciations may have existed even then. The rare Old French variant spelling luef for Modern French lieu supports the suggestion that a final of the Old French word was in certain environments perceived as an, in Royal Naval tradition—and other English-speaking navies outside the United States—a reduced pronunciation /ləˈtɛnənt/ is used. This is not recognised as current by recent editions of the OED, conventionally, armies and other services or branches which use army-style rank titles have two grades of lieutenant, but a few also use a third, more junior, rank. Where more junior officers were employed as deputies to the lieutenant, they went by names, including second lieutenant, sub-lieutenant, ensign. The senior grade of lieutenant is known as first lieutenant in the United States, and as lieutenant in the United Kingdom, in countries which do not speak English, the rank title usually translates as lieutenant, but may also translate as first lieutenant or senior lieutenant. The Israel Defense Forces rank segen literally translates as deputy, which is equivalent to a lieutenant, there is great variation in the insignia used worldwide. In most English-speaking and Arabic-speaking countries, as well as a number of European and South American nations, an example of an exception is the United States, whose armed forces distinguish their lieutenant ranks with one silver bar for first lieutenant and one gold bar for second lieutenant. Second lieutenant is usually the most junior grade of commissioned officer, in non-English-speaking countries, the equivalent rank title may translate as second lieutenant, lieutenant, sub-lieutenant or junior lieutenant. Non-English terms include alferes, alférez, fänrik, ensign, Leutnant, letnan, poručík, a few non-English-speaking militaries maintain a lower rank, frequently translated as third lieutenant OF1c. The rank title may translate as second lieutenant, junior lieutenant, sub-lieutenant or ensign. Warsaw Pact countries standardised their ranking systems on the Soviet system, some of the former Soviet and Warsaw Pact nations have now discarded the third rank while many retain it like Bulgaria
32.
Joseph Banks
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Sir Joseph Banks, 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS was a British naturalist, botanist and patron of the natural sciences. Banks made his name on the 1766 natural history expedition to Newfoundland and he took part in Captain James Cooks first great voyage, visiting Brazil, Tahiti, and, after 6 months in New Zealand, Australia, returning to immediate fame. He held the position of President of the Royal Society for over 41 years and he advised King George III on the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and by sending botanists around the world to collect plants, he made Kew the worlds leading botanical gardens. He is credited with introducing the eucalyptus, acacia, and the named after him, Banksia. Approximately 80 species of plants bear his name and he was the leading founder of the African Association and a member of the Society of Dilettanti which helped to establish the Royal Academy. Banks was born on Argyle Street in London to William Banks, a wealthy Lincolnshire country squire and member of the House of Commons and he had a younger sister, Sarah Sophia Banks, born in 1744. Banks was educated at Harrow School from the age of 9 and at Eton College from 1756, as a boy, Banks enjoyed exploring the Lincolnshire countryside and developed a keen interest in nature, history and botany. When he was 17, he was inoculated with smallpox, but he became ill, in late 1760, he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner at the University of Oxford. At Oxford, he matriculated at Christ Church, where his studies were focused on natural history rather than the classical curriculum. Determined to receive instruction, he paid the Cambridge botanist Israel Lyons to deliver a series of lectures at Oxford in 1764. Banks left Oxford for Chelsea in December 1763 and he continued to attend the university until 1764, but left that year without taking a degree. He began to make friends among the men of his day and to correspond with Carl Linnaeus. As Bankss influence increased, he became an adviser to King George III and urged the monarch to support voyages of discovery to new lands and he became a Freemason sometime before 1769. He made his name by publishing the first Linnean descriptions of the plants and animals of Newfoundland and his diary, describing his expedition to Newfoundland, was rediscovered recently in the Royal Geographical Society of South Australia. Banks also documented 34 species of birds, including the great auk, on 7 May, he noted a large number of penguins swimming around the ship on the Grand Banks, and a specimen he collected in Chateau Bay, Labrador, was later identified as the great auk. Banks was appointed to a joint Royal Navy/Royal Society scientific expedition to the south Pacific Ocean on HMS Endeavour and this was the first of James Cooks voyages of discovery in that region. Banks funded seven others to him, the Swedish naturalist Daniel Solander. The voyage went to Brazil, where Banks made the first scientific description of a now common garden plant, bougainvillea, and to other parts of South America
33.
