1.
Foundation Stone
–
The rite of laying a cornerstone is an important cultural component of eastern architecture and metaphorically in sacred architecture generally. Some cornerstones include time capsules from, or engravings commemorating, the time a building was built. Often, the ceremony involved the placing of offerings of grain, wine and these were symbolic of the produce and the people of the land and the means of their subsistence. This in turn derived from the practice in more ancient times of making an animal or human sacrifice that was laid in the foundations. The object of the sacrifice is to give strength and stability to the building and it is believed that the man will die within the year. Not long ago there were still shadow-traders whose business it was to provide architects with the necessary for securing their walls. In these cases the measure of the shadow is looked on as equivalent to the shadow itself, and to bury it is to bury the life or soul of the man, who, deprived of it, must die. Ancient Japan legends talk about Hitobashira, in which maidens were buried alive at the base or near some constructions as a prayer to ensure the buildings against disasters or enemy attacks and this person is usually asked to place their hand on the stone or otherwise signify its laying. Often still, and certainly until the 1970s, most ceremonies involved the use of a manufactured and engraved trowel that had a formal use in laying mortar under the stone. Similarly, a hammer was often used to ceremonially tap the stone into place. Freemasons sometimes perform the public cornerstone laying ceremony for notable buildings and this ceremony was described by The Cork Examiner of 13 January 1865 as follows. After this, Bishop Gregg spread cement over the stone with a specially made for the occasion by John Hawkesworth, a silversmith. He then gave the stone three knocks with a mallet and declared the stone to be duly and truly laid, the Deputy Provincial Grand Master of Munster poured offerings of corn, oil and wine over the stone after Bishop Gregg had declared it to be duly and truly laid. The Provincial Grand Chaplain of the Masonic Order in Munster then read out the prayer, May the Great Architect of the universe enable us as successfully to carry out. The choir and congregation sang the Hundredth Psalm. In Freemasonry, which grew from the practice of stonemasons, the initiate is placed in the north-east corner of the Lodge as a foundation stone. This is intended to signify the unity of the North associated with darkness, a cornerstone will sometimes be referred to as a foundation-stone, and is symbolic of Christ, whom the Apostle Paul referred to as the head of the corner and is the Chief Cornerstone of the Church. Many of the ancient churches will place relics of the saints, especially martyrs
Foundation Stone
–
A cornerstone with bronze relief images
Foundation Stone
Foundation Stone
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The 1925 cornerstone ceremony of the
Washington, D.C. Jewish Community Center
Foundation Stone
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Ceremonial masonry stone of the
Los Angeles Central Library building, laid in 1925
2.
Dedication Stone
–
The Dedication Stone is a carved Aztec plaque made of polished greenstone. The plaque was found in 1845 in the location of present day Mexico City and this plaque was made in commemoration of the completion of the sixth stage the Temple of Huitizilopochtli at Tenochtitlan in 1487. The dedication of the refurbished Great Temple was the ceremony in becoming the emperor. Tizoc ruled from 1481 until 1486, after his death his brother Ahuitzotl succeeded him, expanding the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan, dedicated to the gods Huitzilopochtli and Tlaloc, was the duty of each tlatoani. Tizoc began the expansion of the Great Temple and his brother Ahuitzotl finished the project, according to the Codex Mendoza this was an important time for the Aztec society, they became an imperial civilization, with Ahuitzotl conquering 45 new towns. The ceremony of the re-dedication of the Temple involved so much bloodshed that the line of victims stretches far out of the city, where this panel was located originally is unknown. Other panels similar to one were usually placed into the architecture like stairways. Very similar stones have been found at the Great Temple of Tenochtitlan also known as the Templo Mayor, the lower portion of the stone has the glyph 8 Reed carved in an abstract design with double outlines. The center carving is the Reed or Acatl and is surrounded by eight circles, the upper portion of the plaque bears the emperor Ahuitzotl with his predecessor and brother Tizoc dressed as identitical priests. The two priests on this stone wear a xicolli, pouches on their backs and incense bags, the pouches contained various ingredients which were thought to protect the wearer during rituals. On their heads are aztaxelli that were worn by warriors and sometimes priests as seen in the Codex Borbonicus and they are holding incense bags and are piercing their ears with a bone. Blood flows from their ears into the mouth of Tlaltecuhtli. Between the two rulers is a ball of sacrifice, or zacatapayolli, with the bone piercers that are used for autosacrafice. They are both depicted having wounds on their legs with streams of flowing from these wounds. Tizoc is identified by his bleeding leg glyph and Ahuitzotl by the water being with the curly tail and they are both shown barefoot as a symbol of divinity. Above the two men is the date 7 Reed or 1486, which is assumed to be the glyph that corresponds to the date of the temples dedication. The first interpretation of this stone was by Jose Fernando Ramirez, later on, Manuel Orozco y Berra did a more complete interpretation of this stone and their study has become standard. The Dedication Stone is currently located in the National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City
Dedication Stone
Dedication Stone
Dedication Stone
Dedication Stone
3.
Foundation (engineering)
–
A foundation is the element of an architectural structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep, foundation engineering is the application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics in the design of foundation elements of structures. Buildings and structures have a history of being built with wood in contact with the ground. Post in ground construction may technically have no foundation, timber pilings were used on soft or wet ground even below stone or masonry walls. In marine construction and bridge building a crisscross of timbers or steel beams in concrete is called grillage, perhaps the simplest foundation is the padstone, a single stone which both spreads the weight on the ground and raises the timber off the ground. Staddle stones are a type of padstone. Dry stone and stones laid in mortar to build foundations are common in parts of the world. Dry laid stone foundations may have painted with mortar after construction. Sometimes the top, visible course of stone is hewn, quarried stones, besides using mortar, stones can also be put in a gabion. One disadvantage is that if using regular steel rebars, the gabion would last much less long than when using mortar, using weathering steel rebars could reduce this disadvantage somewhat. Rubble trench foundations are a shallow trench filled with rubble or stones and these foundations extend below the frost line and may have a drain pipe which helps groundwater drain away. They are suitable for soils with a capacity of more than 10 tonnes/m², shallow foundations, often called footings, are usually embedded about a metre or so into soil. One common type is the spread footing which consists of strips or pads of concrete which extend below the frost line and transfer the weight from walls and columns to the soil or bedrock. Another common type of foundation is the slab-on-grade foundation where the weight of the building is transferred to the soil through a concrete slab placed at the surface. A deep foundation is used to transfer the load of a structure down through the upper layer of topsoil to the stronger layer of subsoil below. There are different types of deep footings including impact driven piles, drilled shafts, caissons, helical piles, geo-piers, the naming conventions for different types of footings vary between different engineers. Historically, piles were wood, later steel, reinforced concrete, a large number of monopile foundations have been utilized in recent years for economically constructing fixed-bottom offshore wind farms in shallow-water subsea locations. For example, a wind farm off the coast of England went online in 2008 with over 100 turbines
Foundation (engineering)
–
The simplest foundation, a padstone.
Latvian Ethnographic Open Air Museum
Foundation (engineering)
–
Shallow foundations of a house versus the
deep foundations of a
skyscraper.
Foundation (engineering)
–
PSM V24 D321 A primitive
stilt house in Switzerland on wood pilings.
Foundation (engineering)
–
A granary on
staddle stones, a type of padstone
4.
