1.
Cornell University
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Cornell University is an American private Ivy League and land-grant doctoral university located in Ithaca, New York. These ideals, unconventional for the time, are captured in Cornells motto, the university also administers two satellite medical campuses, one in New York City and one in Education City, Qatar. Cornell is one of three private land grant universities in the nation and the one in New York. Of its seven colleges, three are state-supported statutory or contract colleges through the State University of New York system, including its agricultural. Of Cornells graduate schools, only the college is state-supported. As a land grant college, Cornell operates a cooperative extension program in every county of New York. The Cornell University Ithaca Campus comprises 745 acres, but is larger when the Cornell Botanic Gardens are considered. Since its founding, Cornell has been a co-educational, non-sectarian institution where admission has not been restricted by religion or race, the student body consists of more than 14,000 undergraduate and 7,000 graduate students from all 50 American states and more than 120 countries. Cornell University was founded on April 27,1865, the New York State Senate authorized the university as the land grant institution. Senator Ezra Cornell offered his farm in Ithaca, New York, as a site, fellow senator and experienced educator Andrew Dickson White agreed to be the first president. During the next three years, White oversaw the construction of the first two buildings and traveled to attract students and faculty, the university was inaugurated on October 7,1868, and 412 men were enrolled the next day. Cornell developed as an innovative institution, applying its research to its own campus as well as to outreach efforts. For example, in 1883 it was one of the first university campuses to use electricity from a dynamo to light the grounds. Cornell has had active alumni since its earliest classes and it was one of the first universities to include alumni-elected representatives on its Board of Trustees. Today the university has more than 4,000 courses, since 2000, Cornell has been expanding its international programs. In 2004, the university opened the Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar and it has partnerships with institutions in India, Singapore, and the Peoples Republic of China. Former president Jeffrey S. Lehman described the university, with its international profile. On March 9,2004, Cornell and Stanford University laid the cornerstone for a new Bridging the Rift Center to be built, Cornells main campus is on East Hill in Ithaca, New York, overlooking the town and Cayuga Lake
2.
Ithaca, New York
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Ithaca /ˈɪθəkə/ is a city in the Southern Tier-Finger Lakes region of New York. It is the seat of Tompkins County, as well as the largest community in the Ithaca-Tompkins County metropolitan area and this area contains the municipalities of the Town of Ithaca, the village of Cayuga Heights, and other towns and villages in Tompkins County. The city of Ithaca is located on the shore of Cayuga Lake. It is named for the Greek island of Ithaca, Ithaca is home to Cornell University, an Ivy League school of over 20,000 students, most of whom study at its local campus. Ithaca College is located just south of the city in the Town of Ithaca, nearby is Tompkins Cortland Community College. These three colleges bring tens of thousands of students who increase Ithacas seasonal population during the school year, some students settle in the area after graduation. The citys voters are more liberal than those in the remainder of Tompkins County or in upstate New York. In 2010, the population was 30,014. Namgyal Monastery in Ithaca is the North American seat of Tenzin Gyatso, indigenous people occupied this area for thousands of years. At the time of European contact, this area was controlled by the Cayuga Indians, jesuit missionaries from New France are said to have had a mission to the Cayuga as early as 1657. Saponi and Tutelo Indians, Algonquian-speaking tribes, later occupied lands at the end of Cayuga Lake. Remnants of these tribes had been forced from North Carolina by tribal conflicts, during the Revolutionary War, four of the then six Iroquois nations were allied with the British, although bands made decisions on fighting in a highly decentralized way. Conflict with the colonists was fierce throughout the Mohawk Valley. In retaliation for conflicts to the east, the 1779 Sullivan Expedition was conducted against the Iroquois peoples in the west of the state, destroying more than 40 villages and stored winter crops. It destroyed the Tutelo village of Coregonal, located near what is now the junction of state routes 13, most Iroquois were forced from the state after the Revolutionary War, but some remnants remained. The state sold off the former Iroquois lands to development and settlement by European Americans. Within the current boundaries of the City of Ithaca, Native Americans maintained only a temporary hunting camp at the base of Cascadilla Gorge, in 1788 eleven men from Kingston, New York came to the area with two Delaware people guides, to explore what they considered wilderness. The following year Jacob Yaple, Isaac Dumond, and Peter Hinepaw returned with their families and that same year Abraham Bloodgood of Albany obtained a patent from the state for 1400 acres, which included all of the present downtown west of Tioga Street
3.
New York (state)
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New York is a state in the northeastern United States, and is the 27th-most extensive, fourth-most populous, and seventh-most densely populated U. S. state. New York is bordered by New Jersey and Pennsylvania to the south and Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Vermont to the east. With an estimated population of 8.55 million in 2015, New York City is the most populous city in the United States, the New York Metropolitan Area is one of the most populous urban agglomerations in the world. New York City makes up over 40% of the population of New York State, two-thirds of the states population lives in the New York City Metropolitan Area, and nearly 40% lives on Long Island. Both the state and New York City were named for the 17th-century Duke of York, the next four most populous cities in the state are Buffalo, Rochester, Yonkers, and Syracuse, while the state capital is Albany. New York has a diverse geography and these more mountainous regions are bisected by two major river valleys—the north-south Hudson River Valley and the east-west Mohawk River Valley, which forms the core of the Erie Canal. Western New York is considered part of the Great Lakes Region and straddles Lake Ontario, between the two lakes lies Niagara Falls. The central part of the state is dominated by the Finger Lakes, New York had been inhabited by tribes of Algonquian and Iroquoian-speaking Native Americans for several hundred years by the time the earliest Europeans came to New York. The first Europeans to arrive were French colonists and Jesuit missionaries who arrived southward from settlements at Montreal for trade, the British annexed the colony from the Dutch in 1664. The borders of the British colony, the Province of New York, were similar to those of the present-day state, New York is home to the Statue of Liberty, a symbol of the United States and its ideals of freedom, democracy, and opportunity. In the 21st century, New York has emerged as a node of creativity and entrepreneurship, social tolerance. On April 17,1524 Verrazanno entered New York Bay, by way of the now called the Narrows into the northern bay which he named Santa Margherita. Verrazzano described it as a vast coastline with a delta in which every kind of ship could pass and he adds. This vast sheet of water swarmed with native boats and he landed on the tip of Manhattan and possibly on the furthest point of Long Island. Verrazannos stay was interrupted by a storm which pushed him north towards Marthas Vineyard, in 1540 French traders from New France built a chateau on Castle Island, within present-day Albany, due to flooding, it was abandoned the next year. In 1614, the Dutch under the command of Hendrick Corstiaensen, rebuilt the French chateau, Fort Nassau was the first Dutch settlement in North America, and was located along the Hudson River, also within present-day Albany. The small fort served as a trading post and warehouse, located on the Hudson River flood plain, the rudimentary fort was washed away by flooding in 1617, and abandoned for good after Fort Orange was built nearby in 1623. Henry Hudsons 1609 voyage marked the beginning of European involvement with the area, sailing for the Dutch East India Company and looking for a passage to Asia, he entered the Upper New York Bay on September 11 of that year
4.
U.S. News & World Report
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U. S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a magazine in 1933, U. S. News transitioned to primarily web-based publishing in 2010. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate. The ranking system by U. S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly, United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence, who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U. S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news, important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the Washington Whispers column in 1934 and the News You Can Use column in 1952. In 1958, the magazines circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U. S. News & World Report include hospitals, in October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U. S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News, in 1993, U. S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews. com was launched. In 2001, the won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U. S. News & World Report published its first list of the nations best high schools and its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly, in November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U. S, moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the overall magazine circulation and advertising, U. S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication
5.