Natural history
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Natural history is the research and study of organisms including animals, fungi and plants in their environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. It encompasses scientific research but is not limited to it, with articles nowadays more often published in magazines than in academic journals. Grouped among the sciences, natural history is the systematic study of any category of natural objects or organisms. That is a broad designation in a world filled with many narrowly focused disciplines. For example, geobiology has a strong multi-disciplinary nature combining scientists, a person who studies natural history is known as a naturalist or natural historian. The English term natural history is a translation of the Latin historia naturalis and its meaning has narrowed progressively with time, while the meaning of the related term nature has widened. In antiquity, it covered essentially anything connected with nature or which used materials drawn from nature. For example, Pliny the Elders encyclopedia of this title, published circa 77 to 79 AD, covers astronomy, geography, man and his technology, medicine and superstition as well as animals and plants. Medieval European academics considered knowledge to have two divisions, the humanities and divinity, with science studied largely through texts rather than observation or experiment. In modern terms, natural philosophy roughly corresponded to modern physics and chemistry, natural history had been encouraged by practical motives, such as Linnaeus aspiration to improve the economic condition of Sweden. Similarly, the Industrial Revolution prompted the development of geology to help find useful mineral deposits, the astronomer, William Herschel was also a natural historian. Instead of working with plants or minerals he worked with the stars and he spent his time building telescopes to see the stars and the rest of the time watching the stars. In the beginning, he believed there to be a known as a nebulae. Herschel can be considered a natural historian because he observed the natural world, in the process he made charts of all the stars and kept records of all that he saw. S. Wilcove and T. Eisner, The close observation of organisms—their origins, their evolution, their behavior and it encompasses changes in internal states insofar as they pertain to what organisms do. Some definitions go further, focusing on observation of organisms in their environment. Bartholomew, A student of history, or a naturalist, studies the world by observing plants. A common thread in many definitions of natural history is the inclusion of a component, as seen in a recent definition by H. W. Greene
34.
Daniel Solander
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Daniel Carlsson Solander or Daniel Charles Solander was a Swedish naturalist and an Apostle of Carl Linnaeus. Solander was the first university educated scientist to set foot on Australian soil, Solander was born in Piteå, Norrbotten, Sweden, to Rev. Carl Solander a Lutheran principal, and Magdalena née Bostadia. Solander enrolled at Uppsala University in July 1750 and initially studied languages, the professor of botany was the celebrated Carl Linnaeus who was soon impressed by young Solanders ability and accordingly persuaded his father to let him study natural history. Solander traveled to England in June 1760 to promote the new Linnean system of classification, in February 1763 he began cataloguing the natural history collections of the British Museum, and was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in June the following year. In 1768 Solander gained leave of absence from the British Museum and they were the botanists who inspired the name Botanist Bay for the first landing place of Cooks expedition in Australia. These collections later formed the basis of Banks Florilegium, Solander also wrote a manuscript describing all the species collected from New Zealand during the six months the 1768 expedition spent there. It was called Primitiae Florae Novae Zelandiae, and was to be illustrated with the prepared by Banks. It was never published, but it was available for study by interested, first at Banks London home. Solanders return to Britain with Cook and Banks made him the first Swede to circle the globe, on their return in 1771 Solander resumed his duties at the British Museum but also collaborated with Banks on the Florilegium. In 1772 he accompanied Banks on his voyage to Iceland, the Hebrides, between 1773 and 1782 he was Keeper of the Natural History Department of the British Museum. In 1773 he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Solander died at Banks home in Soho Square of a stroke, aged 49, an autopsy was performed the next day, and revealed a brain haemorrhage. He is buried in the Swedish Section at Brookwood Cemetery, Solanders reputation has been profoundly influenced by his limited number of publications and his premature death. However, after Solanders death, Banks, now President of the Royal Society, had he done so, he would have secured Solanders posthumous reputation. It has been claimed that Banks treated Solander, and Jonas Dryander, however, Banks clearly had a strong emotional bond with Solander, met his expenses and even supported his relatives in Sweden. I can never think of it without feeling a mortal pain, Solander remained an employee of the British Museum for the last decade of his life but was also paid by Banks to assist him with his collections. Banks relationship with Robert Brown, was more formal, Solander Gardens in the east end of London is named after him, as are the Solander Islands off New Zealands South Island and Cape Solander in the Kamay Botany Bay National Park. Also Solander Island, off the NW coast of Vancouver Island, one of the many plants named in his honour is Nothofagus solandri
35.