Construction
–
Construction is the process of constructing a building or infrastructure. Construction as an industry comprises six to nine percent of the domestic product of developed countries. Construction starts with planning, design, and financing, and continues until the project is built, large-scale construction requires collaboration across multiple disciplines. An architect normally manages the job, and a manager, design engineer. For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential, the largest construction projects are referred to as megaprojects. Construction is a term meaning the art and science to form objects, systems, or organizations. Construction is used as a verb, the act of building, and a noun, how a building was built, in general, there are three sectors of construction, buildings, infrastructure and industrial. Building construction is further divided into residential and non-residential. Infrastructure is often called heavy/highway, heavy civil or heavy engineering and it includes large public works, dams, bridges, highways, water/wastewater and utility distribution. Industrial includes refineries, process chemical, power generation, mills, there are other ways to break the industry into sectors or markets. Engineering News-Record is a magazine for the construction industry. Each year, ENR compiles and reports on data about the size of design and they publish a list of the largest companies in the United States and also a list the largest global firms. In 2014, ENR compiled the data in nine market segments and it was divided as transportation, petroleum, buildings, power, industrial, water, manufacturing, sewer/waste, telecom, hazardous waste plus a tenth category for other projects. In their reporting on the Top 400, they used data on transportation, sewer, hazardous waste, the Standard Industrial Classification and the newer North American Industry Classification System have a classification system for companies that perform or otherwise engage in construction. To recognize the differences of companies in this sector, it is divided into three subsectors, building construction, heavy and civil engineering construction, and specialty trade contractors, there are also categories for construction service firms and construction managers. Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property or construction of buildings, the majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, for this reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations, materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used
Construction
–
In large construction projects, such as this
skyscraper in
Melbourne,
Australia,
cranes are essential.
Construction
–
Military residential unit construction by U.S. Navy personnel in Afghanistan
Construction
–
The National Cement Share Company of
Ethiopia 's new plant in
Dire Dawa.
Construction
–
Framing
5.
Ceremony
–
A ceremony is an event of ritual significance, performed on a special occasion. The word may be of Etruscan origin, via the Latin caerimonia, ceremonies may have a physical display or theatrical component, dance, a procession, the laying on of hands. A declaratory verbal pronouncement may explain or cap the occasion, for instance, I now pronounce you husband, I swear to serve and defend the nation. I declare open the games of, both physical and verbal components of a ceremony may become part of a liturgy
Ceremony
–
Newly commissioned
officers celebrate their new positions by throwing their midshipmen covers into the air as part of the U.S. Naval Academy class of 2005 graduation and commissioning ceremony.
Ceremony
–
Ceremonial at court during
Prinsjesdag
Ceremony
–
Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff Lt. Gen.
Benny Gantz salutes
Yom Kippur War casualties at an official annual memorial service.
Ceremony
–
Leaders welcome a boy into Scouting, March 2010, Mexico City, Mexico.
6.
Masonry
–
Masonry is the building of structures from individual units, which are often laid in and bound together by mortar, the term masonry can also refer to the units themselves. The common materials of construction are brick, building stone such as marble, granite, travertine, and limestone, cast stone, concrete block, glass block. Masonry is generally a durable form of construction. However, the used, the quality of the mortar and workmanship. A person who constructs masonry is called a mason or bricklayer, Masonry is commonly used for walls and buildings. Brick and concrete block are the most common types of masonry in use in industrialized nations, Concrete blocks, especially those with hollow cores, offer various possibilities in masonry construction. They generally provide great strength, and are best suited to structures with light transverse loading when the cores remain unfilled. Filling some or all of the cores with concrete or concrete with steel reinforcement offers much greater tensile, the use of material such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of a building and can protect the building from fire. Masonry walls are resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or tornadoes. Extreme weather, under circumstances, can cause degradation of masonry due to expansion. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a foundation, such as reinforced concrete. Other than concrete, masonry construction does not lend well to mechanization. Masonry consists of components and has a low tolerance to oscillation as compared to other materials such as reinforced concrete, plastics, wood. Masonry has high compressive strength under vertical loads but has low tensile strength unless reinforced, the tensile strength of masonry walls can be increased by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers at intervals. Where practical, steel reinforcements such as windposts can be added, a masonry veneer wall consists of masonry units, usually clay-based bricks, installed on one or both sides of a structurally independent wall usually constructed of wood or masonry. In this context the brick masonry is primarily decorative, not structural, the brick veneer is generally connected to the structural wall by brick ties. There is typically an air gap between the veneer and the structural wall. Concrete blocks, real and cultured stones, and veneer adobe are sometimes used in a very similar veneer fashion
Masonry
–
A mason laying mortar on top of a finished course of blocks, prior to placing the next course.
Masonry
–
Dry set masonry supports a rustic
log bridge, where it provides a well-drained support for the log (which will increase its service life).
Masonry
–
Masonry repair work done to a brick wall.
Masonry
–
Concrete masonry units (CMUs) or blocks in a basement wall before burial.
7.
Replica
–
A replica is an exact reproduction, such as of a painting, as it was executed by the original artist or a copy or reproduction, especially one on a scale smaller than the original. A replica is a copying closely resembling the original concerning its shape, an inverted replica complements the original by filling its gaps. It can be a used for historical purposes, such as being placed in a museum. Not all incorrectly attributed items are intentional forgeries, in the same way that a museum shop might sell a print of a painting or a replica of a vase, copies of statues, paintings, and other precious artifacts have been popular through the ages. In arts or collectible automobiles, the replica is used for discussing the non-original recreation. In motor racing, especially motorcycling, often manufacturers will produce a street version product with the colours of the vehicle or clothing of a famous racer. This is not the vehicle or clothing worn during the race by the racer. These high-performance race-look products termed Replica, are priced higher and are usually more sought-after than plain colours of the same product, because of gun ownership restrictions in some locales, gun collectors create non-functional legal replicas of illegal firearms. Such replicas are also preferred to real firearms when used as a prop in a film or stage performance, a prop replica is an authentic-looking duplicate of a prop from a video game, movie or television show. Replicas represent a copy or forgery of another object and we think of forgeries we think of paintings but, in fact, anything that is collectible. Replicas have been made by people to preserve a link to the past. This can be linked to a historical past or specific time-period or just to commemorate an experience, replicas and reproductions of artifacts help provide a material representation of the past for the public. Replicas of artifacts and art have a purpose within museums and research and they are created to help with preserving of original artifacts. Replicas and their original representation can be seen as fake or real depending on the viewer, good replicas take much education related to understanding all the processes and history that go behind the culture and the original creation. To create a good and authentic replica of an object, there is to be a skilled artisan or forger to create the authentic experience that the original object provides. This process takes time and much money to be done correctly for museum standards. Authenticity or real feeling presented by an object can be “described as the experience of an ‘aura’ of an original. ”An aura of an object is what an object represents through its previous history and experience. Replicas work well in museum settings because they have the ability to look so real, through the context and experience that a replica can provide in a museum setting, people can be fooled into seeing it as ‘original’
Replica
–
A General Terracotta Replica Warrior 1.1 m (3 1 ⁄ 2 ft)
Replica
–
The replica Difference Engine No. 2 in the
Science Museum, London
8.
Architect
–
An architect is someone who plans, designs, and reviews the construction of buildings. Etymologically, architect derives from the Latin architectus, which derives from the Greek, practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction. The terms architect and architecture are used in the disciplines of landscape architecture, naval architecture. In most jurisdictions, the professional and commercial uses of the terms architect, throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master builder. Until modern times, there was no distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person. It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the gentleman architect. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century, pencils were used more often for drawing by 1600. The availability of both allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals, until the 18th-century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of high-status projects. In most developed countries, only qualified people with appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body, such licensure usually requires an accredited university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period. To practice architecture implies the ability to independently of supervision. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions, such design houses, in the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design and construction management, and an understanding of business are as important as design. However, design is the force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client, the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, the design of a building or of several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building, throughout the project, the architect co-ordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers and other specialists, are hired by the client or the architect, the architect hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. In that, the architect must meet with and question the client to ascertain all the requirements, often the full brief is not entirely clear at the beginning, entailing a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief
Architect
–
Filippo Brunelleschi is revered to be one of the most inventive and gifted architects in history.