Law school
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A law school is an institution specializing in legal education, usually involved as part of a process for becoming a lawyer within a given jurisdiction. Nowadays the legal education consists in a 5-year-long course in which, afterwards, the practice of law is conditioned upon admission to the bar of a particular state or other territorial jurisdiction. Public attorneys, public prossecutors and magistrates admission is made, mainly, through an entrance examination and a constitutional mandatory three years of legal experience. The postgraduation, stricto sensu, consists in a, a) master´s degree, which is usually a two-year degree, and a b) doctorate´s degree, which can take up another four years. The typical law degree required to practice law in Canada is now the Juris Doctor, there is some scholarly content in the coursework. The programs consist of three years, and have content in their mandatory first year courses. Some schools, however, have not switched from LL. B. to the J. D. – one notable university that still awards the LL. B is McGill University. Given that the Canadian legal system includes both the French civil law and the Anglo-American common law, some law schools offer both an LL. B. or J. D. and a B. C. L. LL. L. or LL. B. degree, such as McGill University, University of Ottawa, in particular, McGill University Faculty of Law offers a combined civil law and common law program, which has been called transsystemic. At other faculties, if a person completes a common law degree and this is also true for civil law graduates who wish to complete a common law degree. Despite changes in designation, schools opting for the J. D. have not altered their curricula, neither the J. D. or LL. B. and the École du Barreau du Québec. In France, the education is a three tier system. The student may study for a LLB, then a LLM and, for those interested in Law theory, many French universities offers Law courses in department labelled as Research and Education Units and/or Faculties of Law or Law Schools. Law Degree in Indonesia consists of three tier systems, the first tier is the Degree of which carries the title of Sarjana Hukum/S. H. This can be obtained in 4–7 years after they enter Law School straight from Senior High School, the second tier varies depending on the legal specialties taken after the first tier. The general title for this tier is Magister Hukum / M. H, although it is also common to see other title for secondary tier such as Magister Kenotariatan / M. Kn. for Notarial professionals line of work. The second tier can be obtained normally in 1-2 year, the third tier in Indonesian Law Degree is Doctor / DR. To work in legal professions of choice in Indonesia, a Bachelor Law Degree is obligatory, graduates can pursue their career as Legal in-house counsel, Judge profession, Public Prosecutor, other legal-related work and Advocate
6.
Ivy League
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The Ivy League is a collegiate athletic conference comprising sports teams from eight private institutions of higher education in the Northeastern United States. The conference name is commonly used to refer to those eight schools as a group beyond the sports context. The eight institutions are Brown University, Columbia University, Cornell University, Dartmouth College, Harvard University, the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton University, the term Ivy League has connotations of academic excellence, selectivity in admissions, and social elitism. While the term was in use as early as 1933, it became official after the formation of the NCAA Division I athletic conference in 1954. Seven of the eight schools were founded during the United States colonial period, Ivy League institutions account for seven of the nine Colonial Colleges chartered before the American Revolution, the other two are Rutgers University and College of William & Mary. Ivy League schools are generally viewed as some of the most prestigious, all eight universities place in the top fifteen of the U. S. News & World Report 2017 nation university rankings, including the top four schools and five of the top eight. Undergraduate enrollments range from about 4,000 to 14,000, making them larger than those of a private liberal arts college. Total enrollments, including students, range from approximately 6,400 at Dartmouth to over 20,000 at Columbia, Cornell, Harvard. Ivy League financial endowments range from Browns $3 billion to Harvards $36.4 billion, as of 2014, Harvard University has an endowment of $36.4 billion. Additionally, each university receives millions of dollars in grants and other subsidies from federal. Harvard University uses the date that the legislature of the Massachusetts Bay Colony formally allocated funds for the creation of a college, Harvard was chartered in 1650, although classes had been conducted for approximately a decade by then. The University of Pennsylvania initially considered its founding date to be 1750, later in Penns early history, the university changed its officially recognized founding date to 1749, which was used for all of the nineteenth century, including a centennial celebration in 1849. In 1899, Penns board of trustees adopted a third founding date of 1740. Penn was chartered in 1755, the same year classes began. Religious affiliation refers to financial sponsorship, formal association with, and promotion by, all of the schools in the Ivy League are private and not currently associated with any religion. Students have long revered the ivied walls of older colleges, planting the ivy was a customary class day ceremony at many colleges in the 1800s. In 1893 an alumnus told The Harvard Crimson, In 1850, the custom of planting the ivy, while the ivy oration was delivered, arose about this time. At Penn, graduating seniors started the custom of planting ivy at a university building each spring in 1873, Ivy planting ceremonies are reported for Yale, Simmons, Bryn Mawr and many others
7.
University
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A university is an institution of higher education and research which grants academic degrees in various academic disciplines. Universities typically provide undergraduate education and postgraduate education, the word university is derived from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means community of teachers and scholars. Universities were created in Italy and evolved from Cathedral schools for the clergy during the High Middle Ages, the original Latin word universitas refers in general to a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation, etc. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined the qualifications of their members, an important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom. The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the first university, the University of Bologna adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita, in 1158 or 1155, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in the interests of education. Today this is claimed as the origin of academic freedom and this is now widely recognised internationally - on 18 September 1988,430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum, marking the 900th anniversary of Bolognas foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, the university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian setting. The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and it is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were founded by Kings or municipal administrations. In the early period, most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries, the first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford. The students had all the power … and dominated the masters, princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise develop with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The rediscovery of Aristotles works–more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated–fuelled a spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotles works a turning point in the history of Western thought and this became the primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on the books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy, and metaphysics, while Hippocrates, Galen, outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter
8.
Law degree
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A law degree is an academic degree conferred for studies in law. Such degrees are generally preparation for careers, but while their curricula may be reviewed by legal authority. The first academic degrees were all law degrees- and the first law degrees were doctorates, the foundations of the first universities in Europe were the glossators of the 11th century, which were schools of law. The first European university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 12th century who were students of the school in that city. It is from history that it is said that the first academic title of doctor applied to scholars of law. The degree and title were not applied to scholars of other disciplines until the 13th century, the rising of the doctor of philosophy to its present level is a modern novelty. At its origins, a doctorate was simply a qualification for a guild—that of teaching law, the University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age. In the medieval Islamic madrasahs, there was a doctorate in the Islamic law of the Sharia, the type of law degree conferred differs according to the jurisdiction. Some examples include, Bacharel em Direito or Bacharel em Ciências Jurídicas e Sociais, the abbreviation for Bachelor is Bel. Bachelor of Laws also referred to as a B. A. in Law or an LL. B. in the United Kingdom, Master of Laws in the United Kingdom and various current or former Commonwealth countries. Also referred to as an LL. M. from its Latin name and it is an advanced academic degree pursued by those holding a professional law degree or a degree in a relevant field. Laurea di Dottore in Giurisprudenza for graduates before the Bologna Process reforms, or Laurea Magistrale in Giurisprudenza after the Bologna Process reforms, in Italy. It is a masters degree, however all graduates of Italian universities. Erstes Juristisches Staatsexamen is the equivalent to the law degree, since the part is the German equivalent to the Bar exam in the U. S. At some universities you either become a Lizentiat des Rechts, a Magister iuris or a Diplom-Jurist, Juris Doctor in the United States and Japan. It is a doctorate degree. Legum Doctor is in some jurisdictions the highest academic degree in law and is equivalent to a Ph. D. Doctor of Juridical Science is a research doctorate in law awarded mostly in the United States and Canada. Lizentiat der Rechtswissenschaften / Licence en droit until 2004 and Master of Law since 2004 in Switzerland and it is a masters level degree
9.