Sydney Parkinson
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Sydney Parkinson was a Scottish Quaker, botanical illustrator and natural history artist. Parkinson was employed by Joseph Banks to travel with him on James Cooks first voyage to the Pacific in 1768, Parkinson made nearly a thousand drawings of plants and animals collected by Banks and Daniel Solander on the voyage. He had to work in conditions, living and working in a small cabin surrounded by hundreds of specimens. In Tahiti he was plagued by swarms of flies which ate the paint as he worked and he died at sea on the way to Cape Town of dysentery contracted at Princes Island off the western end of Java. Banks paid his salary to his brother. Parkinson is commemorated in the common and scientific name of the Parkinsons petrel Procellaria parkinsoni, the great Florilegium of his work was finally published in 1988 by Alecto Historical Editions in 35 volumes and has since been digitized by the Natural History Museum in London. The Art of Botanical Illustration, A history of classic illustrators and their achievements, pp.72,77
36.
Kangaroo
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The kangaroo is a marsupial from the family Macropodidae. The Australian government estimates that 34.3 million kangaroos lived within the commercial harvest areas of Australia in 2011, as with the terms wallaroo and wallaby, kangaroo refers to a polyphyletic grouping of species. All three refer to members of the taxonomic family, Macropodidae, and are distinguished according to size. The largest species in the family are called kangaroos and the smallest are generally called wallabies, the term wallaroos refers to species of an intermediate size. There is also the tree-kangaroo, another genus of macropod, which inhabits the rainforests of New Guinea, far northeastern Queensland. Kangaroos have large, powerful legs, large feet adapted for leaping, a long muscular tail for balance. Like most marsupials, female kangaroos have a pouch called a marsupium in which joeys complete postnatal development, the large kangaroos have adapted much better than the smaller macropods to land clearing for pastoral agriculture and habitat changes brought to the Australian landscape by humans. Many of the species are rare and endangered, while kangaroos are relatively plentiful. The kangaroo is important to both Australian culture and the image, and consequently there are numerous popular culture references. Wild kangaroos are shot for meat, leather hides, and to grazing land. Although controversial, kangaroo meat has perceived health benefits for human consumption compared with traditional meats due to the low level of fat on kangaroos, the word kangaroo derives from the Guugu Yimithirr word gangurru, referring to grey kangaroos. Cook first referred to kangaroos in his entry of 4 August. Guugu Yimithirr is the language of the people of the area, a common myth about the kangaroos English name is that kangaroo was a Guugu Yimithirr phrase for I dont understand you. According to this legend, Cook and Banks were exploring the area when they happened upon the animal and they asked a nearby local what the creatures were called. The local responded Kangaroo, meaning I dont understand you, which Cook took to be the name of the creature and this myth was debunked in the 1970s by linguist John B. Haviland in his research with the Guugu Yimithirr people, Kangaroos are often colloquially referred to as roos. Male kangaroos are called bucks, boomers, jacks, or old men, females are does, flyers, or jills, the collective noun for kangaroos is a mob, troop, or court. There are four species that are referred to as kangaroos
37.
Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
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The Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany KG GMB GCH, a member of the House of Hanover, was the second son and child of King George III, King of Great Britain and Ireland and Elector of Hanover. However, he died before his brother, Prince Frederick Augustus, or the Duke of York as he became in later life, belonged to the House of Hanover. He was born on 16 August 1763, at St. Jamess Palace and his father was the reigning British monarch, King George III. On 27 February 1764, when Prince Frederick was six months old and he received this title because his father, as Elector of Hanover, was entitled to select every other holder of this. He was invested as Knight of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath on 30 December 1767, George III decided that his second son would pursue an army career and had him gazetted colonel on 4 November 1780. From 1781 to 1787, Prince Frederick lived in Hanover, where he studied at the University of Göttingen and he was appointed colonel of the 2nd Horse Grenadier Guards on 26 March 1782 before being promoted to major-general on 20 November 1782. Promoted to lieutenant general on 27 October 1784, he was appointed colonel of the Coldstream Guards on 28 October 1784 and he was created Duke of York and Albany and Earl of Ulster on 27 November 1784 and became a member of the Privy Council. He retained the bishopric of Osnabrück until 1803, when, in the course of the preceding the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. On 26 May 1789 he took part in a duel with Colonel Charles Lennox, who had insulted him, Lennox missed, on 12 April 1793 Frederick was promoted to full general. That year, he was sent to Flanders in command of the British contingent of Coburgs army destined for the invasion of France, Frederick and his command fought in the Flanders Campaign under extremely trying conditions. He won several engagements, such as the Siege of Valenciennes in July 1793. In the 1794 campaign he was successful at the Battle of Willems in May but was defeated at the Battle of Tourcoing later that month, the British army was evacuated through Bremen in April 1795. After his return to Britain, his father George III promoted him to the rank of field marshal on 18 February 1795, on 3 April 1795, George appointed him effective Commander-in-Chief in succession to Lord Amherst although the title was not confirmed until three years later. He was also colonel of the 60th Regiment of Foot from 19 August 1797 and his second field command was with the army sent for the Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland in August 1799. On 7 September 1799, he was given the title of Captain-General. Sir Ralph Abercromby and Admiral Sir Charles Mitchell, in charge of the vanguard, had succeeded in capturing some Dutch warships in Den Helder. However, following the Dukes arrival with the body of the army. On 17 October 1799, the Duke signed the Convention of Alkmaar,1799 also saw Fort Frederick in South Africa named after him
38.
The Grand Old Duke of York
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‘The Grand Old Duke of York’ is an English childrens nursery rhyme, often performed as an action song. The Duke of the title has been argued to be a number of the holders of that office, particularly Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany and it has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 742. A group of performers who, especially in an audience participation-like situation, are originally seated will/should end the back in their original positions. The first verse is rather one to react to, with one clear standing and one clear seating action. For example, a salute for the Duke of York. In an entertainment situation, however, performance errors may actually be the objective, like many popular nursery rhymes the origins of the song have been much debated and remain unclear. Unusually the rhyme refers to a historical person and debates have tended to circulate around identifying which Duke is being referred to in the lyrics. The lyrics were not printed in their form until relatively recently. Candidates for the duke in question include, Richard, Duke of York, richards army, some 8,000 strong, was awaiting reinforcements at Sandal Castle in Wakefield. He was surrounded by Lancastrian forces some three times that number, but chose to sally forth to fight, Richard died in a pitched battle at Wakefield Green, together with between one third and one half of his army. His one field command of significance was the Flanders Campaign of 1793–4, apart from the ducal title in the song and the events of their lives there is no external evidence to link the rhyme to any of these candidates. The Grand Old Duke of York is also sung to the tune of A-Hunting We Will Go, Prince Maurice was able to reconquer large parts of the Habsburg Netherlands, adding them to territory of the emergent Republic, especially during its first Ten Years. His practice of training mercenaries and subsequent military successes became famous throughout Europe and it is not known when the British song crossed the North Sea and was attributed to Maurice, but nowadays its well-known within the Dutch scouting movement
39.
