1.
Telescope
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A telescope is an optical instrument that aids in the observation of remote objects by collecting electromagnetic radiation. The first known practical telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 1600s and they found use in both terrestrial applications and astronomy. Within a few decades, the telescope was invented, which used mirrors to collect. In the 20th century many new types of telescopes were invented, including radio telescopes in the 1930s, the word telescope now refers to a wide range of instruments capable of detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in some cases other types of detectors. The word telescope was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galileis instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei, in the Starry Messenger, Galileo had used the term perspicillum. The earliest recorded working telescopes were the telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is credited to three individuals, Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, Galileo heard about the Dutch telescope in June 1609, built his own within a month, and improved upon the design in the following year. Also in 1609, Thomas Harriot became the first person known to point a telescope skyward in order to make observations of a celestial object. The idea that the objective, or light-gathering element, could be a mirror instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors—reduction of spherical aberration and no chromatic aberration—led to many proposed designs, in 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope, of a design which now bears his name, the Newtonian reflector. The invention of the lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter. The largest reflecting telescopes currently have objectives larger than 10 m, the 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The first purpose built radio telescope went into operation in 1937, since then, a tremendous variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developed. The name telescope covers a range of instruments. Most detect electromagnetic radiation, but there are differences in how astronomers must go about collecting light in different frequency bands. The near-infrared can be collected much like light, however in the far-infrared and submillimetre range. For example, the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope observes from wavelengths from 3 μm to 2000 μm, on the other hand, the Spitzer Space Telescope, observing from about 3 μm to 180 μm uses a mirror. Also using reflecting optics, the Hubble Space Telescope with Wide Field Camera 3 can observe in the range from about 0.2 μm to 1.7 μm
2.
Star
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A star is a luminous sphere of plasma held together by its own gravity. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, many other stars are visible to the naked eye from Earth during the night, appearing as a multitude of fixed luminous points in the sky due to their immense distance from Earth. Historically, the most prominent stars were grouped into constellations and asterisms, astronomers have assembled star catalogues that identify the known stars and provide standardized stellar designations. However, most of the stars in the Universe, including all stars outside our galaxy, indeed, most are invisible from Earth even through the most powerful telescopes. Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium are created by stellar nucleosynthesis during the stars lifetime, near the end of its life, a star can also contain degenerate matter. Astronomers can determine the mass, age, metallicity, and many properties of a star by observing its motion through space, its luminosity. The total mass of a star is the factor that determines its evolution. Other characteristics of a star, including diameter and temperature, change over its life, while the environment affects its rotation. A plot of the temperature of stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. Plotting a particular star on that allows the age and evolutionary state of that star to be determined. A stars life begins with the collapse of a gaseous nebula of material composed primarily of hydrogen, along with helium. When the stellar core is sufficiently dense, hydrogen becomes steadily converted into helium through nuclear fusion, the remainder of the stars interior carries energy away from the core through a combination of radiative and convective heat transfer processes. The stars internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity, a star with mass greater than 0.4 times the Suns will expand to become a red giant when the hydrogen fuel in its core is exhausted. In some cases, it will fuse heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core, as the star expands it throws a part of its mass, enriched with those heavier elements, into the interstellar environment, to be recycled later as new stars. Meanwhile, the core becomes a remnant, a white dwarf. Binary and multi-star systems consist of two or more stars that are bound and generally move around each other in stable orbits. When two such stars have a close orbit, their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution. Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure, historically, stars have been important to civilizations throughout the world
3.