Architect
–
An architect at work, 1893.
Architect
–
Architect
Rem Koolhaas inspecting a model of the
Seattle Central Library
9.
Construction worker
–
A construction worker is a tradesperson, labourer, or professional employed in the physical construction of the built environment and its infrastructure. The term construction worker is a term and most construction workers are primarily described by the type of work they perform. Construction workers may also colloquially be referred to as hard hat workers or hard hats, construction workers often work under a construction foreman. The division of labor of construction encompasses a range of skilled. Construction safety is important to ensure a safe environment for the workers. All construction workers need to be educated on safety at each site to minimize injury. In 2008, a Human Rights Watch report described unsafe and unfair working conditions, the International Labour Organization estimated that, at the end of 2006, 90% of the 40 million construction workers in China were migrant workers. Many of the migrant workers turned to work after their farming communities collapsed into poverty. In the United States, illegal immigrant labor is prevalent in the construction industry.20 a day
Construction worker
–
A
Carpenter, working on the construction of
Douglas Dam in the United States, bores a hole with a
hand drill. (June 1942)
Construction worker
Construction worker
Construction worker
10.
Architecture
–
Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures. Architectural works, in the form of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols. Historical civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements, Architecture can mean, A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures. The art and science of designing buildings and nonbuilding structures, the style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical structures. A unifying or coherent form or structure Knowledge of art, science, technology, the design activity of the architect, from the macro-level to the micro-level. The practice of the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering services in connection with the design and construction of buildings. The earliest surviving work on the subject of architecture is De architectura. According to Vitruvius, a building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known by the original translation – firmness, commodity. An equivalent in modern English would be, Durability – a building should stand up robustly, utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used. Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing, according to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, for Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed the idealised human figure, the Golden mean. The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather than something applied superficially, Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only true Christian form of architecture. The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture, Architecture was the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men. That the sight of them contributes to his health, power. For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance and his work goes on to state that a building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way adorned. For Ruskin, a well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication, but suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say, This is beautiful, le Corbusiers contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said Architecture starts when you carefully put two bricks together. The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding precept to architectural design, function came to be seen as encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural
Architecture
–
Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of
Florence Cathedral in the early 15th-century, not only transformed the building and the city, but also the role and status of the architect.
Architecture
–
Section of
Brunelleschi 's dome drawn by the architect
Cigoli (c. 1600)
Architecture
–
The
Parthenon,
Athens,
Greece, "the supreme example among architectural sites."
(Fletcher).
Architecture
–
The
Houses of Parliament, Westminster, master-planned by
Charles Barry, with interiors and details by A.W.N. Pugin
11.
Sacred architecture
–
Many cultures devoted considerable resources to their sacred architecture and places of worship. Religious and sacred spaces are amongst the most impressive and permanent monolithic buildings created by humanity, conversely, sacred architecture as a locale for meta-intimacy may also be non-monolithic, ephemeral and intensely private, personal and non-public. Sacred, religious and holy structures often evolved over centuries and were the largest buildings in the world, while the various styles employed in sacred architecture sometimes reflected trends in other structures, these styles also remained unique from the contemporary architecture used in other structures. With the rise of Abrahamic monotheisms, religious buildings increasingly became centres of worship, prayer, the Western scholarly discipline of the history of architecture itself closely follows the history of religious architecture from ancient times until the Baroque period, at least. Sacred geometry, iconography, and the use of sophisticated semiotics such as signs, symbols, Sacred and/or religious architecture is sometimes called sacred space. Architect Norman L. Koonce has suggested that the goal of sacred architecture is to make transparent the boundary between matter and mind, flesh and the spirit, meanwhile, Richard Kieckhefer suggests that entering into a religious building is a metaphor for entering into spiritual relationship. Sacred architecture spans a number of ancient architectural styles including Neolithic architecture, ancient Egyptian architecture, ancient religious buildings, particularly temples, were often viewed as the dwelling place, the temenos, of the gods and were used as the site of various kinds of sacrifice. Ancient tombs and burial structures are examples of architectural structures reflecting religious beliefs of their various societies. The Temple of Karnak at Thebes, Egypt was constructed across a period of 1300 years, ancient Egyptian religious architecture has fascinated archaeologists and captured the public imagination for millennia. Around 600 BCE the wooden columns of the Temple of Hera at Olympia were replaced by stone columns, with the spread of this process to other sanctuary structures a few stone buildings have survived through the ages. Greek architecture preceded Hellenistic and Roman periods, since temples are the only buildings which survive in numbers, most of our concept of classical architecture is based on religious structures. The Parthenon which served as a building as well as a place for veneration of deity, is widely regarded as the greatest example of classical architecture. Indian architecture is related to the history and religions of the time periods as well as to the geography, the diversity of Indian culture is represented in its architecture. Indian architecture comprises a blend of ancient and varied native traditions, with building types, forms and technologies from West, Central Asia, buddhist architecture developed in South Asia beginning in the third century BCE. Two types of structures are associated with early Buddhism, viharas and stupas, an existing example is at Nalanda. The initial function of the stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of the Buddha, the earliest existing example of a stupa is in Sanchi. In accordance with changes in practice, stupas were gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas. These reached their highpoint in the first century BCE, exemplified by the cave complexes of Ajanta, the pagoda is an evolution of the Indian stupa that is marked by a tiered tower with multiple eaves common in China, Japan, Korea, Nepal and other parts of Asia
Sacred architecture
–
Example of early Islamic sacred architecture: the
Great Mosque of Kairouan, founded in 670, dates in its present state from the 9th century; it is the architectural ancestor of all the mosques in the eastern Islamic world and represents one of the best preserved and most significant examples of early great mosques. The
Mosque of Kairouan (also called the Mosque of Uqba) is located in the UNESCO World Heritage city of
Kairouan in
Tunisia.
Sacred architecture
–
Larger-than-life structures remain at the
ancient Egyptian Luxor Temple approximately 3400 years after it was built.
Sacred architecture
–
An illustrated layout of the traditional interior of a
Christian Orthodox church.
Sacred architecture
–
The interior of the ancient Egyptian
Karnak Temple.
12.
Washington, D.C. Jewish Community Center
–
Jewish Community Center is a Jewish Community Center located in the historic district of Dupont Circle. The DCJCC also houses the Hyman S. and Freda Bernstein Library, which includes a Jewish Heritage Video Collection, a childrens reading collection, and it is a constituent organization of the Jewish Community Relations Council of Greater Washington, serving Washington, D. C. Although the first recorded Jew settled in Washington, DC, in 1795, east European immigrants arriving in the early 1900s raised the Jewish community population to approximately 4000. Later, with the outbreak of World War I, the influx of military and government officials included many Jews, and the need for a larger community center in the capital city was evident. After a five-year campaign to raise money, on May 3,1925, following the war and he said that This edifice. is a fine example for other communities. It speaks a purpose to uphold an ancient and noble philosophy, the official opening would be held in 1926, on Washingtons Birthday, February 22. Roof dances were held in the summer, with dancing moved inside the rest of the year, among the many activities was even an annual Queen Esther Beauty Contest, with pictures of the finalists featured in the pages of The Washington Post. In 1939, thanks to a gift from Washington Post owners Eugene and Agnes Meyer, a new wing was added to the center, to house a library and an expanded health club. The new facility included a court, and three handball courts—and a massage room that was staffed by Seventh-day Adventists, who observe Saturday as the Sabbath. Special events were held for military veterans, and no veteran was charged to participate in any activity during or immediately after World War II. In 1942, a USO lounge was dedicated, open to both Jewish and non-Jewish veterans, additionally, the Center hosted numerous programs in support of the U. S. war effort, including the 1943-44 Program for Victory that promoted the purchase of war bonds and war stamps. However, as a result of the 1968 race riots in D. C. the DCJCC closed, as many Jews in the city moved to the suburbs, a new JCC was established in Rockville, Maryland, opening on May 8,1969. There is also a Jewish Community Center between Annandale and Fairfax, Virginia, the JCC building was sold to the city, which turned it over to Federal City College, the forerunner of the University of the District of Columbia. The Jewish community Center became Building T-5, however, within the next 15 years, the college made the decision it no longer needed the building. The city considered using it as a site for a prison, however, Then a strange thing happened. The Districts single Jewish population soared, with this resurgence of Jews in the District, the Rockville JCC opened a downtown D. C. branch in 1979, and that branch declared its independence in 1985. As the Jewish population in the District continued to grow, the Jewish community repurchased the building in 1990. JCC programs for the Arts include live theater, films, music, dance, dance classes range from Israeli folk dance and modern dance, to middle-eastern belly dances
Washington, D.C. Jewish Community Center
Washington, D.C. Jewish Community Center
–
U.S. President
Calvin Coolidge delivers a speech during the DCJCC cornerstone ceremony, May 3, 1925.