Allan Cunningham (botanist)
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Allan Cunningham was an English botanist and explorer, primarily known for his travels in Australia to collect plants. Cunningham was born in Wimbledon, Surrey, the son of Allan Cunningham, who came from Renfrewshire, Scotland, Allan Cunningham was educated at a Putney private school, Reverend John Adams Academy and then went into a solicitors office. He afterwards obtained a position with William Townsend Aiton superintendent of Kew Gardens, on Banks recommendation, Cunningham went to Brazil with James Bowie between 1814 and 1816 collecting specimens for Kew Gardens. On 28 September 1816 he sailed for Sydney where he arrived on 20 December 1816, among other explorations, he joined John Oxleys 1817 expedition beyond the Blue Mountains to the Lachlan and Macquarie rivers and shared in the privations of the 1,200 miles journey. He was able to collect specimens of about 450 species and gained experience as an explorer. Cunningham traveled as the ships botanist aboard HMS Mermaid under Phillip Parker King from 1817 to 1820, the Mermaid was of only 85 tons, but sailing on 22 December 1817 they reached King George Sound on 21 January 1818. Though their stay was short many specimens were found but the islands on the west coast were comparatively barren, towards the end of March the Goulburn Islands on the north coast were reached and many new plants were discovered. They reached Timor on 4 June 1818 and, turning for home, Cunninghams collections during this voyage included about 300 species. Shortly after his return, Cunningham made an excursion south from Sydney, ascending the prominent peak of Mount Keira overlooking the Illawarra region, towards the end of the year he made a voyage to Tasmania arriving at Hobart on 2 January 1819. He next visited Launceston and though often finding the botany interesting, he found little that was absolutely new, in May he went with King in the Mermaid on a second voyage to the north and north-west coasts. On this occasion they started up the east coast and Cunningham found many opportunities for adding to his collections, one of these was after the ship reached the mouth of the Endeavour River on 28 June 1819. The circumnavigation of Australia was completed on 27 August when they reached Vernon Island in Clarence Strait and they again visited Timor and arrived back in Sydney on 12 January 1820. The third voyage to the north coast with King began on 15 June, but meeting bad weather the bowsprit was lost, sailing again on 13 July 1820 the northerly course was followed and eventually the continent was circumnavigated. The Mermaid was then condemned and the voyage was on the Bathurst which was twice the size of the Mermaid. They left on 26 May 1821, the route was chosen, and when they were on the west coast of Australia it was found necessary to go to Mauritius to refit. They left after a stay of seven weeks and reached King George Sound on 24 December 1821. A sufficiently long stay was made for Cunningham to make an excellent collection of plants, Sydney was reached again on 25 April 1822. Cunningham provided a chapter on botany to Kings Narrative of a Survey, in September 1822 Cunningham went on an expedition over the Blue Mountains and arrived at Bathurst on 14 October 1822 and returned to Parramatta in January 1823
40.
Phillip Parker King
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Admiral Phillip Parker King, FRS, RN was an early explorer of the Australian and Patagonian coasts. King was sent to England for education in 1796, and he joined the Royal Naval Academy, Portsmouth, King entered the Royal Navy in 1807, where he was commissioned lieutenant in 1814. King was assigned to survey the parts of the Australian coast not already examined by Matthew Flinders, amongst the 19-man crew were Allan Cunningham, John Septimus Roe and the aborigine Bungaree. The first three trips were in the 76 tonne cutter HMS Mermaid, but the vessel was grounded in 1820, the Admiralty instructed King to discover whether there was any river likely to lead to an interior navigation into this great continent. The Colonial Office had given instructions to collect information about topography, fauna, timber, minerals, climate, and the natives, from February to June 1818, the coast was surveyed as far as Van Diemen Gulf and there were many meetings with Aboriginals and Malay proas. In June the Mermaid visited Timor and then returned to Sydney, next December and January King surveyed the recently discovered Macquarie Harbour in Van Diemens Land and sailed in May 1819 for Torres Strait. King took John Oxley as far as the Hastings River, King returned to Sydney on 12 January 1820. Kings fourth voyage was undertaken in the 154 tonne sloop HMS Bathurst, the ship headed north, through Torres Strait and to the north-west coast of the continent. Further