Corona
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A corona is an aura of plasma that surrounds the sun and other stars. The Suns corona extends millions of kilometres into space and is most easily seen during a solar eclipse. The word corona is a Latin word meaning crown, from the Ancient Greek κορώνη, the high temperature of the Suns corona gives it unusual spectral features, which led some in the 19th century to suggest that it contained a previously unknown element, coronium. Instead, these features have since been explained by highly ionized iron. Bengt Edlén, following the work of Grotrian, first identified the coronal spectral lines in 1940 as transitions from low-lying metastable levels of the configuration of highly ionised metals. These high stages of ionisation indicate a temperature in excess of 1,000,000 kelvins. Light from the corona comes from three sources, from the same volume of space. The suns corona is much hotter than the surface of the Sun. The corona is 10−12 times as dense as the photosphere, the corona is separated from the photosphere by the relatively shallow chromosphere. The exact mechanism by which the corona is heated is still the subject of some debate, the outer edges of the Suns corona are constantly being transported away due to open magnetic flux and hence generating the solar wind. The corona is not always evenly distributed across the surface of the sun, during periods of quiet, the corona is more or less confined to the equatorial regions, with coronal holes covering the polar regions. However, during the Suns active periods, the corona is evenly distributed over the equatorial and polar regions, the solar cycle spans approximately 11 years, from solar minimum to the following minimum. Associated with sunspots are coronal loops, loops of magnetic flux, the magnetic flux pushes the hotter photosphere aside, exposing the cooler plasma below, thus creating the relatively dark sun spots. The astronomers usually distinguish several regions, as described below, active regions are ensembles of loop structures connecting points of opposite magnetic polarity in the photosphere, the so-called coronal loops. They generally distribute in two zones of activity, which are parallel to the solar equator, the average temperature is between two and four million kelvins, while the density goes from 109 to 1010 particle per cm3. If flares are very violent, they can also perturb the photosphere, on the contrary, quiescent prominences are large, cool dense structures which are observed as dark, snake-like Hα ribbons on the solar disc. Their temperature is about 5000–8000 K, and so they are considered as chromospheric features. In 2013, images from the High Resolution Coronal Imager revealed never-before-seen magnetic braids of plasma within the layers of these active regions
4.
Sun
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The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It is a perfect sphere of hot plasma, with internal convective motion that generates a magnetic field via a dynamo process. It is by far the most important source of energy for life on Earth. Its diameter is about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass is about 330,000 times that of Earth, accounting for about 99. 86% of the total mass of the Solar System. About three quarters of the Suns mass consists of hydrogen, the rest is mostly helium, with smaller quantities of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon. The Sun is a G-type main-sequence star based on its spectral class and it formed approximately 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of matter within a region of a large molecular cloud. Most of this matter gathered in the center, whereas the rest flattened into a disk that became the Solar System. The central mass became so hot and dense that it eventually initiated nuclear fusion in its core and it is thought that almost all stars form by this process. The Sun is roughly middle-aged, it has not changed dramatically for more than four billion years and it is calculated that the Sun will become sufficiently large enough to engulf the current orbits of Mercury, Venus, and probably Earth. The enormous effect of the Sun on Earth has been recognized since prehistoric times, the synodic rotation of Earth and its orbit around the Sun are the basis of the solar calendar, which is the predominant calendar in use today. The English proper name Sun developed from Old English sunne and may be related to south, all Germanic terms for the Sun stem from Proto-Germanic *sunnōn. The English weekday name Sunday stems from Old English and is ultimately a result of a Germanic interpretation of Latin dies solis, the Latin name for the Sun, Sol, is not common in general English language use, the adjectival form is the related word solar. The term sol is used by planetary astronomers to refer to the duration of a solar day on another planet. A mean Earth solar day is approximately 24 hours, whereas a mean Martian sol is 24 hours,39 minutes, and 35.244 seconds. From at least the 4th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt, the Sun was worshipped as the god Ra, portrayed as a falcon-headed divinity surmounted by the solar disk, and surrounded by a serpent. In the New Empire period, the Sun became identified with the dung beetle, in the form of the Sun disc Aten, the Sun had a brief resurgence during the Amarna Period when it again became the preeminent, if not only, divinity for the Pharaoh Akhenaton. The Sun is viewed as a goddess in Germanic paganism, Sól/Sunna, in ancient Roman culture, Sunday was the day of the Sun god. It was adopted as the Sabbath day by Christians who did not have a Jewish background, the symbol of light was a pagan device adopted by Christians, and perhaps the most important one that did not come from Jewish traditions
5.