Washington, D.C. Jewish Community Center
–
Cornerstone ceremony, May 3, 1925.
Washington, D.C. Jewish Community Center
–
415 M Street, NW, the original home of the YMHA (1913-1914), precursor to the DCJCC. From 1914-1923, the building would house the Hebrew Home for the Aged.
13.
Sacrifice
–
Sacrifice is the offering of food, objects or the lives of animals to a higher purpose, in particular divine beings, as an act of propitiation or worship. While sacrifice often implies the ritual killing of an animal, the term offering can be used for bloodless sacrifices of food or artifacts, for offerings of liquids by pouring, the term libation is used. The Latin term sacrificium derived from Latin sacrificus, which combined the concepts sacra, the Latin word sacrificium came to apply to the Christian eucharist in particular, sometimes named a bloodless sacrifice to distinguish it from blood sacrifices. In individual non-Christian ethnic religions, terms translated as sacrifice include the Indic yajna, the Greek thusia, the Germanic blōtan, the term usually implies doing without something or giving something up. But the word also occurs in metaphorical use to describe doing good for others or taking a short-term loss in return for a greater power gain. Scholars such as René Girard have theorized that scapegoating may account for the origins of sacrifice, animal sacrifice is the ritual killing of an animal as part of a religion. It is practiced by adherents of religions as a means of appeasing a god or gods or changing the course of nature. It also served a social or economic function in those cultures where the portions of the animal were distributed among those attending the sacrifice for consumption. Animal sacrifice has turned up in almost all cultures, from the Hebrews to the Greeks and Romans, Ancient Egyptians and it is against their religion for Egyptians to sacrifice animals, except for sheep, bulls, calves, male calves and geese. Animal sacrifice is practiced today by the followers of Santería and other lineages of Orisa as a means of curing the sick. However, in Santeria, such animal offerings constitute a small portion of what are termed ebos—ritual activities that include offerings, prayer. Christians from some villages in Greece also sacrifice animals to Orthodox saints in a known as kourbània. The practice, while publicly condemned, is often tolerated, according to Walter Burkert, a scholar of sacrifice, Greek sacrifices derived from hunting practices. Hunters, feeling guilty for having killed another living being so they could eat and survive, the primary evidence used to suggest this theory is the Dipolieia, which is an Athenian festival, in limited circulation, during which an ox was sacrificed. The protagonist of the ritual was an ox, which it had, at one point. According to his theory, the killer of the ox eased his conscience by suggesting that everybody should participate in the killing of the sacrificial victim. In the expansion of the Athenian state, numerous oxen were needed to feed the people at the banquets and were accompanied by state festivals, the hecatomb became the general designation for the great sacrifices offered by the state. These sacrificial processions of hundreds of oxen remove the original ties, Human sacrifice was practiced by many ancient cultures
Sacrifice
–
Marcus Aurelius and members of the Imperial family offer sacrifice in gratitude for success against
Germanic tribes: contemporary
bas-relief,
Capitoline Museum, Rome
Sacrifice
–
Animal sacrifice offered together with
libation in
Ancient Greece. Attic red-figure
oinochoe, ca. 430–425 BC (
Louvre).
Sacrifice
–
Aztec human sacrifice, from
Codex Mendoza, 16th century (
Bodleian Library,
Oxford).
14.
Cereal
–
A cereal is any grass cultivated for the edible components of its grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran. Cereal grains are grown in quantities and provide more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop and are therefore staple crops. Edible grains from plant families, such as buckwheat, quinoa. In their natural form, cereals are a source of vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, fats, oils. When refined by the removal of the bran and germ, the endosperm is mostly carbohydrate. In some developing nations, grain in the form of rice, wheat, millet, in developed nations, cereal consumption is moderate and varied but still substantial. The word cereal is derived from Ceres, the Roman goddess of harvest, agriculture allowed for the support of an increased population, leading to larger societies and eventually the development of cities. It also created the need for organization of political power, as decisions had to be made regarding labor and harvest allocation and access rights to water. Agriculture bred immobility, as populations settled down for long periods of time, early Neolithic villages show evidence of the development of processing grain. The Levant is the ancient home of the ancestors of wheat, barley and peas, there is evidence of the cultivation of figs in the Jordan Valley as long as 11,300 years ago, and cereal production in Syria approximately 9,000 years ago. During the same period, farmers in China began to farm rice and millet, using man-made floods, fiber crops were domesticated as early as food crops, with China domesticating hemp, cotton being developed independently in Africa and South America, and Western Asia domesticating flax. The first cereal grains were domesticated by early primitive humans, about 8,000 years ago, they were domesticated by ancient farming communities in the Fertile Crescent region. Emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, and barley were three of the so-called Neolithic founder crops in the development of agriculture, around the same time, millets and rices were starting to become domesticated in East Asia. Sorghum and millets were also being domesticated in sub-Saharan West Africa, while each individual species has its own peculiarities, the cultivation of all cereal crops is similar. Most are annual plants, consequently one planting yields one harvest, wheat, rye, triticale, oats, barley, and spelt are the cool-season cereals. These are hardy plants grow well in moderate weather and cease to grow in hot weather. The warm-season cereals are tender and prefer hot weather, barley and rye are the hardiest cereals, able to overwinter in the subarctic and Siberia. Many cool-season cereals are grown in the tropics, however, some are only grown in cooler highlands, where it may be possible to grow multiple crops per year
Cereal
–
Cereal
Cereal
–
A wheat field in
Dorset, England
Cereal
–
Cereal
grain seeds from left to right:
wheat,
spelt,
barley,
oat.
Cereal
–
Threshing; Tacuinum Sanitatis, 14th century
15.