Juris Doctor
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The Juris Doctor degree, also known as the Doctor of Jurisprudence degree, is a graduate-entry professional degree in law and one of several Doctor of Law degrees. It is earned by completing law school in Australia, Canada and the United States and it has the academic standing of a second-entry, professional baccalaureate degree in Canada, a masters degree in Australia and a professional doctorate in the United States. The degree was first awarded in the United States in the early 20th century and was created as a version of the old European doctor of law degree. Originating from the 19th century Harvard movement for the study of law. It involves a program in most jurisdictions. To be authorized to practice law in the courts of a state in the United States. Lawyers must, however, be admitted to the bar of the court before they are authorized to practice in that court. Admission to the bar of a district court includes admission to the bar of the related bankruptcy court. In the United States, the doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor and at some law schools Doctor of Law. Juris Doctor literally means Teacher of Law, while the Latin for Doctor of Jurisprudence—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means Teacher of Legal Knowledge, the J. D. is not to be confused with Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor. In institutions where the latter can be earned, e. g. D, the LL. D. is invariably an honorary degree in the United States. The first university in Europe, the University of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the school in that city. This served as the model for law schools of the Middle Ages. While Bologna granted only doctorates, preparatory degrees were introduced in Paris, the nature of the J. D. can be better understood by a review of the context of the history of legal education in England. The teaching of law at Cambridge and Oxford Universities was mainly for philosophical or scholarly purposes, the universities taught only civil and canon law but not the common law that applied in most jurisdictions. The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, by the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose. With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the role grew tremendously. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades
10.
Master of Laws
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The Master of Laws is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In some jurisdictions the Master of Laws is the professional degree for admission into legal practice. To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, while in most common law countries a Bachelor of Laws is required, the U. S. and Canada generally require a professional doctorate, or Juris Doctor, to practice law. The Juris Doctor is a doctorate and first professional graduate degree in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia, the majority of individuals holding a J. D. must pass an examination in order to be licensed to practice law within their respective jurisdictions. If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge through research in a area of law. The word legum is the plural form of the Latin word lex. When used in the plural, it signifies a body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words juris. The highest research degree in law is the S. J. D. and it is equivalent to the Doctor of Philosophy in Law, Doctorat en Droit, or the Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften in Germany. There are also variant doctoral degrees, such as the D. C. L. degree bestowed by McGill University in Canada, most schools require an LL. M. before admission to a SJD or a PhD in law degree program. Like the PhD, the SJD degree generally requires a dissertation that is graded, orally defended, the Doctor of Laws degree in the United States of America is usually an honorary degree. Historically, the LL. M. degree is an element particular to the system of English speaking countries. Over the past years, however, specialized LL. M, Programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented. Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Cyprus, Italy and Switzerland require a Masters with a two to five years to become a lawyer. As of 2014, Spain requires a degree in addition to a 4 years degree to become a lawyer. In Finland, an LL. M. is the graduate degree required to practice law. To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL. M. degree with a course in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be written in the district court for three years
11.
Myron Charles Taylor
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Myron Charles Taylor was an American industrialist, and later a diplomatic figure involved in many of the most important geopolitical events during and after World War II. In addition he was a philanthropist, giving to his alma mater, Cornell University, and he was born in Lyons, New York, to William Delling Taylor and Mary Taylor. His father owned and operated a tannery business, Taylor graduated from the Cornell Law School of Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, in 1894. He returned to Lyons and for the five years struggled to establish a small-town law practice. He also twice ran for the New York State Assembly as a Democrat, in 1900, Taylor left Lyons to join his brother Willard Underhill Taylor, on Wall Street in New York City, New York. His focus turned to law and his legal career began to flourish. Taylor won a U. S. government contract for mail pouches and his efforts expanded to the cotton markets, identifying opportunities to acquire struggling cotton mills, transform their labor practices, and modernize their technology. This approach later became known as the Taylor Formula, seeing the potential of the infant automotive industry, he established a textile firm that became the leading supplier of combined tire fabric. During World War I his plants became the suppliers to the American military effort. Following the war he saw a boom-bust cycle coming and disposed of all his interests in the mills, with his now-sizable fortune he could have retired, but at the urging of two leading Wall Street bankers—J. P. Morgan, Jr. and George F. Baker—Taylor was recruited to turn around the finances of U. S. Steel, once the largest steel producer. On September 15,1925, he was elected a director and he became the committees chairman in 1929. From March 29,1932, until April 5,1938, steels chairman and chief executive officer. One defining moment occurred in 1937, when Taylor struck a deal with John L. Lewis who, through the deal, U. S. Steel agreed to recognize a CIO subsidiary for purposes of representing and organizing U. S. Steel workers. U. S. Steel became the first major corporation to take this historic step. He did not officially retire from the board until January 12,1956, U. S. Steel named one of its new lake freighters, Myron C. Taylor in 1929. It sailed under this name until it was sold off in 2000, before German Nazi leader Adolf Hitler turned to mass extermination of Jews by way of The Holocaust, the possibility of having refugees sent to willing countries was posed. Under Secretary of State had proposed a conference to address the immigration issue
12.
United States Secretary of State
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Secretary of State is a Level I position in the Executive Schedule and thus earns the salary prescribed for that level. The current Secretary of State is former ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson and those that remain include storage and use of the Great Seal of the United States, performance of protocol functions for the White House, and the drafting of certain proclamations. The Secretary also negotiates with the individual States over the extradition of fugitives to foreign countries, under Federal Law, the resignation of a President or of a Vice President is only valid if declared in writing, in an instrument delivered to the office of the Secretary of State. Accordingly, the resignations of President Nixon and of Vice-President Spiro Agnew, domestic issues, were formalized in instruments delivered to the Secretary of State, six Secretaries of State have gone on to be elected President. Former Secretaries of State retain the right to add the title Secretary to their surnames, as the head of the United States Foreign Service, the Secretary of State is responsible for management of the diplomatic service of the United States. The foreign service employs about 12,000 people domestically and internationally, the U. S. Secretary of State has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U. S. soil for any reason. The nature of the means that Secretaries of State engage in travel around the world. The record for most countries visited in a secretarys tenure is 112, second is Madeleine Albright with 96. The record for most air miles traveled in a secretarys tenure is 1.380 million miles, second is Condoleezza Rices 1.059 million miles and third is Clintons 956,733 miles. S
13.