Exoplanet
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An exoplanet or extrasolar planet is a planet that orbits a star other than the Sun. The first scientific detection of an exoplanet was in 1988, HARPS has discovered about a hundred exoplanets while the Kepler space telescope has found more than two thousand. Kepler has also detected a few thousand candidate planets, of which about 11% may be false positives, on average, there is at least one planet per star, with a percentage having multiple planets. About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone, the least massive planet known is Draugr, which is about twice the mass of the Moon. There are planets that are so near to their star that they take only a few hours to orbit, some are so far out that it is difficult to tell whether they are gravitationally bound to the star. Almost all of the planets detected so far are within the Milky Way, the nearest exoplanet is Proxima Centauri b, located 4.2 light-years from Earth and orbiting Proxima Centauri, the closest star to the Sun. The discovery of exoplanets has intensified interest in the search for extraterrestrial life, there is special interest in planets that orbit in a stars habitable zone, where it is possible for liquid water, a prerequisite for life on Earth, to exist on the surface. The study of planetary habitability also considers a range of other factors in determining the suitability of a planet for hosting life. The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the billions, the convention for designating exoplanets is an extension of the system used for designating multiple-star systems as adopted by the International Astronomical Union. For exoplanets orbiting a star, the designation is normally formed by taking the name or, more commonly, designation of its parent star. The first planet discovered in a system is given the designation b, if several planets in the same system are discovered at the same time, the closest one to the star gets the next letter, followed by the other planets in order of orbital size. A provisional IAU-sanctioned standard exists to accommodate the designation of circumbinary planets, a limited number of exoplanets have IAU-sanctioned proper names. Various detection claims made in the century were rejected by astronomers. The first scientific detection of an exoplanet began in 1988, However, the first confirmed detection came in 1992, with the discovery of several terrestrial-mass planets orbiting the pulsar PSR B1257+12. The first confirmation of an exoplanet orbiting a star was made in 1995. Some exoplanets have been imaged directly by telescopes, but the vast majority have been detected through indirect methods, such as the transit method, in the eighteenth century the same possibility was mentioned by Isaac Newton in the General Scholium that concludes his Principia. Claims of exoplanet detections have been made since the nineteenth century, some of the earliest involve the binary star 70 Ophiuchi. In 1855 William Stephen Jacob at the East India Companys Madras Observatory reported that orbital anomalies made it highly probable that there was a body in this system
6.
Sky
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The sky is everything that lies above the surface of the Earth, including the atmosphere and outer space. In the field of astronomy, the sky is called the celestial sphere. This is viewed from Earths surface as a dome where the Sun, stars, planets. The celestial sphere is divided into regions called constellations. Usually, the sky is used informally as the point of view from the Earths surface, however. In some cases, such as in discussing the weather, the sky refers to only the lower, during daylight, the sky appears to be blue because air scatters blue sunlight more than it scatters red. At night, the sky appears to be a dark surface or region scattered with stars. During the day, the Sun can be seen in the sky obscured by clouds. In the night sky the Moon, planets and stars are visible in the sky, some of the natural phenomena seen in the sky are clouds, rainbows, and aurorae. Lightning and precipitation can also be seen in the sky during storms, birds, insects, aircraft, and kites are often considered to fly in the sky. Due to human activities, smog during the day and light pollution during the night are often seen above large cities. Except for light that directly from the sun, most of the light in the day sky is caused by scattering. The scattering due to molecule sized particles is greater in the forward and backward directions than it is in the lateral direction. Scattering is significant for light at all visible wavelengths but is stronger at the end of the visible spectrum, meaning that the scattered light is bluer than its source. The remaining sunlight, having lost some of its wavelength components. Scattering also occurs more strongly in clouds. Individual water droplets exposed to light will create a set of colored rings. If a cloud is thick enough, scattering from water droplets will wash out the set of colored rings
7.