The Golden Bough
–
The Golden Bough, A Study in Comparative Religion is a wide-ranging, comparative study of mythology and religion, written by the Scottish anthropologist Sir James George Frazer. It was first published in two volumes in 1890, in three volumes in 1900, and in 12 volumes in the edition, published 1906–15. The work was aimed at a literate audience raised on tales as told in such publications as Thomas Bulfinchs The Age of Fable, or Stories of Gods. The influence of The Golden Bough on contemporary European literature and thought was substantial and its thesis is that old religions were fertility cults that revolved around the worship and periodic sacrifice of a sacred king. Frazer proposed that mankind progresses from magic through religious belief to scientific thought and this thesis was developed in relation to J. M. W. Turners painting of The Golden Bough, a sacred grove where a certain tree grew day and night. It was a landscape in a dream-like vision of the woodland lake of Nemi, Dianas Mirror, where religious ceremonies. The king was the incarnation of a dying and reviving god and he died at the harvest and was reincarnated in the spring. Frazer claims that this legend of rebirth is central to almost all of the worlds mythologies, the books title was taken from an incident in the Aeneid, illustrated by Turner, in which Aeneas and the Sibyl present the golden bough to the gatekeeper of Hades to gain admission. The book scandalized the British public when first published, as it included the Christian story of Jesus, critics thought this treatment invited an agnostic reading of the Lamb of God as a relic of a pagan religion. For the third edition, Frazer placed his analysis of the Crucifixion in a speculative appendix, the books influence on the emerging discipline of anthropology was pervasive and undeniable. Despite the controversy generated by the work, and its critical reception amongst other scholars, william Butler Yeats refers to Frazers thesis in his poem Sailing to Byzantium. H. P. Lovecraft mentions the book in his short story The Call of Cthulhu, T. S. Eliot acknowledged indebtedness to Frazer in his first note to his poem The Waste Land. William Carlos Williams refers to it in Book Two, part two, of his poem in five books Paterson. Sigmund Freud, James Joyce, Ernest Hemingway, D. H and its literary ripples and references have given it continued life, even as its direct influence in anthropology has waned. He writes, Frazer is much more savage than most of these savages, weston LaBarre observed that Frazer was the last of the scholastics and wrote The Golden Bough as an extended footnote to a line in Virgil he felt he did not understand. Some modern critics set Frazer in the context of the history of ideas, for example Robert Ackerman in his The Myth and Ritual School, J. G. Frazer. This school was an important influence on much Modernist literature and this edition excludes Frazers references to Christianity. Abridged edition, edited by Robert Fraser for Oxford University Press,1994 and it restores the material on Christianity purged in the first abridgement
The Golden Bough
–
The 1926 Macmillan Press edition
The Golden Bough
–
J. M. W. Turner 's painting of the Golden Bough incident in the
Aeneid
The Golden Bough
–
The Judgement of Paris - an Etruscan bronze-handled mirror of the fourth or third century BC that relates the often misunderstood myth as interpreted by Frazer, showing the three goddesses giving their apple or
pomegranate to the new king, who must kill the old king - Campana Collection, Greek, Etruscan and Roman Antiquities, Sully
16.
Effigy
–
An effigy is a representation of a specific person in the form of sculpture or some other three-dimensional medium. The use of the term is restricted to certain contexts in a somewhat arbitrary way, recumbent effigies on tombs are so called. Likenesses of religious figures in sculpture are not normally called effigies and it is common to burn an effigy of a person as an act of protest. The word first appeared in 1539 and comes, perhaps via French, from the Latin effigies and this spelling was originally used in English for singular senses, even a single image was the effigies of. In effigie was probably understood as a Latin phrase until the 18th century, the word occurs in Shakespeares As You Like It of 1600, where scansion suggests that the second syllable is to be emphasized, as in the Latin pronunciation. The best known British example of a caricature effigy is the figure of the 1605 Gunpowder Plotter Guy Fawkes, found in charge of gunpowder to blow up the King in the House of Lords. On November 5, Guy Fawkes Night or Bonfire Night, his effigy, typically made of straw, in many parts of the world, there are traditions of large caricature effigies of political or other figures carried on floats in parades at festivals. Political effigies serve a similar purpose in political demonstrations and annual community rituals such as that held in Lewes. In Lewes, models of important or unpopular figures in current affairs are burned on Guy Fawkes Night, in Oriental Orthodox Christianity, populace used to burn an effigy of Judas, just before Easter. Now it is considered a custom and there are currently no attempts at revival. Caricature effigies, in Greek skiachtro, are still in use to prevent birds from eating mature fruit and they were shown lying on the coffin at the funeral, and then often displayed beside or over the tomb. The figures were dressed in the clothes of the deceased, only the face, from the time of the funeral of Charles II in 1680, effigies were no longer placed on the coffin but were still made for later display. The effigy of Charles II was displayed over his tomb until the early 19th century, nelsons effigy was a tourist attraction, commissioned the year after his death and his burial in St Pauls Cathedral in 1805. The government had decided that public figures with State funerals should in future be buried at St Pauls. Concerned for their revenue from visitors, the Abbey decided it needed an attraction for admirers of Nelson. In the field of numismatics, effigy has been used to describe the image or portrait on the obverse of a coin. A practice evident in literature of the 19th century, the obverse of a coin was said to depict “the ruler’s effigy”. It can also be the case that the monarchs reign becomes long enough to merit issuing a succession of effigies so that their appearance continues to be current, in the past, criminals sentenced to death in absentia might be officially executed in effigy as a symbolic act
Effigy
–
Double tomb effigies — known as
gisants — in the Christian church of Josselin, France, 15th century
Effigy
–
Christian feast of burning of the New Testament figure of
Judas Iscariot in effigy in
Juiz de Fora,
Brazil, 1909
Effigy
–
Two
gingerbread man effigies served at feasts of
Christmas, Easter etc.
Effigy
–
A burning
Ravana, in
Manchester, England in 2006
17.
Immurement
–
Immurement is a form of imprisonment, usually for life, in which a person is placed within an enclosed space with no exits. This includes instances where people have been enclosed in extremely tight confinement, when used as a means of execution, the prisoner is simply left to die from starvation or dehydration. This form of execution is distinct from being buried alive, in which the victim dies of asphyxiation. Some examples of immurement as an established executional practice are attested, some ambiguous evidence exists of immurement as a practice of coffin-type confinement in Mongolia. Instances of immurement as an element of massacre within the context of war or revolution are also noted, immuring living persons as a type of human sacrifice is also reported, for example as part of grand burial ceremonies in some cultures. As a motif in legends and folklore, many tales of immurement exist, in the folklore, immurement is prominent as a form of capital punishment, but its use as a type of human sacrifice to make buildings sturdy has many tales attached to it as well. In this section, that distinction is followed, furthermore, incidents at war time are kept distinct. Just within the city walls, close to the Colline gate, there a small vault underground had been previously prepared, containing a couch, a lamp, and a table with a little food. A tradition existed in Persia of walling up criminals and leaving them to die of hunger or thirst. The traveler M. A. The victim is put into the pillar, which is built up in readiness, then if the executioner is merciful he will cement quickly up to the face. But sometimes a small amount of air is allowed to permeate through the bricks, and in case the torture is cruel. Tavernier notes that immuring was principally a punishment for thieves, according to him, many of these individuals would implore passersby to cut off their heads, an amelioration of the punishment forbidden by law. Staying as a diplomat in Persia from 1860–63, E. B, eastwick met at one time, the Sardar i Kull, or military high commander Aziz Khan. Eastwick notes that he did not strike me as one who would greatly err on the side of leniency, eastwick was told that just recently, Aziz Khan had ordered 14 robbers walled up alive, two of them head-downwards. Browne continues, Besides these minor punishments, many robbers and others suffered death, not a few were walled up alive in pillars of mortar, there to perish miserably. The remains of these tombs may still be seen outside Derwaze-i-kassah-khane at Shiraz. Immurement was practiced in Mongolia as recently as the early 20th century and it is not necessarily clear that all thus immured were meant to die of starvation, though. Here is a commemoration Ashurnasirpal II made that includes immurement, I erected a wall in front of the gate of the city
Immurement
–
A
Mongolian woman condemned to die of immurement, c. 1913
Immurement
–
Perlachturm with
St. Peter by Perlach
Immurement
–
Immurement of a nun
Immurement
–
Recreation of a sixteenth-century knight, who was believed to be immured in a wall of
Kuressaare Castle,
Estonia.
18.