Edmund Muskie
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Edmund Sixtus Ed Muskie was an American statesman, author, academic, and reformer, of Polish origin, who served as the 58th United States Secretary of State under President Jimmy Carter. In the final days of the Carter presidency, he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom on January 16,1981 and he is widely considered one of the most influential politicians in the history of Maine. He went on to earn a law degree from Cornell Law School in 1939, after a short stint practicing law, he served in the United States Navy during World War II and rose to the rank of lieutenant. After the conclusion of his service, he returned to law practice in Waterville. While practicing law in Waterville, he helped grow the presence of the Democratic Party in a Republican Maine and he successfully began his political career as a member of the Maine House of Representatives before deciding to run for Governor of Maine. His political influence in Maine continued to grow as he was elected as Governor in 1955, after concluding his time as Governor, he was elected to the United States Senate, and served from 1959 to 1980. Muskie was reelected in 1964,1970 and 1976, each time with over 60 percent of the vote, Muskie was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in the 1968 presidential election, and lost with the margin of 42. 72% to Richard Nixons 43. 42%. He was also a candidate for the Democratic nomination for President in 1972 and he returned to the Senate, where he served as the first chairman of the new Senate Budget Committee starting in 1974. In 1980, he was tapped by President Jimmy Carter to serve as Secretary of State, Muskie held the highest political office by a Polish American in U. S. history, and also is the only Polish American ever nominated by a major party for Vice President. His father, Stephen Marciszewski, immigrated to the United States in 1903, from Poland and he worked with a master tailor in order to learn a skill that could support his family. He briefly lived in England before immigrating to the United States and he opened up a shop in Rumford, Maine, and employed his son in his youth. Later in life, Edmund Muskie commented on his experience in the shop, Muskies mother, Josephine Muskie, was born to a Polish-American family in Buffalo, New York. Muskies parents married in 1911, and Josephine moved to Rumford, Edmund Sixtus Muskie was born in Rumford on March 28,1914. As a child he spent most of his time outside in the nature of the Androscoggin River, while Muskie was a member of the Maine House of Representatives, representing Waterville, Maine, he used to drive back to Rumford to see the river he grew up with. Muskie was born as the child to a sister. As a child he displayed a bad temper but was unusually accommodating with his friends and his father died exactly one year after Muskies inauguration as the Governor of Maine, on January 25,1956. Muskie attended Stephens High School, where he played baseball, was on the student government, Muskie took his studies seriously, with aspirations of attending college, according to childhood friend Vito Puiia, Some of the boys, they took college courses. Well, he was so much smarter than most of us anyway, he knew he could swing it somehow on scholarships, influenced by the political excitement caused by the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt, he attended Bates College in Lewiston, Maine
14.
William P. Rogers
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William Pierce Rogers was an American politician, diplomat, and lawyer. He served as United States Attorney General under President Dwight D. Rogers was born June 23,1913, in Norfolk, New York. After the death of his mother, the former Myra Beswick, he was reared during his teen years by his grandparents, in the village of Canton and he attended Colgate University, where he was initiated into the Sigma Chi fraternity. He then went to Cornell University Law School and he received his law degree and passed the New York Bar in 1937, and he married Adele Langston Rogers. The couple had four children, Dale R. Marshall, Douglas L. Rogers, Anthony W. Rogers and he entered the United States Navy in 1942, serving on the USS Intrepid, including her action in the Battle of Okinawa. His final rank in the Navy was lieutenant commander, in 1950, Rogers became a partner in a New York City law firm, Dwight, Royall, Harris, Koegel & Caskey. Thereafter, he returned to this firm when he was not in government service, Nixon, and advised Nixon that Hiss had lied and that the case against him should be pursued. Rogers also advised Nixon in the slush fund scandal that led to Nixons Checkers speech in 1952, Rogers joined the Administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower as Deputy Attorney General in 1953. As Deputy Attorney General, Rogers had some role in or insight into the process led to the execution of Julius. As deputy attorney general, Rogers was involved in the Little Rock Integration Crisis in the fall of 1957 of Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. In that capacity, he worked with Osro Cobb, the United States Attorney for the Eastern District of Arkansas, to implement federal orders, in his memoirs, Cobb recalls that Rogers called him to discuss the possibility of violence. Cobb writes, Our conversation was somewhat guarded, I had never recommended the use of federal troops, and Rogers asked if I thought they were necessary. Then to my surprise he stated, They are on their way already, Rogers served as Attorney General from 1957 to 1961. He remained an advisor to Vice President Nixon throughout the Eisenhower administration. Rogers became attorney general upon the resignation of his superior, Herbert Brownell, in 1958, Little Rock closed its public schools for a year to oppose further desegregation required by the U. S. government. At the time Rogers said that It seems inconceivable that a state or community would rather close its schools than comply with decisions of the Supreme Court. In 1959, Martin Luther King Jr. hailed Rogers for advocating the integration of a school in Alabama that had excluded the children of black military personnel. Now renamed to Rogers & Wells, Rogers returned to his law practice and he played an important role in the 1964 New York Times Co. v. Sullivan Supreme Court case
15.
Samuel Pierce
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Samuel Riley Pierce Jr. was Ronald Reagans Secretary of Housing and Urban Development from January 23,1981 until January 20,1989. Born in Glen Cove, New York, Pierce was an Eagle Scout, Pierce was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity and Alpha Phi Omega service fraternity. He was also elected to Cornells oldest senior society, the Sphinx Head Society. Pierce served in the United States Armys Criminal Investigation Division during World War II, Pierce graduated from Cornell University in 1947 and received a law degree from Cornell Law School in 1949. He earned a master of laws degree from New York University School of Law in 1952, Pierce was an assistant United States attorney in New York from 1953 to 1955. A lifelong Republican, he first entered government when Eisenhower was president and he became an assistant to the undersecretary of labor in 1955. Pierce was appointed by Governor Nelson Rockefeller to serve as a judge in New York City, Pierce argued before the United States Supreme Court on behalf of Martin Luther King Jr. and the New York Times in the important First Amendment case styled New York Times v. Sullivan. In 1981 Pierce became secretary of housing and urban development under Ronald Reagan, Pierce was Reagans only African American cabinet member and the only cabinet member to serve in his post throughout both of Reagans terms as president. On June 18,1981 during a luncheon for the US Conference of Mayors in Washington DC, President Reagan mistook Pierce as one of the mayors on the dais, with the famous Hello, Mr. Mayor, comment. Due to his low profile within the Reagan administration, he was sometimes derided as Silent Sam. During Pierces tenure, HUD appropriations for low-income housing were cut by half and funding all. Pierce was one of the very few members to see outgoing President Reagan off at the airport. These investigations found that under Pierces stewardship the department engaged in political favoritism, millions of dollars of federal government money was given to projects sought by connected politicians of both parties, in violation of rules governing such grants and expenditures. Pierce died at the Holy Cross Hospital outside Washington, D. C. on October 31,2000, list of African-American United States Cabinet Secretaries Samuel Pierce biography Atlanta Journal-Constitution article from Pierces tenure Appearances on C-SPAN
16.