survey of the west coast was made after a visit to Mauritius, valuable contributions had been made to the exploration of Australia. King had been promoted to commander in July 1821, and in April 1823 returned to England and he subsequently commanded the survey vessel HMS Adventure, and in company with HMS Beagle, spent five years surveying the complex coasts around the Strait of Magellan. At the same time, King put together a collection of Patagonian objects from local tribes living in Tierra del Fuego. In addition to records, King also lent his hand to drawing and watercolour painting. The result was presented at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society in 1831, King owned a property at Dunheved in the western suburbs of Sydney where he entertained Charles Darwin on Darwins last night in Sydney in January 1836. In 1855 King was promoted to Rear admiral on the retired list, King was a Fellow of the Royal Society. King was honoured on the 2-pound postage stamp of Australia in 1963, the Australian native orchid Dendrobium kingianum has been named after him. King Sound in the Kimberley region of Western Australia was also named after King who explored the region in 1818, six species of reptiles are named in his honor, Chlamydosaurus kingii, Anops kingii, Egernia kingii, Elgaria kingii, Liolaemus kingii, and Disteira kingii. F. R. S. and L. S. to N. A. Vigors, Adventure and Beagle employed between the years 1826 and 1830 in surveying the southern coasts of South America, including the Straits of Magalhaens and the coast of Tierra del Fuego. The Zoological Journal,5, 332–349.1832 King, P. P. FitzRoy, Robert, ed. Proceedings of the first expedition, 1826-30, under the command of Captain P. Parker King, R. N
41.
British Museum
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The British Museum is dedicated to human history, art and culture, and is located in the Bloomsbury area of London. The British Museum was established in 1753, largely based on the collections of the physician, the museum first opened to the public on 15 January 1759, in Montagu House, on the site of the current building. Although today principally a museum of art objects and antiquities. Its foundations lie in the will of the Irish-born British physician, on 7 June 1753, King George II gave his formal assent to the Act of Parliament which established the British Museum. They were joined in 1757 by the Old Royal Library, now the Royal manuscripts, together these four foundation collections included many of the most treasured books now in the British Library including the Lindisfarne Gospels and the sole surviving copy of Beowulf. The British Museum was the first of a new kind of museum – national, belonging to neither church nor king, freely open to the public, sloanes collection, while including a vast miscellany of objects, tended to reflect his scientific interests. The addition of the Cotton and Harley manuscripts introduced a literary, the body of trustees decided on a converted 17th-century mansion, Montagu House, as a location for the museum, which it bought from the Montagu family for £20,000. The Trustees rejected Buckingham House, on the now occupied by Buckingham Palace, on the grounds of cost. With the acquisition of Montagu House the first exhibition galleries and reading room for scholars opened on 15 January 1759. During the few years after its foundation the British Museum received several gifts, including the Thomason Collection of Civil War Tracts. A list of donations to the Museum, dated 31 January 1784, in the early 19th century the foundations for the extensive collection of sculpture began to be laid and Greek, Roman and Egyptian artefacts dominated the antiquities displays. Gifts and purchases from Henry Salt, British consul general in Egypt, beginning with the Colossal bust of Ramesses II in 1818, many Greek sculptures followed, notably the first purpose-built exhibition space, the Charles Towneley collection, much of it Roman Sculpture, in 1805. In 1816 these masterpieces of art, were acquired by The British Museum by Act of Parliament. The collections were supplemented by the Bassae frieze from Phigaleia, Greece in 1815, the Ancient Near Eastern collection also had its beginnings in 1825 with the purchase of Assyrian and Babylonian antiquities from the widow of Claudius James Rich. The neoclassical architect, Sir Robert Smirke, was asked to draw up plans for an extension to the Museum. For the reception of the Royal Library, and a Picture Gallery over it, and put forward plans for todays quadrangular building, much of which can be seen today. The dilapidated Old Montagu House was demolished and work on the Kings Library Gallery began in 1823, the extension, the East Wing, was completed by 1831. The Museum became a site as Sir Robert Smirkes grand neo-classical building gradually arose
Cooktown travel guide from Wikivoyage