Hitobashira
–
Hitobashira can also refer to workers who were buried alive under inhumane conditions. Some of the earliest written records of hitobashira can be found in the Nihon Shoki, one story centered on Emperor Nintoku discusses the overflowing of the Kitakawa and Mamuta Rivers. Protection against the torrent was beyond the ability of the stricken populace, the Emperor had a divine revelation in his dream to the effect that there was a person named Kowakubi in the province of Musashi and a person called Koromono-ko in the province of Kawachi. If they should be sacrificed to deities of the two respectively, then the construction of embankments would be easily achieved. Kowakubi was subsequently thrown into the torrent of the Kitakawa river, through the sacrifice it was possible to construct the embankment completely, Koromono-ko however escaped being sacrificed. The Yasutomi-ki, a diary from the 15th Century documents the famous tradition of Nagara-no Hitobashira. According to the tradition, a woman who was carrying a boy on her back was caught while she was passing along the river Nagara, Hitobashira traditions are almost always connected with complex and dangerous projects that were required to be built and mostly with water. The stories of hitobashira were believed to inspire a spirit of self-sacrifice in people, stories of hitobashira and other human sacrifices were common in Japan as late as the sixteenth century. Hitobashira is no longer practiced in construction, Maruoka Castle is one of the oldest surviving castles in Japan and is rumored to have been constructed with a human pillar which can be found in the legend of O-shizu, Hitobashira. When Shibata Katsutoyo, the nephew of Shibata Katsuie, was building a castle in Maruoka, there was one vassal who suggested that they should make someone a human sacrifice. O-shizu, a woman who had two children and lived a poor life, was selected as the Hitobashira. She resolved to one on the condition that one of her children be made a samurai. She was buried under the pillar of the castle keep. Soon after that the construction of the keep was successfully completed. But Katsutoyo was transferred to another province, and her son was not made a samurai and her spirit felt resentful, and made the moat overflow with spring rain when the season of cutting algae came in April every year. People called it, the caused by the tears of O-shizus sorrow. There was a poem handed down, The rain which falls when the season of cutting algae comes Is the rain reminiscent of the tears of the poor O-shizus sorrow. It has been commented that the instability of the walls of Maruoka Castle was likely caused by the design of the castle, the Matsue Ohashi Bridge according to legend used a human sacrifice in its construction
Hitobashira
–
The keep of Maruoka Castle
Hitobashira
–
Memorial at the foot of the Matsue Ohashi Bridge
Hitobashira
–
Matsue castle keep
19.
Los Angeles Central Library
–
The Los Angeles Public Library system serves the residents of the City of Los Angeles. With more than six million volumes, it serves the largest population of any publicly funded system in the United States. The system is overseen by a Board of Library Commissioners with five members appointed by the mayor of Los Angeles in staggered terms in accordance with the city charter, Library cards are free to California residents. Circulating books, periodicals, computer access and audiovisual materials are available to patrons, Library materials are loaned for 3 weeks. Fines are charged only if materials are returned late, there is a loan limit of 10 books,10 magazines, and 4 DVDs or videos at one time up to maximum of 30 items on the patron’s record. Items checked out from Los Angeles Public Library may be returned to any of its 72 branches or to the Central Library, most items may be renewed a maximum of two times. Entertainment DVDs and videos may be renewed one time, the Los Angeles Public Library has many community support organizations which work with the library to raise funds and sponsor programs to enhance library service throughout the community. The Librarys Rare Books Department is located in its downtown Los Angeles location, there is also an extensive selection of databases covering a wide variety of topics, many of which are available to remote users who hold an LAPL library card. Examples include full-text databases of periodicals, business directories, and language learning tools, the library also offers an online program that allows adult patrons who have not completed high school to earn their high school diploma. Aggressive expansion and growth of the began in the 1920s. Under Library Board of Commissioners Chairman Orra E. Monnette, the system was improved with a network of branch libraries with new buildings. Thelma Jackman founded the Business & Economics section of the library prior to 1970. The historic Central Library Goodhue building was constructed in 1926 and is a Downtown Los Angeles landmark, the Richard Riordan Central Library complex is the third largest public library in the United States in terms of book and periodical holdings. The new wing of Central Library, completed in 1993, was named in honor of former mayor Tom Bradley, the complex was subsequently renamed in 2001 for former Los Angeles Mayor Richard Riordan, as the Richard Riordan Central Library. The Los Angeles Public Library received the National Medal for Museum and Library Service, City Librarian John F. Szabo and community member Sergio Sanchez accepted the award on behalf of the library from First Lady Michelle Obama during a White House Ceremony on May 20,2015. Architect Bertram Grosvenor Goodhue designed the original Los Angeles Central Library with influences of ancient Egyptian and Mediterranean Revival architecture, the central tower is topped with a tiled mosaic pyramid with suns on the sides with a hand holding a torch representing the Light of Learning at the apex. Other elements include sphinxes, snakes, and celestial mosaics and it has sculptural elements by the preeminent American architectural sculptor Lee Lawrie, similar to the Nebraska State Capitol in Lincoln, Nebraska, also designed by Goodhue. The building is a designated Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument, and is on the National Register of Historic Places and it included an enormous, eight-story atrium wing dedicated to former mayor Tom Bradley
Los Angeles Central Library
–
South entrance at Hope Street
Los Angeles Central Library
–
Los Angeles Public Library
Los Angeles Central Library
–
Cornerstone of original building, laid in 1925
Los Angeles Central Library
–
Los Angeles Central Library at Flower Street
20.
Very Important Person
–
A very important person is a person who is accorded special privileges due to their status or importance. The special treatment usually involves separation from common people, and a level of comfort or service. In some cases, such as tickets, VIP may be used as a title in a similar way to premium. These VIP tickets can be purchased by anyone, but still meaning separation from other customers, the term VVIP or Very Very Important Person is also used, especially with reference to VIPs with very high spending power. VIP syndrome is when a perceived VIP uses their status to influence a given professional to make decisions under the pressure or presence of the individual. The phenomenon can occur in any profession that has relationships with wealthy, famous, one example is the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash
Very Important Person
–
The "VIP Hall" (formerly,
Royal Family Hall) at the main train station in
Nizhny Novgorod
21.
Celebrity
–
Celebrity status is often associated with wealth, while fame often provides opportunities to make money. Successful careers in sports and entertainment are commonly associated with celebrity status, People may also become celebrities due to media attention on their lifestyle, wealth, or controversial actions, or for their connection to a famous person. Throughout recorded history there are accounts of people who attracted the trappings of celebrity which would be recognized today, athletes in Ancient Greece were welcomed home as heroes, had songs and poems written in their honor, and received free food and gifts from those seeking celebrity endorsement. Ancient Rome similarly lauded actors and notorious gladiators, and Julius Caesar appeared on a coin in his own lifetime, in the 12th century, Thomas Becket became famous following his murder. He was promoted by the Christian Church as a martyr and images of him, the cult of personality can be traced back to the Romantics in the 18th Century, whose livelihood as artists and poets depended on the currency of their reputation. The establishment of cultural hot-spots became an important factor in the process of generating fame, for example, London, newspapers started including gossip columns and certain clubs and events became places to be seen in order to receive publicity. The movie industry spread around the globe in the first half of the 20th Century, yet, celebrity wasnt always tied to actors in films, especially when cinema was starting out as a medium. The second half of the century saw television and popular music bring new forms of celebrity, such as the rock star, unlike movies, television created celebrities who were not primarily actors, for example, presenters, talk show hosts and news readers. In the sixties and early seventies the book publishing industry began to persuade major celebrities to put their names on autobiographies and other titles in a genre called celebrity publishing. In most cases the book was not written by the celebrity but by a ghost-writer, cultures and regions with a significant population may have their own independent celebrity systems, with distinct hierarchies. For example, the Canadian province of Quebec, which is French-speaking, has its own system of French-speaking television, movie, a person who garners a degree of fame in one culture may be considered less famous or obscure in another. S. Whereas the francophone Canadian singer Celine Dion is well known in both the French-speaking world and in the United States, regions within a country, or cultural communities can also have their own celebrity systems, especially in linguistically or culturally distinct regions such as Quebec or Wales. Regional radio personalities, newscasters, politicians or community leaders may be local or regional celebrities and these informal rankings indicate a placing within a hierarchy. However, due to differing levels of celebrity in different regions, a Brazilian actor might be a B-list action film actor in the U. S. but an A-list star in Portugal. Some elements are associated with fame, such as appearing on the cover of Time, being spoofed in Mad, having a wax statue in Madame Tussauds, certain people are known even to people unfamiliar with the area in which they excelled. If one has to name a famous boxer, they are likely to name Muhammad Ali or Mike Tyson. The same phenomenon is true for fictional characters, superman, Spider-Man, The Hulk, Wonder Woman and Batman represent super heroes to a far wider audience than that of the comics and graphic novels in which they appear. Disney have themeparks around the world rely on the fame of its creations headed by Mickey Mouse
Celebrity
–
Association footballer
David Beckham is famous, not just for his sporting achievements but his fashion, product endorsements and his marriage to pop star
Victoria Beckham.