Mauna Loa
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Mauna Loa is one of five volcanoes that form the Island of Hawaii in the U. S. state of Hawaiʻi in the Pacific Ocean. The largest subaerial volcano in both mass and volume, Mauna Loa has historically considered the largest volcano on Earth. Lava eruptions from Mauna Loa are silica-poor and very fluid, Mauna Loa has probably been erupting for at least 700,000 years, and may have emerged above sea level about 400,000 years ago. The oldest-known dated rocks are not older than 200,000 years, the volcanos magma comes from the Hawaii hotspot, which has been responsible for the creation of the Hawaiian island chain over tens of millions of years. The slow drift of the Pacific Plate will eventually carry Mauna Loa away from the hotspot within 500,000 to one years from now. Mauna Loas most recent eruption occurred from March 24 to April 15,1984, no recent eruptions of the volcano have caused fatalities, but eruptions in 1926 and 1950 destroyed villages, and the city of Hilo is partly built on lava flows from the late 19th century. Because of the hazards it poses to population centers, Mauna Loa is part of the Decade Volcanoes program. Mauna Loa has been monitored intensively by the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory since 1912, observations of the atmosphere are undertaken at the Mauna Loa Observatory, and of the Sun at the Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, both located near the mountains summit. Hawaii Volcanoes National Park covers the summit and the flank of the volcano, and also incorporates Kīlauea. Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Mauna Loa was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earths underlying mantle. The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, the prevailing view states that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planets mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era. However, while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well-understood and extensively studied, Mauna Loa is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaiʻi, created by the Hawaii hotspot. The oldest volcano on the island, Kohala, is more than a years old, and Kīlauea. Lōʻihi Seamount on the flank is even younger, but has yet to breach the surface. Since then, the volcano has remained active, with a history of effusive and explosive eruptions, although Mauna Loas activity has been overshadowed in recent years by that of its neighbor Kīlauea, it remains active. Mauna Loa is the largest subaerial and second largest overall volcano in the world, covering an area of 5,271 km2. Consisting of approximately 65,000 to 80,000 km3 of solid rock, the shield-stage lavas that built the enormous main mass of the mountain are tholeiitic basalts, like those of Mauna Kea, created through the mixing of primary magma and subducted oceanic crust. Mokuʻāweoweos caldera floor lies between 170 and 50 m beneath its rim and it is only the latest of several calderas that have formed and reformed over the volcanos life, additionally, two smaller pit craters lie southwest of the caldera, named Lua Hou and Lua Hohonu
8.
Polarization (waves)
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Polarization is a parameter applying to transverse waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave the direction of the oscillation is transverse to the direction of motion of the wave, a simple example of a polarized transverse wave is vibrations traveling along a taut string for example in a musical instrument like a guitar string. Depending on how the string is plucked, the vibrations can be in a direction, horizontal direction. Transverse waves that exhibit polarization include electromagnetic waves such as light and radio waves, gravitational waves, in some types of transverse waves the wave displacement is limited to a single direction, so these also dont exhibit polarization. For example, in waves in liquids the wave displacement of the particles is always in a vertical plane. In linear polarization the fields oscillate in a single direction, in circular or elliptical polarization the fields rotate at a constant rate in a plane as the wave travels. Polarized light can be produced by passing unpolarized light through a polarizing filter, some of these are used to make polarizing filters. Light is also partially polarized when it reflects from a surface, according to quantum mechanics, electromagnetic waves consist of particles called photons. When viewed in this way, the polarization of a wave is determined by a quantum mechanical property of photons called their spin. A photon has one of two spins, it can either spin in a right hand sense or a left hand sense about its direction of travel. Circularly polarized electromagnetic waves are composed of photons with one type of spin. Linearly polarized waves consist of numbers of right and left hand spinning photons. Polarization is an important parameter in areas of science dealing with transverse waves, such as optics, seismology, radio, especially impacted are technologies such as lasers, wireless and optical fiber telecommunications, and radar. And incoherent states can be modeled stochastically as a combination of such uncorrelated waves with some distribution of frequencies, phases. Considering a monochromatic wave of optical frequency f, let us take the direction of propagation as the z axis. Being a transverse wave the E and H fields must then contain components only in the x and y directions whereas Ez=Hz=0. Using complex notation, we understand the instantaneous electric and magnetic fields to be given by the real parts of the complex quantities occurring in the following equations. Here ex, ey, hx, and hy are complex numbers, in the second more compact form, as these equations are customarily expressed, these factors are described using the wavenumber k =2 π n / λ and angular frequency ω =2 π f
9.