President of the Republic of China
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The President of the Republic of China is the head of state of the Republic of China and commander-in-chief of the Republic of China Armed Forces. The ROC was founded in 1912, to all of China, however, after the ROC lost control of mainland China. The existing office of President was created in 1948 under the 1947 Constitution of the Republic of China, the first president under the constitution was Chiang Kai-shek. Tsai Ing-wen succeeded Ma Ying-jeou on 20 May 2016 as the first female president in the nations history, but Sun soon resigned from the provisional presidency in favor of Yuan Shikai, who assumed the title Great President in March 1912. Yuan induced the Last Emperor to abdicate, ending thousands of years of rule in China. The 1913 Constitution called for a presidential system with notable checks on the president by the National Assembly. However, Yuan soon began to assert dictatorial power, ignoring the National Assembly, in 1915, Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of China in a largely unpopular move and was forced to retract his declaration shortly before his death in 1916. With Yuan Shikais death the Warlord Era began, Vice President Li Yuanhong succeeded Yuan as president and attempted to reassert the constitutional government, but was soon forced to resign by military strongmen. The presidency, though leading an internationally recognized government, was thereafter to be headed by a series of prominent warlords and this presidency ended in 1928 when the Northern Expedition, led by the Kuomintang, succeeded in conquering North China. Sun Yat-sen established a government in Guangzhou in 1917 and took the title of Generalissimo of the Military Government. He was ousted in 1918 but returned again to Guangzhou in 1921, Sun, again expelled from Guangzhou in 1922, returned in 1923 to take the title of Generalissimo of the Military Government. The government was organized into five branches, with the Executive Yuan, headed by the premier, the new Constitution of the Republic of China, promulgated on 25 December 1947, established a five-branch government with the office of president as head of state. On 20 May 1948, Chiang Kai-shek was formally elected by the National Assembly to be the first term president, the members of the National Assembly continued in their office until 1991, and continued to elect Chiang Kai-shek as president until his death in 1975. Presidents were elected by the National Assembly until the first direct election in 1996. The president is selected by a plurality voting direct election of the areas administered by the Republic of China for a term of four years. Before 1991, the president was selected by the National Assembly of the Republic of China for a term of six years, the Constitution names the president as head of state and commander-in-chief of the Republic of China Armed Forces. The president is responsible for conducting foreign relations, such as concluding treaties, declaring war, the president must promulgate all laws and has no right to veto. Other powers of the president include granting amnesty, pardon or clemency, declaring martial law, the President can appoint Senior Advisors, National Policy Advisors and Strategy Advisors, but they do not form a council
17.
Tsai Ing-wen
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Tsai Ing-wen is a Taiwanese politician currently serving as the President of the Republic of China, commonly referred to as Taiwan. Tsai is the president from the Democratic Progressive Party. Tsai is also the first woman elected to the office and she is the incumbent chairperson of the Democratic Progressive Party, and was the partys presidential candidate in the 2012 and 2016 presidential elections. Tsai previously served as party chair from 2008 to 2012, Tsai graduated in law and was subsequently a university professor. After DPP President Chen Shui-bian took office in 2000, Tsai served as Minister of the Mainland Affairs Council throughout Chens first term as a non-partisan and she joined DPP in 2004 and served briefly as a DPP-nominated at-large member of the Legislative Yuan. From there, she was appointed Vice Premier under Premier Su Tseng-chang until the mass resignation in 2007. She was elected and assumed DPP chairpersonship in 2008, following her partys defeat in the 2008 presidential election and she resigned as chairperson after losing her 2012 presidential election bid. Tsai ran for New Taipei City mayorship in the November 2010 municipal elections but was defeated by former vice premier. Tsai was born in Zhongshan District, Taipei, Taiwan on August 31,1956 and her given name, Ing-wen, could be translated as heroic literature or English language. During her middle school period, she studied in Taipei Municipal Zhongshan Girls High School and she studied law at the behest of her father. Upon her return to Taiwan, she taught law at the School of Law of Soochow University and National Chengchi University and she was also appointed to the Fair Trade Commission and the Copyright Commission. She served as consultant for the Mainland Affairs Council and the National Security Council and she also led the drafting team on the Statute Governing Relations with Hong Kong and Macau. In 2000, Tsai was given the appointment of chairperson of the Mainland Affairs Council. Confirming the widely held belief that she maintained Pan-Green sympathies, Tsai joined the Democratic Progressive Party in 2004 and she was subsequently nominated by the DPP to be a candidate in the 2004 legislative election and was elected as a legislator-at-large. On January 26,2006, Tsai was appointed to the post of president of the Executive Yuan. She concurrently served as chairwoman of the Consumer Protection Commission, on May 17,2007, Tsai, along with the rest of the cabinet of out-going Premier Su Tseng-chang, resigned to make way for incoming Premier Chang Chun-hsiung and his cabinet. Premier Chang named Chiou I-jen, the incumbent secretary-general of the Presidential Office to replace Tsai as vice premier and she then served as the chair of TaiMedBiologics, a biotechnology company based in Taiwan. The Kuomintang accused Tsai of contracting government work out to TaiMedBiologics during her term as premier, while planning to leave the government
18.
International Criminal Court
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The International Criminal Court is an intergovernmental organization and international tribunal that sits in The Hague in the Netherlands. The ICC has the jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for the crimes of genocide, crimes against humanity. The ICC began functioning on 1 July 2002, the date that the Rome Statute entered into force, the Rome Statute is a multilateral treaty which serves as the ICCs foundational and governing document. States which become party to the Rome Statute, for example by ratifying it, currently, there are 124 states which are party to the Rome Statute and therefore members of the ICC. However, Burundi has given notice that it will withdraw from the Rome Statute. The ICC has four organs, the Presidency, the Judicial Divisions, the Office of the Prosecutor. The President is the most senior judge chosen by his or her peers in the Judicial Division, the Office of the Prosecutor is headed by the Prosecutor who investigates crimes and initiates proceedings before the Judicial Division. The Registry is headed by the Registrar and is charged with managing all the functions of the ICC, including the headquarters, detention unit. The Office of the Prosecutor has opened ten official investigations and is conducting an additional nine preliminary examinations. The convention was signed by 13 states, but none ratified it, following the Second World War, the allied powers established two ad hoc tribunals to prosecute axis power leaders accused of war crimes. The International Military Tribunal, which sat in Nuremberg, prosecuted German leaders while the International Military Tribunal for the Far East in Tokyo prosecuted Japanese leaders. In 1948 the United Nations General Assembly first recognised the need for a permanent international court to deal with atrocities of the kind prosecuted after the Second World War. In his first book published in 1975, entitled Defining International Aggression, The Search for World Peace, following Trinidad and Tobagos proposal, the General Assembly tasked the ILC with once again drafting a statute for a permanent court. While work began on the draft, the United Nations Security Council established two ad hoc tribunals in the early 1990s, the creation of these tribunals further highlighted the need for a permanent international criminal court. To consider major substantive issues in the statute, the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee on the Establishment of an International Criminal Court. After considering the Committees report, the General Assembly created the Preparatory Committee on the Establishment of the ICC to prepare a draft text. Finally the General Assembly convened a conference in Rome in June 1998, on 17 July 1998, the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted by a vote of 120 to 7, with 21 countries abstaining. The seven countries that voted against the treaty were China, Iraq, Israel, Libya, Qatar, the United States, following 60 ratifications, the Rome Statute entered into force on 1 July 2002 and the International Criminal Court was formally established
19.
Song Sang-Hyun
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Song Sang-Hyun is a South Korean lawyer, and the former President of the International Criminal Court. Song attended Seoul National University Law School, graduating with an LL. B. in 1963. He attended Tulane University Law School as a Fulbright Fellow, then obtained a Diploma in Comparative Legal Studies from the University of Cambridge and he has lectured Melbourne Law School, Harvard Law School, New York University and Seoul National University Law School. In February 2003 he was elected to the first ever bench of ICC judges and he took office on 11 March 2003 and was assigned to the Appeals Division. He was re-elected to the court in 2006, for a term of nine years, on 11 March 2009, he was elected President of the court. He has been awarded Cornell Universitys Distinguished Alumni Medal, the Korean Federal Bar Associations Legal Culture Award, and the National Decoration of Moran Order from the Korean Government
20.