Celebrity
–
American
socialite Paris Hilton is sometimes described as ' famous for being famous '
Celebrity
–
Peter Robinson felt that
Madonna invented contemporary pop fame and her fame has generated multiple
material academics.
Celebrity
–
Many people around the world know the name and face of the current US president,
Barack Obama.
22.
Trowel
–
A trowel is typically a small hand tool used for digging, applying, smoothing, or moving small amounts of viscous or particulate material. Common varieties include the masonry trowel, garden trowel, and float trowel, a power trowel is a much larger gasoline or electrically powered walk-behind device with rotating paddles used to finish concrete floors. Numerous forms of trowel are used in masonry, concrete, and drywall construction, masonry trowels are traditionally made of forged carbon steel, but some newer versions are made of cast stainless steel, which has longer wear and is rust-free. These include, Bricklayers trowel has an elongated triangular-shaped flat metal blade, used by masons for leveling, spreading, and shaping cement, plaster, pointing trowel, a scaled-down version of a bricklayers trowel, for small jobs and repair work. Tuck pointing trowel is long and thin, designed for packing mortar between bricks, float trowel or finishing trowel is usually rectangular, used to smooth, level, or texture the top layer of hardening concrete. A flooring trowel has one end and one pointed end. A grout float is used for applying and working grout into gaps in floor, gauging trowel has a rounded tip, used to mix measured proportions of the different ingredients for quick set plaster. Pool trowel is a tool with rounded ends used to apply coatings to concrete. Margin trowel is a small rectangular bladed tool used to move, apply, notched trowel is a rectangular shaped tool with regularly spaced notches along one or more sides used to apply adhesive when adhering tile, or laying synthetic floor surfaces. Other forms of trowel include, Garden trowel, a tool with a pointed, scoop-shaped metal blade and wooden, metal, or plastic handle. It is used for breaking up earth, digging holes, especially for planting and weeding, mixing in fertilizer or other additives. Cathole trowel is used for burying personal waste in the backcountry and they are often made of lighter weight materials than gardening trowels to make them easier to carry. Also, they may have such as ruled sides to measure for proper cathole depth or jagged edges for cutting through roots or frozen soil. Some cathole trowels are also designed to fold-up or collapse into a size for easier storage. Others allow for such as toilet paper to be stored inside the handle. In the United States, there are several preferred brands of pointing trowels, including the Marshalltown trowel, while in the British Isles the WHS4 pointing trowel is the traditional tool
Trowel
–
A gardening trowel
Trowel
–
Trowel used by the Hon.
King O'Malley in laying one of the foundation stones of the commencement column of the Federal Capital city of
Canberra in 1913.
Trowel
–
Trowel - tool used for archaeological excavations
23.
Mortar (masonry)
–
In its broadest sense mortar includes pitch, asphalt, and soft mud or clay, such as used between mud bricks. Mortar comes from Latin mortarium meaning crushed, mortars are typically made from a mixture of sand, a binder, and water. The most common binder since the early 20th century is Portland cement, there are several types of cement mortars and additives. The first mortars were made of mud and clay, because of a lack of stone and an abundance of clay, Babylonian constructions were of baked brick, using lime or pitch for mortar. According to Roman Ghirshman, the first evidence of using a form of mortar was at the Mehrgarh of Baluchistan in Pakistan. The ancient sites of Harappan civilization of third millennium BCE are built with kiln-fired bricks, gypsum mortar, also called plaster of Paris, was used in the construction of the Egyptian pyramids and many other ancient structures. It is made from gypsum, which requires a firing temperature. It is therefore easier to make lime mortar and sets up much faster which may be a reason it was used as the typical mortar in ancient, brick arch. Gypsum mortar is not as durable as other mortars in damp conditions, in early Egyptian pyramids, which were constructed during the Old Kingdom, the limestone blocks were bound by mortar of mud and clay, or clay and sand. In later Egyptian pyramids, the mortar was made of gypsum or lime. Gypsum mortar was essentially a mixture of plaster and sand and was quite soft, in the Indian subcontinent, multiple cement types have been observed in the sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, such as the Mohenjo-daro city-settlement that dates to earlier than 2600 BCE. Bitumen mortar was used at a lower-frequency, including in the Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro. Historically, building with concrete and mortar next appeared in Greece, the excavation of the underground aqueduct of Megara revealed that a reservoir was coated with a pozzolanic mortar 12 mm thick. This aqueduct dates back to c.500 BCE, pozzolanic mortar is a lime based mortar, but is made with an additive of volcanic ash that allows it to be hardened underwater, thus it is known as hydraulic cement. The Greeks obtained the volcanic ash from the Greek islands Thira and Nisiros, or from the then Greek colony of Dicaearchia near Naples, the Romans later improved the use and methods of making what became known as pozzolanic mortar and cement. Even later, the Romans used a mortar without pozzolana using crushed terra cotta, introducing aluminum oxide and this mortar was not as strong as pozzolanic mortar, but, because it was denser, it better resisted penetration by water. Hydraulic mortar was not available in ancient China, possibly due to a lack of volcanic ash, around 500 CE, sticky rice soup was mixed with slaked lime to make an inorganic−organic composite mortar that had more strength and water resistance than lime mortar. It is not understood how the art of making hydraulic mortar and cement, during the Middle Ages when the Gothic cathedrals were being built, the only active ingredient in the mortar was lime
Mortar (masonry)
–
Mortar holding weathered bricks
Mortar (masonry)
–
Roman mortar on display at
Chetham's School of Music.
Mortar (masonry)
–
Laying bricks with Portland cement mortar
Mortar (masonry)
–
Mortar mixed inside a 5-gallon bucket using clean water and mortar from a bag. When it's the right consistency as in the photo (trowel stands up) it's ready to apply.
24.