Sunlight
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Sunlight is a portion of the electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun, in particular infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through Earths atmosphere, and is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon, when the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat. When it is blocked by clouds or reflects off other objects, the World Meteorological Organization uses the term sunshine duration to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter. Other sources indicate an Average over the earth of 164 Watts per square meter over a 24 hour day. The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has both positive and negative effects, as it is both a principal source of vitamin D3 and a mutagen. Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach Earth from the surface of the Sun. A photon starting at the center of the Sun and changing every time it encounters a charged particle would take between 10,000 and 170,000 years to get to the surface. Researchers may record sunlight using a sunshine recorder, pyranometer, or pyrheliometer, to calculate the amount of sunlight reaching the ground, both Earths elliptical orbit and the attenuation by Earths atmosphere have to be taken into account. In this formula dn–3 is used, because in modern times Earths perihelion, the closest approach to the Sun and, therefore, the value of 0.033412 is determined knowing that the ratio between the perihelion squared and the aphelion squared should be approximately 0.935338. The solar illuminance constant, is equal to 128×103 lx, the atmospheric extinction brings the number of lux down to around 100000. The total amount of energy received at ground level from the Sun at the zenith depends on the distance to the Sun and it is about 3. 3% higher than average in January and 3. 3% lower in July. In terms of energy, sunlight at Earths surface is around 52 to 55 percent infrared,42 to 43 percent visible, and 3 to 5 percent ultraviolet. At the top of the atmosphere, sunlight is about 30% more intense, having about 8% ultraviolet, direct sunlight has a luminous efficacy of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux. This is higher than the efficacy of most artificial lighting, which means using sunlight for illumination heats up a less than using most forms of artificial lighting. Multiplying the figure of 1050 watts per square metre by 93 lumens per watt indicates that bright sunlight provides an illuminance of approximately 98000 lux on a surface at sea level. The illumination of a surface will be considerably less than this if the Sun is not very high in the sky. Averaged over a day, the highest amount of sunlight on a horizontal surface occurs in January at the South Pole, dividing the irradiance of 1050 W/m2 by the size of the suns disk in steradians gives an average radiance of 15.4 MW per square metre per steradian. Multiplying this by π gives a limit to the irradiance which can be focused on a surface using mirrors,48.5 MW/m2
10.
Wendelstein (mountain)
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The Wendelstein is a 1, 838-metre high mountain in the Bavarian Alps in South Germany. It belongs to the so-called Mangfall Mountains, the part of the Bavarian Pre-Alps. It is the highest peak in the Wendelstein massif, due to its exposed location it has a very good view over the Bavarian Alpine Foreland and is unmistakable for miles around. It lies between the valleys of the Leitzach and Inn and is accessible via the Wendelstein Cable Car, on its northern foothills rises the Jenbach, which becomes the Kalten on its way to the River Mangfall. Local valley settlements include Bayrischzell, Brannenburg and Osterhofen, the mountain consists mainly of Wetterstein limestone from the Upper Triassic with dasycladales - marine algae whose natural habitat is shallow lagoons in tropical climates. The colour of the varies between grey white and light grey to speckled. The annual precipitation is 1,714 mm which is extremely high, 99% of German Met Office weather stations register lower values. The driest month is October, the wettest is July, which experiences 2.6 times as much precipitation as October, only 3% of weather stations register higher annual variations. On the summit of the mountain is the Wendelstein Chapel, an observatory, a station, a geopark. The buildings around the stations are linked to the summit,100 m higher, by a metalled track. The rack railway, built in 1912 by Otto von Steinbeis, is the oldest working railway in Germany. Since its renovation in the early 1990s, it has worked by modern railcars that have reduced journey times from over 50 minutes to about half an hour. Near the rack railway mountain station is the well-developed Wendelstein Cave with several stalactites and stalagmites, and which contain ice until well into the summer months. The beautiful panoramic view from the summit and its easy access over the railway and cable car have made the Wendelstein one of the best known. The foundation stone of the Wendelstein Church was laid on 1 July 1889 on a ridge a hundred metres below the summit. On 20 August 1890 Germanys highest church was consecrated and it is dedicated to the Patrona Bavariae and is managed by the Archdiocese of Munich and Freising as a satellite church of the parish of Maria Himmelfahrt in Brannenburg. The Wendelstein Churchs description as the highest church in Germany is indisputable, all other church buildings are not churches in the ecclesiastical sense. Regular masses and marriage services take place in the church in summer
. Bibcode:2002ApJ...570..900K. doi:10.1086/339625.