United States Congress
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The United States Congress is the bicameral legislature of the federal government of the United States consisting of two chambers, the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress meets in the Capitol in Washington, D. C, both senators and representatives are chosen through direct election, though vacancies in the Senate may be filled by a gubernatorial appointment. Members are usually affiliated to the Republican Party or to the Democratic Party, Congress has 535 voting members,435 Representatives and 100 Senators. The House of Representatives has six non-voting members in addition to its 435 voting members and these members can, however, sit on congressional committees and introduce legislation. Puerto Rico, American Samoa, Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, the members of the House of Representatives serve two-year terms representing the people of a single constituency, known as a district. Congressional districts are apportioned to states by using the United States Census results. Each state, regardless of population or size, has two senators, currently, there are 100 senators representing the 50 states. Each senator is elected at-large in their state for a term, with terms staggered. The House and Senate are equal partners in the legislative process—legislation cannot be enacted without the consent of both chambers, however, the Constitution grants each chamber some unique powers. The Senate ratifies treaties and approves presidential appointments while the House initiates revenue-raising bills, the House initiates impeachment cases, while the Senate decides impeachment cases. A two-thirds vote of the Senate is required before a person can be forcibly removed from office. The term Congress can also refer to a meeting of the legislature. A Congress covers two years, the current one, the 115th Congress, began on January 3,2017, the Congress starts and ends on the third day of January of every odd-numbered year. Members of the Senate are referred to as senators, members of the House of Representatives are referred to as representatives, congressmen, or congresswomen. One analyst argues that it is not a solely reactive institution but has played a role in shaping government policy and is extraordinarily sensitive to public pressure. Several academics described Congress, Congress reflects us in all our strengths, Congress is the governments most representative body. Congress is essentially charged with reconciling our many points of view on the public policy issues of the day. —Smith, Roberts, and Wielen Congress is constantly changing and is constantly in flux, most incumbents seek re-election, and their historical likelihood of winning subsequent elections exceeds 90 percent
21.
American Bar Association
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The American Bar Association, founded August 21,1878, is a voluntary bar association of lawyers and law students, which is not specific to any jurisdiction in the United States. The ABAs most important stated activities are the setting of standards for law schools. Its national headquarters are in Chicago, Illinois, it maintains a significant branch office in Washington. The ABA was founded on August 21,1878, in Saratoga Springs, New York, by 75 lawyers from 20 states, according to the ABA website, The legal profession as we know it today barely existed at that time. Lawyers were generally sole practitioners who trained under a system of apprenticeship, there was no national code of ethics, there was no national organization to serve as a forum for discussion of the increasingly intricate issues involved in legal practice. In 1918 the first women were admitted to the ABA – Judge Mary Belle Grossman of Cleveland, the ABA did not allow African-Americans to join until 1943. Roberta Cooper Ramo was the first female President of the ABA from 1995–1996, in 2016 ABA introduced a new ethics rule prohibiting attorneys from using sexist, racist and condescending terms. The goals and objectives are, Goal 1, Serve our members, Promote the highest quality legal education, 2) Promote competence, ethical conduct and professionalism, 3) Promote pro bono and public service by the legal profession. )Goal 3, Eliminate bias and enhance diversity. Promote full and equal participation in the association, our profession, and the system by all persons, 2) Eliminate bias in the legal profession. Its Board of Governors, with 44 members, has the authority to act for the ABA, consistent with previous action of the House of Delegates, when the House is not in session. The ABA president, elected to a term, is chief executive officer of the association, while the appointed. The conclusion of the ABA Annual Meeting, in August, is when a new president takes office, the Annual Meeting also gives the general membership the opportunity to participate in educational programs and hear speakers address many issues. In 2010, Jack L. Rives, formerly TJAG, was appointed Executive Director, one function of the ABA is its creation and maintenance of a code of ethical standards for lawyers. The Model Code of Professional Responsibility and/or the newer Model Rules of Professional Conduct have been adopted in 49 states, the District of Columbia and the United States Virgin Islands. The exception is the State Bar of California, however, a few sections of the California Rules of Professional Conduct were drawn from the ABA models, since 1923, law schools which meet ABA standards are listed as approved. ABA accreditation is important not only because it affects the recognition of the law schools involved, even states which recognize unaccredited schools within their borders will generally not recognize such schools from other jurisdictions for purposes of bar admission. For law students attending ABA-accredited schools, memberships are available for free, students attending non-ABA accredited law schools are permitted to join the ABA as associate members. On October 17,2011, the ABA announced it was considering penalties, employment information was filed separately to the Section
22.
Legal Information Institute
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The organization is a pioneer in the delivery of legal information online. Founded in 1992 by Peter Martin and Tom Bruce, LII was the first law site developed on the internet, LII also provides access to other national and international sources, such as treaties and United Nations materials. According to its website, the LII serves over 30 million unique visitors per year, since its inception, the Legal Information Institute has inspired others around the world to develop namesake operations. These services are part of the Free Access to Law Movement, LII was established in 1992 at Cornell Law School by Professor Peter Martin and Tom Bruce with a $250,000 multi-year startup grant from the National Center for Automated Information Research. The LII was originally based on Gopher and provided access to United States Supreme Court decisions and its original mission included the intent to carry out applied research on the use of digital information technology in the distribution of legal information. o make law more accessible. In the early years of LII, Bruce developed Cello the first web browser for Microsoft Windows, Cello was released on 8 June 1993. In 1994 LII moved from Gopher to the Web, since 2007 the IRS has distributed its IRS Tax Products DVD with LIIs version of 26 USC. LII has a collection of law from the Supreme Court of the United States. It hosts all Supreme Court decisions since 1990 and over 600 historic Supreme Court pre-1992 decisions in web form, the LII Supreme Court Bulletin is LIIs free Supreme Court email-based subscriber and web-based publication service. The Bulletin provides subscribers with two distinct services, the first is a notification service. LII Bulletin emails subscribers with timely notification of when the US Supreme Court has handed down a decision and it also provides subscribers links to the full opinions of those cases on the LII site. The second service of LII Bulletin is a preview and analysis service for upcoming Supreme Court cases, subscribers to the Bulletin receive legal analysis of upcoming Supreme Court cases with the intention of providing sophisticated yet accessible previews of the cases. LII selectively recruits second- and third-year students of the Cornell Law School to comprise the LII Bulletin editorial board, LII publishes a wiki called the Wex Legal Dictionary/Encyclopedia. As a wiki, it is a collaboratively authored, freely available legal reference, qualified legal experts are allowed to post and edit entries on legal topics within Wex. Free Access to Law Movement unites many similar institutions, including AfricanLII AustLII BAILII CanLII HKLII NZLII PacLII SAFLII WorldLII Legal awareness Official website
23.