Hammer
–
A hammer is a tool or device that delivers a blow to an object. Most hammers are hand tools used to drive nails, fit parts, forge metal, hammers vary in shape, size, and structure, depending on their purposes. Hammers are basic tools in many trades, the usual features are a head and a handle. Although most hammers are hand tools, powered versions exist, they are known as powered hammers, types of power hammer include steam hammers and trip hammers, often for heavier uses, such as forging. Some hammers have other names, such as sledgehammer, mallet, the term hammer also applies to devices that deliver blows, such as the hammer of a firearm or the hammer of a piano or the hammer ice scraper. The use of simple hammers dates to about 2,600,000 BCE when various shaped stones were used to strike wood, bone, or other stones to break them apart and shape them. Stones attached to sticks with strips of leather or animal sinew were being used as hammers with handles by about 30,000 BCE during the middle of the Paleolithic Stone Age. The hammers archeological record shows that it may be the oldest tool for which evidence exists of its early existence. A traditional hand-held hammer consists of a head and a handle, fastened together by means of a special wedge made for the purpose, or by glue. This two-piece design is used, to combine a dense metallic striking head with a non-metallic mechanical-shock-absorbing handle. If wood is used for the handle, it is often hickory or ash, rigid fiberglass resin may be used for the handle, this material does not absorb water or decay, but does not dissipate shock as well as wood. A loose hammer head is hazardous because it can fly off the handle when in use. Wooden handles can often be replaced when worn or damaged, specialized kits are available covering a range of sizes and designs. Some hammers are one-piece designs made primarily of a single material, a one-piece metallic hammer may optionally have its handle coated or wrapped in a resilient material such as rubber, for improved grip and reduced user fatigue. The hammer head may be surfaced with a variety of materials, including brass, bronze, wood, plastic, rubber, some hammers have interchangeable striking surfaces, which can be selected as needed or replaced when worn out. A large hammer-like tool is a maul, a wood- or rubber-headed hammer is a mallet, the essential part of a hammer is the head, a compact solid mass that is able to deliver a blow to the intended target without itself deforming. The impacting surface of the tool is usually flat or slightly rounded, some upholstery hammers have a magnetized face, to pick up tacks. In the hatchet, the hammer head may be secondary to the cutting edge of the tool
Hammer
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A modern claw hammer
Hammer
Hammer
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An early stone hammer
Hammer
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Stone tapping hammer
25.
Newspapers
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A newspaper is a serial publication containing news about current events, other informative articles about politics, sports, arts, and so on, and advertising. A newspaper is usually, but not exclusively, printed on relatively inexpensive, the journalism organizations that publish newspapers are themselves often metonymically called newspapers. As of 2017, most newspapers are now published online as well as in print, the online versions are called online newspapers or news websites. Newspapers are typically published daily or weekly, News magazines are also weekly, but they have a magazine format. General-interest newspapers typically publish news articles and feature articles on national and international news as well as local news, typically the paper is divided into sections for each of those major groupings. Papers also include articles which have no byline, these articles are written by staff writers, a wide variety of material has been published in newspapers. As of 2017, newspapers may also provide information about new movies, most newspapers are businesses, and they pay their expenses with a mixture of subscription revenue, newsstand sales, and advertising revenue. Some newspapers are government-run or at least government-funded, their reliance on advertising revenue, the editorial independence of a newspaper is thus always subject to the interests of someone, whether owners, advertisers, or a government. Some newspapers with high editorial independence, high quality. This is a way to avoid duplicating the expense of reporting from around the world, circa 2005, there were approximately 6,580 daily newspaper titles in the world selling 395 million print copies a day. Worldwide annual revenue approached $100 billion in 2005-7, then plunged during the financial crisis of 2008-9. Revenue in 2016 fell to only $53 billion, hurting every major publisher as their efforts to gain online income fell far short of the goal. Besides remodeling advertising, the internet has also challenged the business models of the era by crowdsourcing both publishing in general and, more specifically, journalism. In addition, the rise of news aggregators, which bundle linked articles from online newspapers. Increasing paywalling of online newspapers may be counteracting those effects, the oldest newspaper still published is the Gazzetta di Mantova, which was established in Mantua in 1664. While online newspapers have increased access to newspapers by people with Internet access, literacy is also a factor which prevents people who cannot read from being able to benefit from reading newspapers. Periodicity, They are published at intervals, typically daily or weekly. This ensures that newspapers can provide information on newly-emerging news stories or events, currency, Its information is as up to date as its publication schedule allows
Newspapers
–
Front page of
The New York Times on
Armistice Day, 11 November 1918.
Newspapers
–
Journalism
Newspapers
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Title page of Carolus'
Relation from 1609, the earliest newspaper
Newspapers
–
Diario de Pernambuco, founded in November 1825 is the second oldest circulating newspaper in South America, after
El Peruano, founded in October of that same year.
26.
Artifact (archaeology)
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An artifact or artefact is something made or given shape by man, such as a tool or a work of art, especially an object of archaeological interest. In archaeology, however, the word has become a term of particular nuance and is defined as, an object recovered by archaeological endeavor, which may have a cultural interest. However, modern archaeologists take care to distinguish material culture from ethnicity, examples include stone tools, pottery vessels, metal objects such as weapons, and items of personal adornment such as buttons, jewelry and clothing. Bones that show signs of modification are also examples. Natural objects, such as fire cracked rocks from a hearth or plant material used for food, are classified by archeologists as ecofacts rather than as artifacts, natural objects that humans have moved but not changed are called manuports. Examples include seashells moved inland, or rounded pebbles placed away from the action that made them. For instance, a bone removed from a carcass is a biofact. Similarly there can be debate over early stone objects that could be either crude artifacts or naturally occurring and it can be difficult to distinguish the differences between actual man-made lithic artifacts and geofacts – naturally occurring lithics that resemble man-made tools. It is possible to authenticate artifacts by examining the general attributed to man-made tools. Artifact Collection at the Royal Military College of Canada Museum in Kingston, Ontario
Artifact (archaeology)
–
Mycenaean stirrup vase found in the acropolis of Ras Shamra (
Ugarit), 1400-1300 BC
Artifact (archaeology)
–
Archaeological artifact from the work developed in the area of
Citânia de Briteiros, Portugal
27.
Coin
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A coin is a small, flat, round piece of metal or plastic used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by a government, Coins are usually metal or alloy, or sometimes made of synthetic materials. Coins made of metal are stored in large quantities as bullion coins. Other coins are used as money in transactions, circulating alongside banknotes. Usually the highest value coin in circulation is less than the lowest-value note. In the last hundred years, the value of circulation coins has occasionally been lower than the value of the metal they contain. Exceptions to the rule of face value being higher than content value also occur for some bullion coins made of copper, silver, or gold, while the Eagle, Maple Leaf, and Sovereign coins have nominal face values, the Krugerrand does not. The first coins were developed independently in Iron Age Anatolia and Archaic Greece, India, Coins spread rapidly in the 6th and 5th centuries BCE, throughout Greece and Persia, and further to the Balkans. Standardized Roman currency was used throughout the Roman Empire, important Roman gold and silver coins were continued into the Middle Ages. Fiat money first arose in medieval China, with the paper money. Early paper money was introduced in Europe in the later Middle Ages, the penny was minted as a silver coin until the 17th century. The first circulating United States coins were cents, produced in 1793, Coins were an evolution of currency systems of the Late Bronze Age, where standard-sized ingots, and tokens such as knife money, were used to store and transfer value. In the late Chinese Bronze Age, standardized cast tokens were made and these were replicas in bronze of earlier Chinese currency, cowrie shells, so they were named Bronze Shell. According to Aristotle and Pollux, the first issuer of coins was Hermodike of Kyme The earliest coins are associated with Iron Age Anatolia. Early electrum coins were not standardized in weight, and in their earliest stage may have been ritual objects, such as badges or medals, issued by priests. The first Lydian coins were made of electrum, a naturally occurring alloy of silver, most of the early Lydian coins include no writing, only an image of a symbolic animal. Anatolian Artemis was the Πὀτνια Θηρῶν, whose symbol was the stag, a small percentage of early Lydian/Greek coins have a legend
Coin
–
A
Swiss ten-cent coin from 1879, similar to the oldest coins still in official use today
Coin
–
An original Celtic
Biatec coin and its replica on a former Slovak 5-
koruna coin (1993-2008)
Coin
–
An
oxhide ingot from
Crete.
Late Bronze Age metal ingots were given standard shapes, such as the shape of an "ox-hide", suggesting that they represented standardized values.
Coin
–
1/3rd
stater from
Lydia, 6th century BCE
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Corner Stone". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