Morrill Hall (Cornell University)
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Justin Morrill Hall, known almost exclusively as Morrill Hall, is an academic building of Cornell University on its Ithaca, New York campus. As of 2009 it houses the Departments of Romance Studies, Russian Literature, Morrill Hall was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1965. Morrill Hall was the Universitys first newly constructed building, built at a cost of $70,111 and opening on October 7,1868 as South University Building, or less formally, as South Hall. An early Cornell professor, Goldwin Smith, said dismissively of these three buildings that nothing can redeem them but dynamite, while all three of these historic buildings remain standing, each has undergone periods of extensive renovation to overcome the limitations of their original structural designs. Notably, the floor of the building housed the Cornell Law School in its entirety when it first opened in 1887. The exterior architectural style of Morrill Hall has been described as Second Empire. Originally, the sections were not interconnected, and moving from one to the other required exiting and re-entering the building. This segmented structure was designed as a safety feature, as a fire in one wing of the building would be likely to spread to the other two sections of the structure. The partitions between the three segments of the building were demolished in 1897 as part of a large-scale renovation, later construction efforts, however, focused on the area east of the three historical buildings, leaving them facing the wrong way. Morrill Halls current interior layout, following a 1973 remodeling, thus runs counter to the original exterior orientation. The structures three primary entrances and main reception area all open to the face of the building on the Arts Quadrangle. Thus, the front of the building now serves functionally as the back of the building
24.
Charles Evans Hughes
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Charles Evans Hughes, Sr. was an American statesman, lawyer, and Republican politician from New York. He was the Republican nominee in the 1916 U. S, Presidential election, losing narrowly to incumbent President Woodrow Wilson. Historian Clinton Rossiter has hailed him as a leading American conservative, Charles Evans Hughes was born in Glens Falls, New York, the son of a Welsh immigrant minister Rev. David C. Hughes and Mary C. Hughes, a sister of State Senator Henry C and he was active in the Northern Baptist church, a Mainline Protestant denomination. Hughes early education included attending Lafayette School in Newark, NJ, at the age of 14, he enrolled at Madison University, where he became a member of Delta Upsilon fraternity. He then transferred to Brown University, continuing as a member of Delta Upsilon and he graduated third in his class at the age of 19, having been elected to Phi Beta Kappa in his junior year. He read law and entered Columbia Law School in 1882, where he graduated in 1884 with highest honors, in 1885, Hughes met Antoinette Carter, the daughter of a senior partner of the law firm where he worked, and they were married in 1888. They had one son, Charles Evans Hughes Jr. and three daughters and their youngest child, Elizabeth Hughes Gossett, was one of the first humans injected with insulin, and later served as president of the Supreme Court Historical Society. Hughes was the grandfather of Charles Evans Hughes III and H. Stuart Hughes, after graduating Hughes began working for Chamberlain, Carter & Hornblower where he met his future wife. In 1888, shortly after he was married, he became a partner in the firm, later the name was changed to Hughes, Hubbard & Reed. In 1891, Hughes left the practice of law to become a professor at Cornell Law School, in 1893, he returned to his old law firm in New York City to continue practicing until he ran for governor in 1906. He continued his association with Cornell as a lecturer at the Law School from 1893 to 1895. He was also a lecturer for New York University Law School. At that time, in addition to practicing law, Hughes taught at New York Law School with Woodrow Wilson, in 1905, he was appointed as counsel to the New York state legislative Stevens Gas Commission, a committee investigating utility rates. His uncovering of corruption led to lower gas rates in New York City, in 1905, he was appointed to the Armstrong Insurance Commission to investigate the insurance industry in New York as a special assistant to U. S. Attorney General. Hughes served as the Governor of New York from 1907 to 1910 and he defeated William Randolph Hearst in the 1906 election, and was the only Republican statewide candidate to win office. As a supporter of progressive policies, Hughes was able to play on the popularity of Theodore Roosevelt, in 1908, he was offered the vice-presidential nomination by William Howard Taft, but he declined it to run again for Governor. Theodore Roosevelt became an important supporter of Hughes and he pushed the passage of the Moreland Act, which enabled the governor to oversee city and county officials as well as officials in semi-autonomous state bureaucracies
25.
Gothic Revival architecture
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Gothic Revival is an architectural movement that began in the late 1740s in England. Gothic Revival draws features from the original Gothic style, including decorative patterns, finials, scalloping, lancet windows, hood mouldings, the Gothic Revival movement emerged in 19th-century England. Its roots were intertwined with deeply philosophical movements associated with a re-awakening of High Church or Anglo-Catholic belief concerned by the growth of religious nonconformism, ultimately, the Anglo-Catholicism tradition of religious belief and style became widespread for its intrinsic appeal in the third quarter of the 19th century. The Gothic Revival was paralleled and supported by medievalism, which had its roots in antiquarian concerns with survivals, as industrialisation progressed, a reaction against machine production and the appearance of factories also grew. Proponents of the such as Thomas Carlyle and Augustus Pugin took a critical view of industrial society. To Pugin, Gothic architecture was infused with the Christian values that had been supplanted by classicism and were being destroyed by industrialisation, poems such as Idylls of the King by Alfred Tennyson, 1st Baron Tennyson recast specifically modern themes in medieval settings of Arthurian romance. In German literature, the Gothic Revival also had a grounding in literary fashions, guarino Guarini, a 17th-century Theatine monk active primarily in Turin, recognized the Gothic order as one of the primary systems of architecture and made use of it in his practice. Some of the earliest evidence of a revival in Gothic architecture is from Scotland, inveraray Castle, constructed from 1746, with design input from William Adam, displays the incorporation of turrets. These were largely conventional Palladian style houses that incorporated some features of the Scots baronial style. The eccentric landscape designer Batty Langley even attempted to improve Gothic forms by giving them classical proportions, a younger generation, taking Gothic architecture more seriously, provided the readership for J. Brittens series of Cathedral Antiquities, which began appearing in 1814. In 1817, Thomas Rickman wrote an Attempt. to name and define the sequence of Gothic styles in English ecclesiastical architecture, the categories he used were Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular. It went through numerous editions and was still being republished by 1881. The largest and most famous Gothic cathedrals in the U. S. A. are St. Patricks Cathedral in New York City and Washington National Cathedral on Mount St. Alban in northwest Washington, D. C. One of the biggest churches in Gothic Revival style in Canada is Basilica of Our Lady Immaculate in Ontario, Gothic Revival architecture was to remain one of the most popular and long-lived of the Gothic Revival styles of architecture. The revived Gothic style was not limited to architecture, classical Gothic buildings of the 12th to 16th Centuries were a source of inspiration to 19th-century designers in numerous fields of work. Architectural elements such as pointed arches, steep-sloping roofs and fancy carvings like lace ant lattice work were applied to a range of Gothic Revival objects. Sir Walter Scotts Abbotsford exemplifies in its furnishings the Regency Gothic style, parties in medieval historical dress and entertainment were popular among the wealthy in the 1800s but has spread in the late 20th century to the well-educated middle class as well. By the mid-19th century, Gothic traceries and niches could be inexpensively re-created in wallpaper, the illustrated catalogue for the Great Exhibition of 1851 is replete with Gothic detail, from lacemaking and carpet designs to heavy machinery
26.
US Steel
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The United States Steel Corporation, more commonly known as U. S. Steel, is an American integrated steel producer with major production operations in the United States, Canada, and Central Europe. The company was the worlds 15th largest steel producer in 2014, at one time, U. S. Steel was the largest steel producer and largest corporation in the world. It was capitalized at $1.4 billion, making it the worlds first billion-dollar corporation, the company headquarters was established in 1901 in the Empire Building, purchased from the estate of Orlando B. Potter for $5 million. In 1907 it bought its largest competitor, the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company and this led to Tennessee Coals being replaced in the Dow Jones Industrial Average by the General Electric Company. The federal government attempted to use federal antitrust laws to break up U. S. Steel in 1911, in its first full year of operation, U. S. Steel made 67 percent of all the steel produced in the United States. One hundred years later, its shipments accounted for only about 8 percent of domestic consumption, the Corporation, as it was known on Wall Street, always distinguished itself to investors by virtue of its size, rather than for its efficiency or creativeness during its heyday. In 1901, it controlled two-thirds of steel production, because of heavy debts taken on at the companys formation — Carnegie insisted on being paid in gold bonds for his stake — and fears of antitrust litigation, U. S. Steel moved cautiously. Competitors often innovated faster, especially Bethlehem Steel, run by U. S, Steels former first president, Charles M. Schwab. Steels share of the expanding market slipped to 50 percent by 1911, james A. Farrell was named president in 1911 and served until 1932. U. S. Steel ranked 16th among United States corporations in the value of World War II production contracts, production peaked at more than 35 million tons in 1953. Its employment was greatest in 1943 when it had more than 340,000 employees, by 2000, however, the federal government has also intervened on other occasions to try to control U. S. Steel. President Harry S. Truman attempted to take over its steel mills in 1952 to resolve a crisis with its union, the United Steelworkers of America. The Supreme Court blocked the takeover by ruling that the president did not have the authority to seize the mills (see Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. v. Sawyer. President John F. Kennedy was more successful in 1962 when he pressured the industry into reversing price increases that Kennedy considered dangerously inflationary. In the early days of the Reagan Administration, steel firms won substantial tax breaks in order to deal with imported goods, instead of modernizing their mills, steel companies shifted capital out of steel and into more profitable areas. In March 1982, U. S. Steel took its concessions and paid $1.4 billion in cash and $4.7 billion in loans for Marathon Oil, saving approximately $500 million in taxes through the merger. The architect of tax concessions to steel firms, Senator Arlen Specter, complained that we go out on a limb in Congress, the incident is the subject of a song by folk singer Anne Feeney. U. S. Steel finally acquired National Steels assets in 2003 after National Steel went bankrupt, as part of its diversification plan U. S. Steel acquired Marathon Oil on January 7,1982, as well as Texas Oil and Gas several years later
27.
University of Paris
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The University of Paris, metonymically known as the Sorbonne, was a university in Paris, France. Emerging around 1150 as an associated with the cathedral school of Notre Dame de Paris. Vast numbers of popes, royalties, scientists and intellectuals were educated at the University of Paris, following the turbulence of the French Revolution, education was suspended in 1793 whereafter its faculties were partly reorganised by Napoleon as the University of France. In 1896, it was renamed again to the University of Paris, in 1970, following the May 1968 events, the university was divided into 13 autonomous universities. Others, like Panthéon-Sorbonne University, chose to be multidisciplinary, in 1150, the future University of Paris was a student-teacher corporation operating as an annex of the Notre-Dame cathedral school. The university had four faculties, Arts, Medicine, Law, the Faculty of Arts was the lowest in rank, but also the largest, as students had to graduate there in order to be admitted to one of the higher faculties. The students were divided into four nationes according to language or regional origin, France, Normandy, Picardy, the last came to be known as the Alemannian nation. Recruitment to each nation was wider than the names might imply, the faculty and nation system of the University of Paris became the model for all later medieval universities. Under the governance of the Church, students wore robes and shaved the tops of their heads in tonsure, students followed the rules and laws of the Church and were not subject to the kings laws or courts. This presented problems for the city of Paris, as students ran wild, students were often very young, entering the school at age 13 or 14 and staying for 6 to 12 years. Three schools were especially famous in Paris, the palatine or palace school, the school of Notre-Dame, the decline of royalty brought about the decline of the first. The other two were ancient but did not have much visibility in the early centuries, the glory of the palatine school doubtless eclipsed theirs, until it completely gave way to them. These two centres were much frequented and many of their masters were esteemed for their learning, the first renowned professor at the school of Ste-Geneviève was Hubold, who lived in the tenth century. Not content with the courses at Liège, he continued his studies at Paris, entered or allied himself with the chapter of Ste-Geneviève, and attracted many pupils via his teaching. Distinguished professors from the school of Notre-Dame in the century include Lambert, disciple of Fulbert of Chartres, Drogo of Paris, Manegold of Germany. Three other men who added prestige to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève were William of Champeaux, Abélard, humanistic instruction comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic and moral theology, whose source was the Scriptures and it was completed by the study of Canon law. The School of Saint-Victor arose to rival those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Geneviève and it was founded by William of Champeaux when he withdrew to the Abbey of Saint-Victor
28.
LSAT
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The Law School Admission Test is a half-day standardized test administered four times each year at designated testing centers throughout the world. Administered by the Law School Admission Council for prospective law school candidates, the LSAT is designed to assess reading comprehension, logical, and verbal reasoning proficiencies. The test is an part of the law school admission process in the United States, Canada, the University of Melbourne, Australia. An applicant cannot take the LSAT more than three times within a two-year period, the test has existed in some form since 1948, when it was created to give law schools a standardized way to assess applicants aside from GPA. The current form of the exam has been used since 1991, the exam has six total sections, four scored multiple choice sections, an unscored experimental section, and an unscored writing section. Raw scores are converted to a score with a high of 180, a low of 120. When an applicant applies to a law school all scores from the past five years are reported, though, depending on the school, the 2016–2017 price to take the LSAT is US$180. The purpose of the LSAT is to aid in predicting student success in law school, researchers Balin, Fine, and Guinier performed research on the LSATs ability to predict law school grades at the University of Pennsylvania. They found that the LSAT could explain about 14% of the variance in first year grades, the goal was to find a test that would correlate with first year grades rather than bar passage rates. This led to an invitation of representatives from Harvard Law School and Yale Law School who ultimately accepted the invitation and began to draft the first administration of the LSAT exam. At a meeting on November 10,1947, with representatives of law schools extending beyond the original Columbia, Harvard, and Yale representatives, the first administration of the LSAT followed and occurred in 1948. LSAC administers the LSAT four times per year, June, September/October, December, the June examination marks the start of a new cycle of testing as most test-takers plan to apply for admission the following year. The September/October administration is typically the most popular with the February administration being the least popular, the number of LSATs administered fell more than 25% over a two-year period. The October 2012 administration reflected a 16. 4% drop in volume from its 2011 counterpart, LSAT numbers continued to drop over the next two cycles but to a lesser degree, with 13. 4% and 6. 2% drops, respectively, for the 2012–13 and 2013–14 cycles. February 2014 showed the first increase in test takers since June 2010, LSAT—India is a test conducted to test an aspirants reasoning and reading skills. LSAT—India is designed by the USA based Law School Admission Council and is conducted in India by Pearson VUE, on the basis of a students score in LSAT—India 2016, he/she can secure admission in law programmes offered in more than 70 colleges in India. The LSAT consists of five 35-minute multiple choice sections followed by a writing sample section. Modern tests have 99–102 scored items in total, the LSAT contains two logical reasoning sections, commonly known as arguments, designed to test the takers ability to dissect and analyze arguments
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U.S. News and World Report
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U. S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a magazine in 1933, U. S. News transitioned to primarily web-based publishing in 2010. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate. The ranking system by U. S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly, United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence, who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U. S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news, important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the Washington Whispers column in 1934 and the News You Can Use column in 1952. In 1958, the magazines circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U. S. News & World Report include hospitals, in October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U. S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News, in 1993, U. S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews. com was launched. In 2001, the won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U. S. News & World Report published its first list of the nations best high schools and its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly, in November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U. S, moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the overall magazine circulation and advertising, U. S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication
