1.
Latin
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
2.
Primary sources
–
It serves as an original source of information about the topic. Similar definitions can be used in science, and other areas of scholarship. In journalism, a source can be a person with direct knowledge of a situation. Primary sources are distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on, generally, accounts written after the fact with the benefit of hindsight are secondary. A secondary source may also be a primary source depending on how it is used, Primary and secondary should be understood as relative terms, with sources categorized according to specific historical contexts and what is being studied. In scholarly writing, an important objective of classifying sources is to determine their independence, sreedharan believes that primary sources have the most direct connection to the past and that they speak for themselves in ways that cannot be captured through the filter of secondary sources. In scholarly writing, the objective of classifying sources is to determine the independence, though the terms primary source and secondary source originated in historiography as a way to trace the history of historical ideas, they have been applied to many other fields. For example, these ideas may be used to trace the history of theories, literary elements. In scientific literature, a source is the original publication of a scientists new data, results. In political history, primary sources are documents such as reports, speeches, pamphlets, posters, or letters by participants, official election returns. In religious history, the sources are religious texts and descriptions of religious ceremonies. A study of history could include fictional sources such as novels or plays. In a broader sense primary sources also include artifacts like photographs, newsreels, coins, historians may also take archaeological artifacts and oral reports and interviews into consideration. Written sources may be divided into three types, narrative sources or literary sources tell a story or message. They are not limited to fictional sources but include diaries, films, biographies, leading philosophical works, diplomatic sources include charters and other legal documents which usually follow a set format. Social documents are created by organizations, such as registers of births. In historiography, when the study of history is subject to historical scrutiny, for a biography of a historian, that historians publications would be primary sources. Documentary films can be considered a source or primary source
Primary sources
–
This wall painting found in the Roman city of
Pompeii is an example of a primary source about people in Pompeii in Roman times. (
Portrait of Paquius Proculo)
Primary sources
–
From a letter of Philip II, King of Spain, 16th century
3.
Byzantine Empire
–
It survived the fragmentation and fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD and continued to exist for an additional thousand years until it fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, several signal events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empires Greek East and Latin West divided. Constantine I reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the new capital, under Theodosius I, Christianity became the Empires official state religion and other religious practices were proscribed. Finally, under the reign of Heraclius, the Empires military, the borders of the Empire evolved significantly over its existence, as it went through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of Maurice, the Empires eastern frontier was expanded, in a matter of years the Empire lost its richest provinces, Egypt and Syria, to the Arabs. This battle opened the way for the Turks to settle in Anatolia, the Empire recovered again during the Komnenian restoration, such that by the 12th century Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest European city. Despite the eventual recovery of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained only one of several small states in the area for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were annexed by the Ottomans over the 15th century. The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 finally ended the Byzantine Empire, the term comes from Byzantium, the name of the city of Constantinople before it became Constantines capital. This older name of the city would rarely be used from this point onward except in historical or poetic contexts. The publication in 1648 of the Byzantine du Louvre, and in 1680 of Du Canges Historia Byzantina further popularised the use of Byzantine among French authors, however, it was not until the mid-19th century that the term came into general use in the Western world. The Byzantine Empire was known to its inhabitants as the Roman Empire, the Empire of the Romans, Romania, the Roman Republic, Graikia, and also as Rhōmais. The inhabitants called themselves Romaioi and Graikoi, and even as late as the 19th century Greeks typically referred to modern Greek as Romaika and Graikika. The authority of the Byzantine emperor as the legitimate Roman emperor was challenged by the coronation of Charlemagne as Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III in the year 800. No such distinction existed in the Islamic and Slavic worlds, where the Empire was more seen as the continuation of the Roman Empire. In the Islamic world, the Roman Empire was known primarily as Rûm, the Roman army succeeded in conquering many territories covering the entire Mediterranean region and coastal regions in southwestern Europe and north Africa. These territories were home to different cultural groups, both urban populations and rural populations. The West also suffered heavily from the instability of the 3rd century AD
Byzantine Empire
–
Tremissis with the image of
Justinian the Great (r. 527–565) (see
Byzantine insignia)
Byzantine Empire
–
Byzantine
lamellar armour klivanium (Κλιβάνιον) - a predecessor of Ottoman krug
mirror armour
Byzantine Empire
–
The Baptism of Constantine painted by
Raphael 's pupils (1520–1524,
fresco, Vatican City,
Apostolic Palace);
Eusebius of Caesarea records that (as
was common among converts of early Christianity) Constantine delayed receiving
baptism until shortly before his death
Byzantine Empire
–
Restored section of the Theodosian Walls.
4.
Bonn
–
The Federal City of Bonn is a city on the banks of the Rhine in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, with a population of 311,287. About 24 km south-southeast of Cologne, Bonn is in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ruhr region, Germanys largest metropolitan area, the title of Federal City reflects its particular political status within Germany. Founded in the 1st century BC as a Roman settlement, Bonn is one of Germanys oldest cities, from 1597 to 1794, Bonn was the capital of the Electorate of Cologne, and residence of the Archbishops and Prince-electors of Cologne. Composer Ludwig van Beethoven was born here in 1770, from 1949 to 1990, Bonn was the capital of West Germany, and it is here where Germanys present constitution, the Grundgesetz, was declared in 1949. From 1990 to 1999, Bonn served as the seat of government, two DAX-listed corporations, Deutsche Post DHL and Deutsche Telekom, have headquarters in Bonn. The city is the location of the University of Bonn, spanning an area of more 141.2 km2 on both sides of the River Rhine, almost three quarters of the city lie on the rivers left bank. To the south and to the west, Bonn is bordering the Eifel region which encompasses the Rhineland Nature Park, to the north, Bonn borders the Cologne Lowland. Natural borders are constituted by the River Sieg to the north-east, the largest extension of the city in north-south dimensions is 15 km and 12.5 km in west-east dimensions. The city borders have a length of 61 km. The geographical centre of Bonn is the Bundeskanzlerplatz in Bonn-Gronau, the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia is divided into five governmental districts, and Bonn is part of the governmental district of Cologne. Within this governmental district, the city of Bonn is an district in its own right. The urban district of Bonn is then divided into four administrative municipal districts. These are Bonn, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Bonn-Beuel and Bonn-Hardtberg, in 1969, the independent towns of Bad Godesberg and Beuel as well as several villages were incorporated into Bonn, resulting in a city more than twice as large as before. In the south of the Cologne lowland in the Rhine valley, the history of the city dates back to Roman times. In about 12 BC, the Roman army appears to have stationed a small unit in what is presently the historical centre of the city, even earlier, the army had resettled members of a Germanic tribal group allied with Rome, the Ubii, in Bonn. The Latin name for that settlement, Bonna, may stem from the population of this and many other settlements in the area. The Eburoni were members of a tribal coalition effectively wiped out during the final phase of Caesars War in Gaul. After several decades, the gave up the small camp linked to the Ubii-settlement
Bonn
–
Beethoven Monument,
Villa Hammerschmidt, Old City Hall,
Poppelsdorf Palace, panoramic view over Bonn and the Electoral Palace, now seat of the
University of Bonn (clockwise from top left).
Bonn
–
Langer Eugen, centre of the
United Nations campus
Bonn
–
Sterntor (star gate), a reconstruction of a city wall gate in medieval Bonn
Bonn
–
View of the Old City Hall from the Market Square
5.
Text criticism
–
Textual criticism is a branch of textual scholarship, philology, and literary criticism that is concerned with the identification of textual variants in either manuscripts or printed books. Ancient scribes made alterations when copying manuscripts by hand, given a manuscript copy, several or many copies, but not the original document, the textual critic might seek to reconstruct the original text as closely as possible. The same processes can be used to attempt to reconstruct intermediate versions, or recensions, the ultimate objective of the textual critics work is the production of a critical edition containing a scholarly curated text. There are three approaches to textual criticism, eclecticism, stemmatics, and copy-text editing. Techniques from the discipline of cladistics are currently also being used to determine the relationships between manuscripts. Textual criticism has been practiced for two thousand years. Early textual critics were concerned with preserving the works of antiquity, many ancient works, such as the Bible and the Greek tragedies, survive in hundreds of copies, and the relationship of each copy to the original may be unclear. Textual scholars have debated for centuries which sources are most closely derived from the original, hence which readings in those sources are correct. Although biblical books that are letters, like Greek plays, presumably had one original, interest in applying textual criticism to the Quran has also developed after the discovery of the Sanaa manuscripts in 1972, which possibly date back to the 7–8th centuries. However, the application of textual criticism to non-religious works does not antedate the invention of printing, while Christianity has been relatively receptive to textual criticism, application of it to the Jewish Torah and the Quran is, to the devout, taboo. The business of textual criticism is to produce a text as close as possible to the original, Maas comments further that A dictation revised by the author must be regarded as equivalent to an autograph manuscript. The lack of autograph manuscripts applies to many cultures other than Greek, in such a situation, a key objective becomes the identification of the first exemplar before any split in the tradition. That exemplar is known as the archetype, if we succeed in establishing the text of, the constitutio is considerably advanced. The textual critics ultimate objective is the production of a critical edition and this contains the text that the author has determined most closely approximates the original, and is accompanied by an apparatus criticus or critical apparatus. Before mechanical printing, literature was copied by hand, and many variations were introduced by copyists, the age of printing made the scribal profession effectively redundant. Printed editions, while less susceptible to the proliferation of variations likely to arise during manual transmission, are not immune to introducing variations from an authors autograph. Instead of a scribe miscopying his source, a compositor or a shop may read or typeset a work in a way that differs from the autograph. Since each scribe or printer commits different errors, reconstruction of the lost original is often aided by a selection of readings taken from many sources, an edited text that draws from multiple sources is said to be eclectic
Text criticism
–
Carmina Cantabrigiensia, Manuscript C, folio 436v, 11th century
Text criticism
–
Folio from
Papyrus 46, containing
2 Corinthians 11:33–12:9
Text criticism
–
Luke 11:2 in
Codex Sinaiticus
Text criticism
–
A page from
Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209 shows a medieval scribe (the marginal note between columns one and two) criticizing a predecessor for changing the text: "Fool and knave, leave the old reading, don't change it!"
6.
Medieval Greek
–
From the 7th century onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the Byzantine Empire. This stage of language is described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature is a branch of Byzantine Studies, or Byzantinology, however, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political as opposed to cultural and linguistic developments. Indeed, by time the spoken language, particularly pronunciation, had already shifted towards modern forms. Medieval Greek is the link between this vernacular, known as Koine Greek, and the Modern Greek language. With the transfer of the Roman imperial court to Byzantium between 324 and 330, the centre of the Roman Empire was moved into an area where Greek was the dominant language. At first, Latin remained the language of both the court and the army and it was used for documents, but its influence soon waned. From the beginning of the 6th century, amendments to the law were written in Greek. Furthermore, parts of the Roman Corpus Iuris Civilis were gradually translated into Greek, under the rule of Emperor Heraclius, who also assumed the Greek title Basileus in 629, Greek became the official language of the Eastern Roman Empire. This was in spite of the fact that the inhabitants of the empire still considered themselves Romaioi until its end in 1453, the number of those who were able to communicate in Greek may have been far higher. In any case, all cities of the Eastern Roman Empire were strongly influenced by the Greek language, alexandria, a center of Greek culture and language, fell to the Arabs in 642. During the seventh and eighth centuries, Greek was replaced by Arabic as a language in conquered territories such as Egypt. Thus, the use of Greek declined early on in Syria, Egypt, from the late 11th century onwards, the interior of Anatolia was invaded by Seljuq Turks, who advanced westwards. Language varieties after 1453 are referred to as Modern Greek, as early as in the Hellenistic period, there was a tendency towards a state of diglossia between the Attic literary language and the constantly developing vernacular Koiné. By late antiquity, the gap had become impossible to ignore, written literature reflecting this demotic Greek begins to appear around 1100. Among the preserved literature in the Attic literary language, various forms of historiography take a prominent place and they comprise chronicles as well as classicist, contemporary works of historiography, theological documents, and saints lives. Poetry can be found in the form of hymns and ecclesiastical poetry, many of the Byzantine emperors were active writers themselves and wrote chronicles or works on the running of the Byzantine state and strategic or philological works. Furthermore, letters, legal texts, and numerous registers and lists in Medieval Greek exist and these are influenced by the vernacular language of their time in choice of words and idiom, but largely follow the models of written Koine in their morphology and syntax
Medieval Greek
–
Manuscript of the
Anthology of Planudes (c.1300)
Medieval Greek
–
Evolution of Greek dialects from the late Byzantine Empire through to the early 20th century.
Demotic in yellow.
Pontic in orange.
Cappadocian in green. (Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek speaking villages in 1910.)
7.
Barthold Georg Niebuhr
–
Barthold Georg Niebuhr was a Danish-German statesman, banker, and historian who became Germanys leading historian of Ancient Rome and a founding father of modern scholarly historiography. Classical Rome caught the admiration of German thinkers, by 1810 Niebuhr was inspiring German patriotism in students at the University of Berlin by his analysis of Roman economy and government. Niebuhr was a leader of the Romantic Era and symbol of German national spirit that emerged after the defeat at Jena, Niebuhr was born in Copenhagen, the son of Carsten Niebuhr, a prominent German geographer resident in the city. His father provided his early education, the precocious young Niebuhr by 1794 was already an accomplished classical scholar and who read several languages. That year he entered the University of Kiel, where he studied law, There he formed an important friendship of his life, that with Madame Hensler, the widowed daughter-in-law of one of the professors, six years older than himself. He also made the acquaintance of her sister, Amelie Behrens, in 1796, he left Kiel to become private secretary to the Danish finance minister, Count Schimmelmann. But in 1798 he gave up this appointment and traveled in Great Britain, spending a year at Edinburgh studying agriculture, of his stay in Great Britain, he said “my early residence in England gave me one important key to Roman history. It is necessary to know civil life by personal observation in order to such states as those of antiquity. I never could have understood a number of things in the history of Rome without having observed England. ”In 1799 he returned to Denmark, in 1804 he became chief director of the national bank. After the death of his first wife in 1816 Niebuhr married Margarete Henslen, with whom he had one son, Marcus, in September 1806, he quit the Denmark post for a similar appointment in Prussia. He showed much business ability in his work, which he attributed to his life in England and Scotland. He arrived in Prussia on the eve of the catastrophe of Jena and he was also for a short time Prussian minister in the Netherlands, where he endeavoured without success to fund a loan. He commenced his lectures with a course on the history of Rome, the first two volumes, based upon his lectures, were published in 1812, but attracted little attention at the time owing to the absorbing interest of political events. In 1813 Niebuhrs own attention was diverted from history by the uprising of the German people against Napoleon, he entered the Landwehr, in 1815 he lost both his father and his wife. He next accepted the post of ambassador at Rome, before his departure for Rome, he married his wifes niece. He also, on a home from Italy, deciphered in a palimpsest at the Abbey of St. Gall the fragments of Flavius Merobaudes. As minister, he brought about the understanding between Prussia and the Pope signalized by the bull De salute animarum in 1821, Niebuhr was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822. In 1823 he resigned the position in Rome and established himself at Bonn and he also assisted in August Bekkers edition of the Byzantine historians, and delivered courses of lectures on ancient history, ethnography, geography, and on the French Revolution
Barthold Georg Niebuhr
–
Barthold Georg Niebuhr
8.
Paris
–
Paris is the capital and most populous city of France. It has an area of 105 square kilometres and a population of 2,229,621 in 2013 within its administrative limits, the agglomeration has grown well beyond the citys administrative limits. By the 17th century, Paris was one of Europes major centres of finance, commerce, fashion, science, and the arts, and it retains that position still today. The aire urbaine de Paris, a measure of area, spans most of the Île-de-France region and has a population of 12,405,426. It is therefore the second largest metropolitan area in the European Union after London, the Metropole of Grand Paris was created in 2016, combining the commune and its nearest suburbs into a single area for economic and environmental co-operation. Grand Paris covers 814 square kilometres and has a population of 7 million persons, the Paris Region had a GDP of €624 billion in 2012, accounting for 30.0 percent of the GDP of France and ranking it as one of the wealthiest regions in Europe. The city is also a rail, highway, and air-transport hub served by two international airports, Paris-Charles de Gaulle and Paris-Orly. Opened in 1900, the subway system, the Paris Métro. It is the second busiest metro system in Europe after Moscow Metro, notably, Paris Gare du Nord is the busiest railway station in the world outside of Japan, with 262 millions passengers in 2015. In 2015, Paris received 22.2 million visitors, making it one of the top tourist destinations. The association football club Paris Saint-Germain and the rugby union club Stade Français are based in Paris, the 80, 000-seat Stade de France, built for the 1998 FIFA World Cup, is located just north of Paris in the neighbouring commune of Saint-Denis. Paris hosts the annual French Open Grand Slam tennis tournament on the red clay of Roland Garros, Paris hosted the 1900 and 1924 Summer Olympics and is bidding to host the 2024 Summer Olympics. The name Paris is derived from its inhabitants, the Celtic Parisii tribe. Thus, though written the same, the name is not related to the Paris of Greek mythology. In the 1860s, the boulevards and streets of Paris were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, since the late 19th century, Paris has also been known as Panam in French slang. Inhabitants are known in English as Parisians and in French as Parisiens and they are also pejoratively called Parigots. The Parisii, a sub-tribe of the Celtic Senones, inhabited the Paris area from around the middle of the 3rd century BC. One of the areas major north-south trade routes crossed the Seine on the île de la Cité, this place of land and water trade routes gradually became a town
Paris
–
In the 1860s Paris streets and monuments were illuminated by 56,000 gas lamps, making it literally "The City of Light."
Paris
Paris
–
Gold coins minted by the Parisii (1st century BC)
Paris
–
The
Palais de la Cité and
Sainte-Chapelle, viewed from the Left Bank, from the
Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry (month of June) (1410)
9.
Jesuit
–
The Society of Jesus Latin, Societas Iesu, S. J. SJ or SI) is a religious congregation of the Catholic Church which originated in Spain. The society is engaged in evangelization and apostolic ministry in 112 nations on six continents, Jesuits work in education, intellectual research, and cultural pursuits. Jesuits also give retreats, minister in hospitals and parishes, and promote social justice, Ignatius of Loyola founded the society after being wounded in battle and experiencing a religious conversion. He composed the Spiritual Exercises to help others follow the teachings of Jesus Christ, ignatiuss plan of the orders organization was approved by Pope Paul III in 1540 by a bull containing the Formula of the Institute. Ignatius was a nobleman who had a background, and the members of the society were supposed to accept orders anywhere in the world. The Society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council, the Society of Jesus is consecrated under the patronage of Madonna Della Strada, a title of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and it is led by a Superior General. The Society of Jesus on October 3,2016 announced that Superior General Adolfo Nicolás resignation was officially accepted, on October 14, the 36th General Congregation of the Society of Jesus elected Father Arturo Sosa as its thirty-first Superior General. The headquarters of the society, its General Curia, is in Rome, the historic curia of St. Ignatius is now part of the Collegio del Gesù attached to the Church of the Gesù, the Jesuit Mother Church. In 2013, Jorge Mario Bergoglio became the first Jesuit Pope, the Jesuits today form the largest single religious order of priests and brothers in the Catholic Church. As of 1 January 2015, Jesuits numbered 16,740,11,986 clerics regular,2,733 scholastics,1,268 brothers and 753 novices. In 2012, Mark Raper S. J. wrote, Our numbers have been in decline for the last 40 years—from over 30,000 in the 1960s to fewer than 18,000 today. The steep declines in Europe and North America and consistent decline in Latin America have not been offset by the significant increase in South Asia, the Society is divided into 83 Provinces with six Independent Regions and ten Dependent Regions. On 1 January 2007, members served in 112 nations on six continents with the largest number in India and their average age was 57.3 years,63.4 years for priests,29.9 years for scholastics, and 65.5 years for brothers. The current Superior General of the Jesuits is Arturo Sosa, the Society is characterized by its ministries in the fields of missionary work, human rights, social justice and, most notably, higher education. It operates colleges and universities in countries around the world and is particularly active in the Philippines. In the United States it maintains 28 colleges and universities and 58 high schools and he ensured that his formula was contained in two papal bulls signed by Pope Paul III in 1540 and by Pope Julius III in 1550. The formula expressed the nature, spirituality, community life and apostolate of the new religious order, the meeting is now commemorated in the Martyrium of Saint Denis, Montmartre
Jesuit
–
Ignatius of Loyola
Jesuit
–
Society of Jesus
Jesuit
–
Church of
Saint-Pierre de Montmartre, Paris.
Jesuit
–
Fresco of Approving of bylaw of Society of Jesus depicting
Ignatius of Loyola receiving papal bull
Regimini militantis Ecclesiae from
Pope Paul III. The fresco was created by
Johann Christoph Handke in the Church of Our Lady Of the Snow in
Olomouc after 1743.
10.
University of Bonn
–
The University of Bonn is a public research university located in Bonn, Germany. Founded in its present form in 1818, as the successor of earlier academic institutions. The University of Bonn offers a number of undergraduate and graduate programs in a range of subjects. Its library holds more than five million volumes, the University of Bonn has 544 professors and 32,500 students. The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2016 and the Academic Ranking of World Universities 2015 ranked the University of Bonn as one of the 100 best universities in the world. The universitys forerunner was the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn which was founded in 1777 by Maximilian Frederick of Königsegg-Rothenfels, in the spirit of the Enlightenment the new academy was nonsectarian. The academy had schools for theology, law, pharmacy and general studies, in 1784 Emperor Joseph II granted the academy the right to award academic degrees, turning the academy into a university. The academy was closed in 1798 after the bank of the Rhine was occupied by France during the French Revolutionary Wars. The Rhineland became a part of Prussia in 1815 as a result of the Congress of Vienna, shortly after the seizure of the Rhineland, on 5 April 1815, King Frederick William III of Prussia promised the establishment of a new university in the new Rhine province. At this time there was no university in the Rhineland, as all three universities that existed until the end of the 18th century were closed as a result of the French occupation, the Kurkölnische Akademie Bonn was one of these three universities. The other two were the Roman Catholic University of Cologne and the Protestant University of Duisburg, the new Rhein University was then founded on 18 October 1818 by Frederick William III. It was the sixth Prussian University, founded after the universities in Greifswald, Berlin, Königsberg, Halle, the new university was equally shared between the two Christian denominations. This was one of the reasons why Bonn, with its tradition of a university, was chosen over Cologne. Apart from a school of Roman Catholic theology and a school of Protestant theology, inititally 35 professors and eight adjunct professors were teaching in Bonn. The university constitution was adopted in 1827, in the spirit of Wilhelm von Humboldt the constitution emphasized the autonomy of the university and the unity of teaching and research. Similar to the University of Berlin, which was founded in 1810, only one year after the inception of the Rhein University the dramatist August von Kotzebue was murdered by Karl Ludwig Sand, a student at the University of Jena. The Carlsbad Decrees, introduced on 20 September 1819 led to a crackdown on universities, the dissolution of the Burschenschaften. One victim was the author and poet Ernst Moritz Arndt, who, only after the death of Frederick William III in 1840 was he reinstated in his professorship
University of Bonn
–
It has been suggested that
Center for Economics and Neuroscience be
merged into this article. (
Discuss) Proposed since February 2014.
University of Bonn
–
University of Bonn
Seal
University of Bonn
–
The university founder
Frederick William III of Prussia.
University of Bonn
–
Friedrich August Kekulé von Stradonitz was a professor of chemistry at the University of Bonn from 1867 to 1896.
11.
August Immanuel Bekker
–
August Immanuel Bekker was a German philologist and critic. Born in Berlin, Bekker completed his education at the University of Halle under Friedrich August Wolf. In 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the University of Berlin, for several years, between 1810 and 1821, he travelled in France, Italy, England and parts of Germany, examining classical manuscripts and gathering materials for his great editorial labours. Some of the fruits of his researches were published in the Anecdota Graeca and his best known editions are those of Plato, Oratores Attici, Aristotle, Aristophanes, and twenty-five volumes of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae. The only Latin authors edited by him were Livy and Tacitus, Bekker confined himself entirely to manuscript investigations and textual criticism, he contributed little to the extension of other types of scholarship. Bekker numbers have become the way of referring to the works of Aristotle. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and he died in Berlin aged 86. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Bekker. Endnotes, Sauppe, Zur Erinnerung an Meineke und Bekker, Haupt, “Gedächtnisrede auf Meineke und Bekker, ” in his Opuscula, Bekker, “Zur Erinnerung an meinen Vater, ” in the Preussisches Jahrbuch, xxix. Apollonii Dyscoli de Pronomine liber, ed. I, apollonii Alexandrini de Constructione Orationis libri quatuor ex rec. I. Aristotelis Opera edidit Academia Regia Borussica, Berlin, 1831–1870
August Immanuel Bekker
–
August Immanuel Bekker.
12.
Prussian Academy of Sciences
–
The Royal Prussian Academy of Sciences was an academic academy established in Berlin on 11 July 1700, four years after the Akademie der Künste or Arts Academy, to which Berlin Academy may also refer. In the 18th century it was a French-language institution, and its most active members were Huguenots who had fled persecution in France. Unlike other academies, the Prussian Academy was not directly funded out of the state treasury, Frederick granted it the monopoly on producing and selling calendars in Brandenburg, a suggestion by Leibniz. As Frederick was crowned King in Prussia in 1701, creating the Kingdom of Prussia, while other academies focused on a few topics, the Prussian Academy was the first to teach both sciences and humanities. In 1710, the statute was set, dividing the academy in two sciences and two humanities classes. This was not changed until 1830, when the physics-mathematics and the philosophy-history classes replaced the four old classes, the reign of King Frederick II saw major changes to the academy. In 1744, the Nouvelle Société Littéraire and the Society of Sciences were merged into the Königliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, an obligation from the new statute were public calls for ideas on unsolved scientific questions with a monetary reward for solutions. However, those were taken over by the University of Berlin Aarsleff notes that before Frederick came to the throne in 1740, Frederick made French the official language and speculative philosophy the most important topic of study. The membership was strong in mathematics and philosophy and included Immanuel Kant, Jean DAlembert, Pierre-Louis de Maupertuis, by contrast d Alembert took a republican rather than monarchical approach and emphasized the international Republic of Letters as the vehicle for scientific advance. By 1789, however, the academy had gained an international repute while making contributions to German culture. Frederick invited Joseph-Louis Lagrange to succeed Leonhard Euler as director, both were world-class mathematicians, other intellectuals attracted to the philosophers kingdom were Francesco Algarotti, dArgens, and Julien Offray de La Mettrie. Immanuel Kant published religious writings in Berlin which would have been censored elsewhere in Europe, beginning in 1815, research businesses led by academy committees were founded at the academy. They employed mostly scientists to work alongside the corresponding committees members, University departments emanated from some of these businesses after 1945. Under Nazi rule, the academy was subject to the Gleichschaltung, the new academy statute went in effect on 8 June 1939, reorganizing the academy according to the Nazi leader principle. Following World War II, the Soviet Military Administration in Germany or SMAD reorganized the academy under the name of Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin on 1 July 1946, on 25 November 1915 Albert Einstein presented his field equations of general relativity to the Academy. In 1972, it was renamed Akademie der Wissenschaften der DDR or AdW, at its height, the AdW had 400 researchers and 24,000 employees in locations across East Germany. 60 of the AdW members broke off and created the private Leibniz Society in 1993,1763 Immanuel Kant, foreign member 1786 Voltaire, c. Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, formerly the Prussian Academy of Sciences
Prussian Academy of Sciences
–
Entrance to the former Prussian Academy of Sciences on
Unter Den Linden 8. Today it houses the
Berlin State Library.
13.
Berlin
–
Berlin is the capital and the largest city of Germany as well as one of its constituent 16 states. With a population of approximately 3.5 million, Berlin is the second most populous city proper, due to its location in the European Plain, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one-third of the area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers. Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world, following German reunification in 1990, Berlin once again became the capital of all-Germany. Berlin is a city of culture, politics, media. Its economy is based on high-tech firms and the sector, encompassing a diverse range of creative industries, research facilities, media corporations. Berlin serves as a hub for air and rail traffic and has a highly complex public transportation network. The metropolis is a popular tourist destination, significant industries also include IT, pharmaceuticals, biomedical engineering, clean tech, biotechnology, construction and electronics. Modern Berlin is home to world renowned universities, orchestras, museums and its urban setting has made it a sought-after location for international film productions. The city is known for its festivals, diverse architecture, nightlife, contemporary arts. Since 2000 Berlin has seen the emergence of a cosmopolitan entrepreneurial scene, the name Berlin has its roots in the language of West Slavic inhabitants of the area of todays Berlin, and may be related to the Old Polabian stem berl-/birl-. All German place names ending on -ow, -itz and -in, since the Ber- at the beginning sounds like the German word Bär, a bear appears in the coat of arms of the city. It is therefore a canting arm, the first written records of towns in the area of present-day Berlin date from the late 12th century. Spandau is first mentioned in 1197 and Köpenick in 1209, although these areas did not join Berlin until 1920, the central part of Berlin can be traced back to two towns. Cölln on the Fischerinsel is first mentioned in a 1237 document,1237 is considered the founding date of the city. The two towns over time formed close economic and social ties, and profited from the right on the two important trade routes Via Imperii and from Bruges to Novgorod. In 1307, they formed an alliance with a common external policy, in 1415 Frederick I became the elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg, which he ruled until 1440. In 1443 Frederick II Irontooth started the construction of a new palace in the twin city Berlin-Cölln
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
Berlin
14.
Agathias
–
Agathias was a native of Myrina. A brother of Agathias is mentioned in sources, but his name has not survived. Their probable sister Eugenia is known by name, the Suda clarifies that Agathias was active in the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian I, mentioning him as a contemporary of Paul the Silentiary, Macedonius of Thessalonica and Tribonian. Agathias mentions being present in Alexandria as a law student at the time when an earthquake destroyed Berytus, the law school of Berytus had been recognized as one of the three official law schools of the empire. Within a few years, as the result of the earthquake of 551. The dating of the event to 551, as a law student, Agathias could be in his early twenties and he mentions leaving Alexandria for Constantinople shortly following the earthquake. Agathias visited the island of Kos, where he witnessed the devastation caused by the earthquake and he returned to Constantinople in 554 to finish his training, and practised as an advocatus in the courts. John of Epiphania reports that Agathias practiced his profession in the capital, evagrius Scholasticus and Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos describe Agathias as a rhetor. The Suda and a passage of John of Nikiû call him Agathias the scholastic and he is known to have served as pater civitatis of Smyrna. He is credited with constructing public latrines for the city, while Agathias mentions these buildings, he fails to mention his own role in constructing them. Myrina is known to have erected statues to honor Agathias, his father Memnonius and he seems to have been known to his contemporaries more as an advocatus and a poet. There are few mentions of Agathias as a historian, few details survive of his personal life – mainly in his extant poems. One of them tells the story of his pet cat eating his partridge, another responds to his seeing the tomb of the courtesan Lais of Corinth, implying a visit to that city, which he refers to using the poetic name Ephyra. No full account of his life survives, literature, however, was Agathias favorite pursuit, and he remains best known as a poet. Of his Daphniaca, a collection of poems in hexameter on love and romance in nine books. This work largely survives in the Greek Anthology—the edition by Maximus Planudes preserves examples not found elsewhere, Agathiass poems exhibit considerable taste and elegance. He also wrote notes on the Description of Greece of Pausanias. Almost equally valued are Agathiass Histories, which he started in the reign of Justin II and he explains his own motivation in writing it, as simply being unwilling to let the momentous events of his own times go unrecorded
Agathias
–
A game of
τάβλη (tabula) played by Zeno in 480 and recorded by Agathias in circa 530 because of a very unlucky dice result for Zeno. The game is nearly identical to
backgammon; Zeno (red) threw 2, 5 and 6 and was forced to leave eight pieces alone and thus exposed to capture. See "Zeno's Game of τάβλη".
15.
Michael Attaleiates
–
Michael Attaleiates or Attaliates was a Byzantine public servant and historian active in Constantinople and around the empires provinces in the second half of the eleventh century. He was a contemporary of Michael Psellos and likely an older colleague of John Skylitzes. Michael Attaleiates was probably a native of Attaleia and moved to Constantinople between 1030 and 1040 to pursue studies in law, during years of service in the empires judicial system he built a small private fortune. Prominence on the bench also brought him to the attention of a number of emperors who rewarded him with some of the highest honours available to civil servants. In 1072 Attaleiates compiled for Emperor Michael VII a synopsis of law, known as the Ponema Nomikon, in addition he drew up an Ordinance for the Poor House and Monastery which he founded at Constantinople in the mid-1070s. This work, known as the Diataxis, is of value for students of the social, economic, cultural and religious history of Byzantium in Constantinople and it also provides invaluable information regarding the life of Attaleiates himself. It includes a catalogue of the books available in the library, while also offering details about the founders fortune in the capital. From the Diataxis we learn that Attaleiates owned numerous properties in Constantinople, Raidestos, around 1079/80 Michael Attaleiates circulated The History, a political and military history of the Byzantine Empire from 1034 to 1079. The History concludes with a long encomium to Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates, on account of this encomium and dedication, Attaleiates was for years considered an honest supporter of this elderly and largely ineffective emperor. Careful reading of his text, however, suggests that the words of praise may be less than honest, instead Attaleiates appears to be partial towards the young military commander and future emperor Alexios Komnenos. Attaleiates probably died around 1080, shortly before the beginning of the Komnenian era and he therefore had no chance to rededicate his work to the founder of the Komnenian dynasty, Alexios I Komnenos, whom The History treats as a potential saviour of the Byzantine state. He was outlived by his son Theodore, who died sometime before 1085. Their bodies, along with those of the two wives, Eirene and Sophia, were put to rest on the grounds of the church of St. George of the Cypresses in the southwestern side of Constantinople. This was the area where the familys Constantinopolitan estates were likely clustered, close to the monastery of Christ Panoikteirmon, one may still visit the church of St George, which today, after two fires and extensive reconstruction, bears no resemblance to the church of Attaleiates day. Attaleiates’ History is a consciously constructed account of Byzantine military decline, the authors turn to the past is not, however, a sign of idle antiquarianism. This is not an attempt on Attaleiates part to impress the reader with a display of erudition, instead, in the civic virtue of The Historys Republican heroes the reader detects a quest for a new Roman patriotism that would take the empire out of the crisis. At the same time history-writing allows Attaleiates to reflect on the empire’s troubled present through the prism of the past in a manner that hints at his ability to plan for an uncertain future, the History therefore confirms the authors status as a politically engaged official and competent imperial advisor. From the first lines of The History Attaleiates explains to his readers that he will be seeking the causes behind the various historical events presented in his work and this programmatic statement is taken very seriously by the historian throughout his work
Michael Attaleiates
–
Autograph Signature of Michael Attaleiates from the manuscript of the Diataxis.
16.
John Kantakouzenos
–
John VI Kantakouzenos, Cantacuzenus, or Cantacuzene was a Greek nobleman, statesman, and general. He served as Grand Domestic under Andronikos III Palaiologos and regent for John V Palaiologos before reigning as Byzantine emperor in his own right from 1347 to 1354. Usurped by his ward, he retired to a monastery under the name Joasaph Christodoulos and spent the remainder of his life as a monk. Through his mother Theodora Palaiologina Angelina, he was related to the house of Palaiologos. He was also related to the dynasty through his wife Eirene Asanina. Kantakouzenos became a friend to Andronikos III and was one of his principal supporters in Andronikoss struggle against his grandfather. On the accession of Andronikos III in 1328, he was entrusted with the administration of affairs. He was named regent to Andronikoss successor, the 9-year-old John V, Kantakouzenos apparently began with no imperial ambitions of his own, having refused several times to be crowned co-emperor by Andronikos III. Whether he would have remained loyal is unknowable but, despite his devotion to John V and his mother Anna. He attempted to negotiate with the usurpers, but this was rebuffed, further, his relatives in Constantinople were driven into exile or imprisoned, with their property confiscated by the new regents. His mother Theodora died owing to the mistreatment she suffered while under house arrest and his army ignored the new regents orders and proclaimed Kantakouzenos emperor at Didymoteichon in Thrace as John VI. He accepted this, while continuing to style himself as the ruler to John V. The ensuing civil war lasted six years, calling in foreign allies and mercenaries of every description, at first, John VI was obliged to flee to Serbia, where Stefan Dušan protected his men and helped them secure areas of the Balkans. The Greco-Turkish force prevailed and John VI entered Constantinople in triumph in 1346 or 1347 and his opponents—including the patriarch—were deposed from their positions and his status as co-emperor was legitimized. During Johns reign, the fragmented, impoverished, and weakened—continued to be assailed on every side. The Genovese, disregarding the terms of the treaty which permitted their colony at Galata and their customs dues undercut the Byzantines and meant that as much as 87% of the revenue from control of the Bosphorus went to them instead of the empire. John VI attempted to rebuild the shattered Byzantine navy in preparation for the war he expected to follow a reduction of Constantinoples own customs dues. He was able to borrow enough to construct 9 fair-sized ships and about 100 smaller ones before he lowered the rates, when they did declare war, however, they were able to sink or capture his fleet by early 1349
John Kantakouzenos
–
John VI presiding over a synod
John Kantakouzenos
–
John VI Kantakouzenos as emperor (left) and monk (right)
17.
Laonikos Chalkokondyles
–
Laonikos Chalkokondyles, Latinized as Laonicus Chalcondyles, was a Byzantine Greek historian from Athens. He is known for his Histories in ten books, which record the last 150 years of the Byzantine Empire, Chalkokondyles was a member of a prominent family of Athens, which was ruled by the Acciaioli. His father George was a kinsman of Maria Melissene, the wife of Duke Antonio I Acciaioli, however, during his absence, the Duchess was enticed out of the Acropolis and a young scion of the Acciaiuoli family, Nerio II, was proclaimed Duke of Athens. Meanwhile, George Chalkokondyles had his proposal rejected, despite offering the Sultan 30,000 gold pieces, George with Laonikos and the rest of the family relocated to the Peloponnese. The one glimpse we have of Laonikos himself is in the summer of 1447, Cyriacus describes him as a youth egregie latinis atque grecis litteris eruditum. It was at Mistra where Laonikos was taught by George Gemistos Plethon,70.6, written in 1318, with corrections by Plethon, and later used by Bessarion in 1436 to make another copy, contains a subscription written by Laonikos. Laonikos movements and actions after 1447 are not known with certainty, internal evidence has led Anthony Kaldellis to put the date Laonikos stopped writing his Histories as 1464. Other speculations about Laonikos Chalkokondyles life are not as widely accepted, after Skanderbeg leaves the Ottoman army and becomes leader of Albania on his own right, Chalkokondyles is brought as a hostage to his court to witness the First Siege of Krujë. After the destruction of Constantinople, Chalkokondyles wrote his most important historical work and this historical work comprises one of the most important sources for the students of the final 150 years of Byzantine history, despite being defective in its chronology. The capture of Constantinople he rightly regarded as an event of far-reaching importance. The work also sketches other manners and civilization of England, France and Germany, for his account of earlier events he was able to obtain information from his father. His model is Thucydides, his language is pure and correct. The text, however, is in a corrupt state. The archaic language he used made his texts hard to read in parts, while the antiquarian names, with which he named people of his time. The extended use of the name Hellenes, which Laonikos used to describe the Byzantines contributed to the connection made between the ancient Greek civilization and the modern one. Chalkokondyles History was first published in a Latin translation by Conrad Clauser at Basel in 1556, a French translation was published by Blaise de Vigenère in 1577 with a later edition by Artus Thomas, with valuable illustrations on Turkish matters. The editio princeps of the Greek text had to wait until 1615 for J. B, the two best editions are, Historiarum Libri Decem, ed. I. Bekker, Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae and Historiae Demonstrationes,2 vols, the text can also be found in J. -P
Laonikos Chalkokondyles
–
Early modern painting of Laonikos Chalkokondyles.
18.
Augustus Meineke
–
Johann Albrecht Friedrich August Meineke, German classical scholar, was born at Soest in the Duchy of Westphalia. He was father-in-law to philologist Theodor Bergk and he obtained his education at the University of Leipzig as a student of Johann Gottfried Jakob Hermann. After holding an educational post at Danzig, he was director of the Joachimsthal Gymnasium in Berlin from 1826 to 1856, in 1830 he became a member of the Berlin Academy. He died in Berlin on 12 December 1870 and he excelled in conjectural criticism, the comic writers and Alexandrine poets being his favourite authors. He was the first scholar since Richard Bentley to distinguish himself in the analyses of Menander. Babrii Fabulae Aesopeae with Karl Lachmann, athenaeus of Naucratis (1858–1867, including Deipnosophistae e recognitione A. Meineke. Sophoclis Oedipus Coloneus cum scholiis graecis, published in English, The fragments of attic comedy after Meineke, Bergk, and Kock,1957 by J M Edmonds. See monographs by F. Ranke, H. Sauppe and E. Förstemann in Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, XXI. also Sandys and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
Augustus Meineke
–
Johann Albrecht Friedrich August Meineke
19.
Constantine VII
–
Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos or Porphyrogenitus, the Purple-born, was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 913 to 959. He was the son of the emperor Leo VI and his wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, and the nephew of his predecessor. Constantine VII is best known for his four books, De Administrando Imperio, De Ceremoniis, De Thematibus and his nickname alludes to the Purple Room of the imperial palace, decorated with porphyry, where legitimate children of reigning emperors were normally born. Constantine was also born in this room, although his mother Zoe had not been married to Leo at that time, nevertheless, the epithet allowed him to underline his position as the legitimized son, as opposed to all others who claimed the throne during his lifetime. Sons born to a reigning Emperor held precedence in the Eastern Roman line of succession over elder sons not born in the purple, Constantine was born at Constantinople, an illegitimate son born before an uncanonical fourth marriage. To help legitimize him, his mother gave birth to him in the Purple Room of the palace, hence his nickname Porphyrogennetos. He was symbolically elevated to the throne as a child by his father. In June 913, as his uncle Alexander lay dying, he appointed a regency council for Constantine. Following Alexanders death, the new and shaky regime survived the attempted usurpation of Constantine Doukas, Patriarch Nicholas was presently forced to make peace with Tsar Simeon of Bulgaria, whom he reluctantly recognized as Bulgarian emperor. Because of this concession, Patriarch Nicholas was driven out of the regency by Constantines mother Zoe. She was no more successful with the Bulgarians, who defeated her main supporter, in 919 she was replaced as regent by the admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who married his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine. Romanos used his position to advance to the ranks of basileopatōr in May 919, to kaisar in September 920, thus, just short of reaching nominal majority, Constantine was eclipsed by a senior emperor. Nevertheless, he was an intelligent young man with a large range of interests. Romanos kept and maintained power until 944, when he was deposed by his sons, Romanos spent the last years of his life in exile on the Island of Prote as a monk and died on June 15,948. With the help of his wife, Constantine VII succeeded in removing his brothers-in-law, several months later, Constantine VII crowned his own son Romanos II co-emperor. In 949 Constantine launched a new fleet of 100 ships against the Arab corsairs hiding in Crete, but like his fathers attempt to retake the island in 911, on the Eastern frontier things went better, even if with alternate success. In 949 the Byzantines conquered Germanicea, repeatedly defeated the enemy armies, but in 953 the Hamdanid amir Sayf al-Daula retook Germanicea and entered the imperial territory. An Arab fleet was destroyed by Greek fire in 957
Constantine VII
–
Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos
Constantine VII
–
Constantine and Simeon dining
Constantine VII
–
Christ Crowning Constantine VII (945)
Constantine VII
–
The
Madrid Skylitzes ' depiction of Constantine on his deathbed
20.
Eunapius
–
Eunapius was a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century AD. His principal surviving work is the Lives of Philosophers and Sophists and he was born at Sardis, AD346. In his native city he studied under his relative, the sophist Chrysanthius, and while still a youth went to Athens and he possessed considerable knowledge of medicine. Eunapius was the author of two works, one entitled Lives of Philosophers and Sophists, and Universal History consisting of a continuation of the history of Dexippus. The former work is extant, of the latter only excerpts remain. It embraced the history of events from AD 270–404, the style of both works is marked by a spirit of bitter hostility to Christianity. Photius had before him a new edition of the history in which the passages most offensive to Christians were omitted, in his later years he seems to have lived at Athens, teaching rhetoric. Initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, he was admitted into the college of the Eumolpidae, there is evidence that he was still living in the reign of the younger Theodosius. Edition of the Lives by JF Boissonade, with notes by D Wyttenbach History fragments in C. W. Müller, Fragmenta Hist. Graecorum, iv. V. Cousin, Fragments philosophiques, translation and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Eunapius, Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists, dübner, Parisiis, editore Ambrosio Firmin Didot,1849, pp. 453-505
Eunapius
–
Title page of the Vitae sophistarum of Eunapius, in Greek and Latin, 1596
21.
Petrus Patricius
–
Peter the Patrician was a senior East Roman or Byzantine official, diplomat, and historian. A well-educated and successful lawyer, he was sent as envoy to Ostrogothic Italy in the prelude to the Gothic War of 535–554. Despite his diplomatic skill, he was not able to avert war, upon his release, he was appointed to the post of magister officiorum, head of the imperial secretariat, which he held for an unparalleled 26 years. His historical writings survive only in fragments, but provide unique source material on early Byzantine ceremonies, after studying law, he embarked on a successful career as a lawyer in Constantinople, which brought him to the attention of Empress Theodora. In 534, on account of his skills, he was employed as an imperial envoy to the Ostrogothic court at Ravenna. At the time, a struggle was developing there between Queen Amalasuntha, regent to the young king Athalaric, and her cousin Theodahad. Following the death of Athalaric, Theodahad usurped the throne, imprisoned Amalasuntha, Peter met the envoys at Aulon, on his way to Italy, and notified Constantinople, seeking new instructions. Emperor Justinian ordered him to convey the message to Theodahad that Amalasuntha was under the Emperors protection, consequently, Peter returned to Italy in the summer of 535 conveying an ultimatum, only if Theodahad abdicated and returned Italy to imperial rule, could war be averted. A two-pronged Byzantine offensive followed soon thereafter, attacking the outlying possessions of the Ostrogothic kingdom, Belisarius took Sicily, in the event, Justinian rejected the first proposal, and was delighted to learn of the second one. Peter was sent back to Italy with Athanasius, bearing letters to Theodahad and the Gothic nobles and it was not to be, upon their arrival in Ravenna, the Byzantine envoys found Theodahad in a changed disposition. Supported by the Gothic nobility and buoyed up by a success against Mundus in Dalmatia, he resolved to resist and he would hold this post for 26 consecutive years, longer by a wide margin than any other before or after. At about the time or shortly thereafter, he was raised to the supreme title of patrician. He was also awarded an honorary consulship, Peter is also recorded as attending the Second Council of Constantinople in May 553. In 550, he was sent as envoy by Justinian to negotiate a treaty with Persia, a role he reprised in 561. The annual Roman subsidies to Persia would resume, but the amount was lowered from 500 to 420 pounds of gold. Further clauses regulated cross-border trade, which was to be limited to the two cities of Dara and Nisibis, the return of fugitives, and the protection of the religious minorities. As disagreements remained on two areas, Suania and Ambros, in spring 562, Peter travelled to Persia to negotiate directly with the Persian Shah, Chosroes I. He then returned to Constantinople, where he died sometime after March 565 and his son Theodore, nicknamed Kontocheres or Zetonoumios, would succeed him as magister officiorum in 566, after a brief interval where the post was held by the quaestor sacri palatii Anastasius
Petrus Patricius
–
Emperor Justinian I (r. 527–565) and his entourage, mosaic from the
Basilica of San Vitale in
Ravenna.
22.
Nikephoros I of Constantinople
–
St. Nikephoros I or Nicephorus I, was a Christian Byzantine writer and Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from April 12,806, to March 13,815. He was born in Constantinople as the son of Theodore and Eudokia, of an orthodox family. Nevertheless, he entered the service of the Empire, became cabinet secretary and he then withdrew to one of the cloisters that he had founded on the eastern shore of the Bosporus, until he was appointed director of the largest home for the destitute in Constantinople c. After the death of the Patriarch Tarasios, although still a layman, after vain theological disputes, in December 814, there followed personal insults. From there he carried on a literary polemic for the cause of the iconodules against the synod of 815, on the occasion of the change of emperors, in 820, he was put forward as a candidate for the patriarchate and at least obtained the promise of toleration. He died at the monastery of Saint Theodore, revered as a confessor and his feast is celebrated on this day both in the Greek and Roman Churches, the Greeks also observe 2 June as the day of his death. He was mild in his ecclesiastical and monastical rules and non-partisan in his treatment of the period from 602 to 769. He used the chronicle of Traianus Patricius, the Chronography offered a universal history from the time of Adam and Eve to his own time. To it he appended a canon catalog, the catalog of the accepted books of the Old and New Testaments is followed by the antilegomena and the apocrypha. Next to each book is the count of its lines, his stichometry, to which we can compare our accepted texts and this is especially useful for apocrypha for which only fragmentary texts have survived. Nikephoros follows in the path of John of Damascus, list of Catholic saints The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press,1991. Paul J. Alexander, The Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople, Oxford University Press,1958, development of the Canon of the New Testament, the Stichometry of Nicephorus St. Nicephorus
Nikephoros I of Constantinople
–
Nikephoros I of Constantinople trampling on
John VII of Constantinople. Miniature from
Chludov Psalter.
23.
Leo Grammaticus
–
Symeon the Metaphrast was the author of the 10 volume medieval Greek menologion, or collection of saints lives. He lived in the half of the 10th century. About his life we know very few details. The Eastern Orthodox Church honours him as a saint, with his feast day falling on November 9, a service composed in his honour is found in the Menaion. Also numerous prayers which have attributed to him are found in various Orthodox liturgical books. Metaphrastes was the most renowned of the Byzantine hagiographers, among other works attributed to Symeon are a Chronicle, a canonical collection, some letters and poems, and other writings of less importance. Symeons great popularity is due more particularly to his Menologion and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Rewriting and Canonization Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
Leo Grammaticus
–
Russian icon with Saint Symeon Metaphrastes
24.
Eustathius of Thessalonica
–
Eustathius of Thessalonica was a Greek scholar and Archbishop of Thessalonica. He was officially canonized on June 10,1988, and his feast day is on September 20, a pupil of Nicholas Kataphloron, Eustathius was appointed to the offices of superintendent of petitions, professor of rhetoric, and was ordained a deacon in Constantinople. He was ordained bishop of Myra, around the year 1178, he was appointed to the archbishopric of Thessalonica, where he remained until his death around 1195/1196. Accounts of his life and work are given in the orations by Euthymius. Niketas Choniates praised him as the most learned man of his age and he wrote commentaries on ancient Greek poets, theological treatises, addresses, letters, and an important account of the sack of Thessalonica by William II of Sicily in 1185. Of his works, his commentaries on Homer are the most widely referred to, other works exhibit impressive character, and oratorical power, which earned him the esteem of the Komnenoi emperors. Politically, Eustathios was a supporter of emperor Manuel I, an original thinker, Eustathios sometimes praised such secular values as military prowess. He decried slavery, and believed in the concept of progress of civilization from a primitive to a more advanced state. His most important works are the following, On the Capture of Thessalonica, the Greek text was edited by Kyriakidis, with an Italian translation by V. Rotolo, there is an English translation by J. Melville-Jones, and a German translation by H. Hunger. A number of orations, some of which have been edited by P. Wirth, in 2013 a translation of six of the earliest of these speeches was published with a commentary by Andrew F. Stone. Commentaries on Homers Iliad and Odyssey and these address questions of grammar, etymology, mythology, history and geography. They are not so much original commentaries as extracts from earlier commentators - there are many correspondences with Homeric scholia and this is a great tribute to the state of the libraries of Constantinople and of classical scholarship there in the 12th century. He was also a reader of the Deipnosophistae of Athenaeus. Some of the etymological and grammatical comments by Eustathioss Alexandrian predecessors are full of errors, the first printed edition, by Majoranus, was published in Rome in 1542-1550, an inaccurate reprint being later published in Basel in 1559-1560. A. Potitus edition, contains only the commentary on the first five books of the Iliad with a Latin translation and these were superseded by the edition of M. van der Valk,1971 onwards. Extracts from the commentaries are quoted in editions of the Homeric poems. This is as diffuse as the commentary on Homer, but includes numerous valuable extracts from earlier writers, no manuscript of this has come to light, but the introduction survives. (The introduction was first published by Tafel in his Eustathii Thessalonicensis Opuscula, from which it was reprinted separately by Schneidewin, some were first published by Tafel in the 1832 Opuscula just mentioned, some appeared later, as by P. Wirth for the Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae series
Eustathius of Thessalonica
–
Icon of Eustathios of Thessalonike (
Vatopedi Monastery, 1312).
25.
Constantine Manasses
–
Constantine Manasses was a Byzantine chronicler who flourished in the 12th century during the reign of Manuel I Komnenos. It consists of about 7000 lines in political verse and it obtained great popularity and appeared in a free prose translation, it was also translated into Bulgarian and Roman Slavic in the 14th century and enjoyed a great popularity. Chronicle edition, Bekker, Bonn 1837, the Bulgarian translation, Cronica lui Constantin Manasses, by Ioan Bogdan, in 1969 Bulgaria issued two sets of stamps depicting important scenes of the chronicle, to celebrate it. Manasses also wrote the poetical romance Loves of Aristander and Callithea and it is only known from the fragments preserved in the rose-garden of Macarius Chrysocephalus. Manasses also wrote a biography of Oppian, and some descriptive pieces on artistic. Media related to Constantine Manasses Chronicle at Wikimedia Commons
Constantine Manasses
–
The first miniature from Manasses' Chronicle: the author (right) next to Tsar
Ivan Alexander of Bulgaria and
Jesus Christ.
26.
Nicetas Choniates
–
Nicetas wrote a history of the Eastern Roman Empire from 1118 to 1207. Niketas Akominatos was born to wealthy parents around or after 1150 in Phrygia in the city of Chonae, bishop Nicetas of Chonae baptized and named the infant, later he was called Choniates after his birthplace. When he was nine, his father dispatched him with his brother Michael to Constantinople to receive an education, Niketas older brother greatly influenced him during the early stages of his life. He initially secured a post in the service, and held important appointments under the Angelos emperors and was governor of the theme of Philippopolis at a critical period. His chief work is his History, in books, of the period from 1118 to 1207. In spite of its style, it is of value as a record of events of which he was either an eyewitness or which he had heard of first hand. Its most interesting portion is the description of the occupation of Constantinople in 1204 and his little treatise On the Statues destroyed by the Latins is of special interest to the archaeologist and art historian. His theological work, although extant in a form in manuscripts, has only been published in part. It is one of the authorities for the heresies and heretical writers of the 12th century. Umberto Ecos novel Baudolino is set partly at Constantinople during the Crusader conquest, the imaginary hero, Baudolino, saves Niketas during the sacking of Constantinople, and then proceeds to confide his life story to him. Niketas is a character in Alan Gordons murder mystery A Death in the Venetian Quarter. Imperii Graeci Historia, ed. Hieronymus Wolf,1557, in Greek with parallel Latin translation, J. P. Migne reproduces Wolfs text and translation. Nicetae Choniatae Historia, ed. Immanuel Bekker, Bonn,1835, nicetae Choniatae Historia, ed. Jan Louis van Dieten, Berlin,1975. O City of Byzantium, Annals of Niketas Choniates, trans, «Ἀνδρόνικος ὁ Κομνηνὸς καὶ Ὀδυσσεύς», Ἐπετηρὶς Ἑταιρείας Βυζαντινῶν Σπουδῶν37 251–259. A seminal work on Choniates use of Homer, brand, Charles M. Byzantium Confronts the West,1968. Harris, Jonathan, Byzantium and the Crusades, Bloomsbury, 2nd ed.2014, distortion, divine providence and genre in Nicetas Choniates account of the collapse of Byzantium 1180–1204, Journal of Medieval History, vol.26 19–31. Niketas Choniates, A Historian and a Writer,2009, ISBN 978-954-8446-05-1 Excerpt in English on the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, a longer excerpt on the same. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Acominatus
Nicetas Choniates
–
Niketas Choniates, from a medieval manuscript.
27.
George Pachymeres
–
Georgius Pachymeres, a Byzantine Greek historian, philosopher and miscellaneous writer. Pachymeres was born at Nicaea, in Bithynia, where his father had taken refuge after the capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, the History was first published in print by I. Bekker in the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae, also by J. P. Migne, in Patrologia Graeca, for editions of the minor works see Karl Krumbacher, a more recent edition with French translation of the History by Failler and Laurent was published in 1984. An English translation of Books I and II, with commentary, from Clear Fulfillment to Complex Prophecy, the History of the Adventist Interpretation of Revelation 9, from 1833 to 1957. Andrews University Digital Commons@Andrews University Masters Theses Graduate Research, attribution, This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Pachymeres, Georgius. A Translation and Historical Commentary of Book One and Book Two of the Historia of Georgius Pachymeres, phD dissertation, University of Western Australia. Opera Omnia by Migne Patristica Graeca with analytical indexes G. Pachymeres, Hierocles and Philagrios, Declamationes XIII, G. Pachymeris, De Michaele et Andronico Paleologis, Bonn,1835
George Pachymeres
–
Georgios Pachymeres
28.
Paul the Silentiary
–
Paul the Silentiary, also known as Paulus Silentiarius, was a Greek poet. His contemporary, the historian and poet Agathias, describes him as a rich man, Paul is best known and most admired for his short poems in the classical tradition, about 80 of which have been preserved in the Greek Anthology. Forty of these are love poems, two are replies to poems by Agathias, in another Paul laments the death of Damocharis of Cos, Agathiass favorite pupil. These short poems also contain interesting social information and he also composed in verse an ecphrasis or evocative account of Justinians cathedral of the Holy Wisdom, describing its architecture and decoration after the reconstruction of the dome in 562. Paul sees the church as a meadow of many-coloured marbles, the poem was probably commissioned by Justinian himself, and Paul had to read verses to the emperor through the inauguration. It consists of 1029 verses in Greek, starting with 134 lines of iambic trimeter and he also wrote a poem about the hot springs at Pythia. Paul died some time between 575 and 580, bell Sex and the Civil Servant, Poems by Paul the Silentiary, tr. Graham John Wheeler J. Kostenec, K. Dark, Paul the Silentiarys description of Hagia Sophia in the light of new evidence, in Byzantinoslavica, LXIX3 supplementum. R. Macrides, P. Magdalino, The architecture of ecphrasis, construction and context of Paul the Silentiarys poem on Hagia Sophia, in Byzantine And Modern Greek Studies,12, the Occasion of Paul the Silentiarys Ekphrasis of S. Sophia. Paul the Silentiary, The Magnificence of Hagia Sophia at The Internet Medieval Sourcebook Extracts of his eulogy of the Hagia Sophia
Paul the Silentiary
–
Interior of the
Hagia Sophia (2008)
29.
John Anagnostes
–
John, called Anagnostes was a Greek historian of the fifteenth century. Thessalonica had been captured by the Ottomans in 1387, though they were unable to hold the city in the wake of the Battle of Ankara in 1402 when it reverted to the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines, when they were unable to hold the city, sold it to the Republic of Venice in 1423, the Ottomans were again unable to hold the city permanently, and the Venetians and Ottomans were soon in a full state of war. The Venetians agreed to a treaty and withdrew from the region in 1432. Greek ed. with Latin translation by L. Allatius, published with Sphrantzes in Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae,1838, english ed. in Melville-Jones, John R. Venice and Thessalonica 1423-1430, The Greek Accounts. Eugenia Russell, St Demetrius of Thessalonica, Cult and Devotion in the Middle Ages, Peter Lang, Oxford,2010, pp. 133–45
John Anagnostes
–
Ottoman sultan
Murad II
30.
Procopius
–
Procopius of Caesarea was a prominent late antique scholar from Palaestina Prima. He is commonly held to be the last major historian of the ancient Western world, apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius life is an entry in the Suda, a Byzantine encyclopaedia, written sometime after 975, which tells everything about his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in the Roman Province Palaestina Prima and he evidently knew Latin, as was natural for a man with legal training. In 527, the first year of Eastern Roman Emperor Justinians reign, he became the adsessor for Belisarius, Procopius was with Belisarius on the eastern front until the latter was defeated at the Battle of Callinicum in 531 and recalled to Constantinople. Procopius witnessed the Nika riots of January,532, which Belisarius, Procopius recorded a few of the extreme weather events of 535–536, although these were presented as a backdrop to Roman military activities, such as a mutiny, in and near Carthage. He rejoined Belisarius for his campaign against the Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy and experienced the Gothic siege of Rome that lasted a year and nine days and he witnessed Belisarius entry into the Gothic capital, Ravenna, in 540. Book Eight of the Wars of Justinian, and the Secret History, suggest that his relationship with Belisarius seems to have cooled thereafter. When Belisarius was sent back to Italy in 544 to cope with a renewal of the war with the Goths, now led by the able king Totila, Procopius appears to have no longer been on Belisarius staff. As magister militum, Belisarius was a vir illustris, and Procopius, as his adsessor, must and he thus belonged to the middle-ranking group of the ordo senatorius. However, the Suda, which is well informed in such matters. Should this information be correct, then Procopius had a seat in the senate of Constantinople and it is not known when Procopius himself died, and many historians date his death to 554, but in 562 there was an urban prefect of Constantinople who happened to be called Procopius. In that year, Belisarius was implicated in a conspiracy and was brought before this urban prefect, the writings of Procopius are the primary source of information for the rule of the Eastern Roman emperor Justinian. Procopius Wars of Justinian is clearly his most important work, although it is not as known as the Secret History. The first two deal with the conflict between the Romans and Sassanid Persia in Mesopotamia, Syria, Armenia, Lazica and Caucasian Iberia. They also cover the early career of the Roman general Belisarius, Procopius patron, the next two books, the Vandal War, cover Belisarius successful campaign against the Vandal kingdom in Roman Africa. The remaining books cover the Gothic War, the campaigns by Belisarius and others to recapture Italy and this includes accounts of the sieges of Naples and Rome. Later, Procopius added a book, which brings the history to 552/553. This eighth book covers both in Italy and on the Eastern frontier
Procopius
–
Emperor Justinian
Procopius
–
Triumphal arch at the entrance to the
Sangarius Bridge
31.
Theophanes Confessor
–
Saint Theophanes the Confessor was a member of the Byzantine aristocracy, who became a monk and chronicler. He is venerated on March 12 in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Theophanes was born in Constantinople of wealthy and noble iconodule parents, Isaac, imperial governor of the islands of the Black Sea, and Theodora, of whose family nothing is known. His father died when Theophanes was three years old, and the Byzantine Emperor Constantine V Copronymus subsequently saw to the boys education, Theophanes would hold several offices under this patron. He was married at the age of twelve, but convinced his wife to lead a life of virginity, in 799, after the death of his father-in-law, they separated with mutual consent to embrace the religious life. She chose a convent on an island near Constantinople, while he entered the Polychronius Monastery, located in the district of Sigiane, later, he built a monastery on his own lands on the island of Calonymus. After six years he returned to Sigriano, where he founded an abbey known by the name of the great acre and governed it as abbot. In this position of leadership, he was present at the Second General Council of Nicaea in 787, when Emperor Leo V the Armenian resumed his iconoclastic warfare, he ordered Theophanes brought to Constantinople. The Emperor tried in vain to induce him to condemn the same veneration of icons that had been sanctioned by the council, Theophanes was cast into prison and for two years suffered cruel treatment. After his release, he was banished to Samothrace in 817 and he is credited with many miracles that occurred after his death, which most likely took place on 12 March, the day he is commemorated in the Roman Martyrology. The language occupies a place midway between the ecclesiastical and the vernacular Greek. The work consists of two parts, the first giving the history, arranged according to years, the other containing chronological tables, full of inaccuracies. It seems that Theophanes had only prepared the tables, leaving vacant spaces for the proper dates, attribution, This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Mershman, Francis. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh. Endnotes, Editions of the Chronicle, Editio princeps, Jacques Goar J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, J. Classen in Bonn Corpus Scriptorum Hist. Editions of the Continuation in J. P. Migne, Pair, on both works and Theophanes generally, see, C. Der Wissenschaften, Gibbons Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, who Wrote the Chronicle of Theophanes. Byzantium and its Image, London 1984, — An editions of the Chronicle with annotations and corrections. The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284–813, translated by Mango, Cyril, Scott, Roger
Theophanes Confessor
–
Virgin Mary
Theophanes Confessor
–
Saint Theophanes
32.
Johannes Classen
–
Johannes Classen was a German educator and classical philologist. Classen was educated at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums and he studied philology at the University of Leipzig, afterwards continuing his education at Bonn, where he was a student of Barthold Georg Niebuhr. From 1827 he lived in the home of Niebuhr, whose son Marcus was tutored by Classen, after the death of Niebuhr on January 2,1831 and of his wife nine days later, Classen took care of his former teachers three children. In 1829 he received his habilitation at Bonn, and in 1832 served as an assistant at the Joachimsthalsche Gymnasium in Berlin, during the following year he became a professor at the Katharineum zu Lübeck. In 1853 he was appointed director of the gymnasium in Frankfurt am Main, returning in 1864 to Hamburg. Classens most extensive effort was an eight-volume publication on the works of Thucydides. He was also author of an 1859 biography on Renaissance humanist Jacob Micyllus and this article is based on a translation of an equivalent article at the German Wikipedia, whose sources include, Classen, Johannes at, Neue Deutsche Biographie. Band 3, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1957, ISBN 3-428-00184-2, S.264
Johannes Classen
–
Johannes Classen (1805-1891)
33.
John Kaminiates
–
John Kaminiates was a Greek resident of Thessalonica when the city, then one of the largest in the Byzantine Empire, was besieged and sacked by a Saracen force led by Leo of Tripoli in 904. John Kaminiates has alternatively been transliterated John Kaminatos, Ioannis Kaminiatis, english Kaminiates, John The capture of Thessaloniki Byzantina Australiensia,12. Perth, Australian Association for Byzantine Studies,2000, kazhdan, Alexander Some Questions Addressed to the Scholars, who Believe in the Authenticity of Kaminiates’ Capture of Thessalonika Byzantinische Zeitschrift 71. Tougher, Shaun The Reign of Leo VI, Politics and People BRILL,1997, foreign Kaminiates, John Eis ten alosin tes Thessalonikes / De Expugnatione Thessalonicae Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae. ISSN 0589-8048 A portion of the text online The Manuscript Editing Process - An interesting look at how the four surviving manuscripts are used to create a modern scholarly Greek edition
John Kaminiates
–
The sack of Thessalonica in 904, from the
Madrid Skylitzes.
34.
Symeon the Metaphrast
–
Symeon the Metaphrast was the author of the 10 volume medieval Greek menologion, or collection of saints lives. He lived in the half of the 10th century. About his life we know very few details. The Eastern Orthodox Church honours him as a saint, with his feast day falling on November 9, a service composed in his honour is found in the Menaion. Also numerous prayers which have attributed to him are found in various Orthodox liturgical books. Metaphrastes was the most renowned of the Byzantine hagiographers, among other works attributed to Symeon are a Chronicle, a canonical collection, some letters and poems, and other writings of less importance. Symeons great popularity is due more particularly to his Menologion and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed. Rewriting and Canonization Greek Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
Symeon the Metaphrast
–
Russian icon with Saint Symeon Metaphrastes
35.
George Hamartolos
–
George Hamartolos or Hamartolus was a monk at Constantinople under Michael III and the author of a chronicle of some importance. It is a common form among Byzantine monks, krumbacher protests against the use of this epithet as a name and proposes the form Georgios Monachos. Nothing is known about him except from the evidence of his work. The chronicle consists of four books, the chronicle is the only original contemporary authority for the years 813–842, and therefore so far indispensable. As usually in the case of medieval chronicles, the only part to be taken seriously is the account of more or less contemporary events. The rest is interesting as an example of Byzantine ideas on the subjects, George describes his ideal and principles in the preface. But of so great a mass of material he has chosen only what is most useful, in effect, the questions that seemed most useful and necessary to ecclesiastical persons at Constantinople in the ninth century are those that are discussed. There are copious pious reflections and theological excursuses and he writes of how idols were invented, the origin of monks, the religion of the Saracens, and especially of the Iconoclast controversy that had just ended. Like all monks he hates iconoclasts, the violence with which he speaks of them shows how recent the storm had been and how the memory of iconoclast persecutions was still fresh when he wrote. He writes out long extracts from Greek Fathers, the first book treats of an astonishingly miscellaneous collection of persons — Adam, Nimrod, the Persians, Chaldees, Brahmins, Amazons, etc. In the second book, too, although it professes to deal with Bible history only, he has much to say about Plato, Hamartolus ended his chronicle with the year 842, as a colophon in most manuscripts attests. In these additions, religious questions are relegated to the background, more attention is devoted to history. Still further continuations of little value go down to 1143 and it was soon translated into Church Slavonic and also in Georgian by Arsen of Iqalto. In these versions it became a sort of fountain-head for all early Slavonic historians, in Maxima bibliotheca Paris,1685, reprinted, Venice,1729. The last part of Book IV of the chronicle and the continuation, georgii monachi, dicti Hamartoli, Chronicon ab orbe condito ad annum p. chr.842 et a diversis scriptoribus usq. ad ann.1143 continuatum. The first edition of the whole work and it does not represent the original text, but one of the many modified versions, and is in many ways deficient and misleading. Reprint of the edition, with a Latin translation. This article incorporates text from a now in the public domain, Herbermann, Charles
George Hamartolos
–
"George the Monk at work", an early 14th-century miniature from
Tver
36.
Theophylactus Simocatta
–
Theophylact Simocatta was an early seventh-century Byzantine historiographer, arguably ranking as the last historian of Late Antiquity, writing in the time of Heraclius about the late Emperor Maurice. Simocatta is best known as the author of a history in eight books, of the reign of the emperor Maurice and he mentions the war of Heraclius against the Persians, but not that against the Arabs, so it is likely that he was writing around 630. Among his sources he used the history of John of Epiphania, edward Gibbon wrote, His want of judgement renders him diffuse in trifles and concise in the most interesting facts. This notwithstanding, Simocattas general trustworthiness is admitted, the history contains an introduction in the form of a dialogue between History and Philosophy. Nicolaus Copernicus translated Greek verses by Theophylact into Latin prose and had his translation, dedicated to his uncle Lucas Watzenrode and it was the only book that Copernicus ever brought out on his own account. Simocatta was also the author of Physical Problems, a work on natural history, Simocatta also provided cursory information about the geography of China along with its customs and culture, deeming its people idolatrous but wise in governance. He also related how the ruler was named Taisson, the meaning of which was Son of God and this article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. article name needed
Theophylactus Simocatta
–
Byzantine Emperor
Heraclius receiving the submission of the
Sassanid king
Khosrau II – during Simocatta's times (plaque from a cross. Champlevé enamel over gilt copper, 1160–1170, Meuse Valley). Housed at the
Louvre.
37.
Byzantine Literature
–
Byzantine literature is the Greek literature of the Middle Ages, whether written in the territory of the Byzantine Empire or outside its borders. It forms the second period in the history of Greek literature, though popular Byzantine literature and early Modern Greek literature and this practice was perpetuated by a long-established system of Greek education where rhetoric was a leading subject. A typical product of this Byzantine education was the Greek Church Fathers, consequently, the vast Christian literature of the 3rd to 6th centuries established a synthesis of Hellenic and Christian thought. In addition, this style was also removed from the Koine Greek language of the New Testament, reaching back to Homer. In this manner, the culture of the Byzantine Empire was marked for over 1000 years by a diglossy between two different forms of the language, which were used for different purposes. However, the relations between the high and low forms of Greek changed over the centuries, the political recovery of the 9th century instigated a literary revival, in which a conscious attempt was made to recreate the Hellenic-Christian literary culture of late antiquity. Simple or popular Greek was avoided in literary use and many of the saints lives were rewritten in an archaizing style. By the 12th century the cultural confidence of the Byzantine Greeks led them to new literary genres, such as romantic fiction, in which adventure. Satire made occasional use of elements from spoken Greek, at the same time there was the beginning of a flourishing literature in an approximation to the vernacular Modern Greek. However the vernacular literature was limited to poetic romances and popular devotional writing, all serious literature continued to make use of the archaizing language of learned Greek tradition. Byzantine literature has two sources, Classical Greek and Orthodox Christian tradition, each of those sources provided a series of models and references for the Byzantine writer and his readers. The oldest of three civilizations is the Greek, centered not in Athens but in Alexandria and Hellenistic civilization. Alexandria through this period is the center of both Atticizing scholarship and of Graeco-Judaic social life, looking towards Athens as well as towards Jerusalem and this intellectual dualism between the culture of scholars and that of the people permeates the Byzantine period. Both tendencies persisted in Byzantium, but the first, as the one officially recognized, retained predominance and was not driven from the field until the fall of the empire, the reactionary linguistic movement known as Atticism supported and enforced this scholarly tendency. Alexandria, the center, is balanced by Rome, the center of government. It is as a Roman Empire that the Byzantine state first entered history, its citizens were known as Romans and its laws were Roman, so were its government, its army, and its official class, and at first also its language and its private and public life. The organization of the state was similar to that of the Roman imperial period, including its hierarchy. It was in Alexandria that Graeco-Oriental Christianity had its birth, on Egyptian soil monasticism began and thrived
Byzantine Literature
–
Byzantine culture
Byzantine Literature
–
An 11th-century Byzantine
Gospel; its ornate presentation illustrates the decorative style employed by scholars of that age.
Byzantine Literature
–
An illumination of a scene from the
Skylitzes Chronicle, depicting a
Thracesian woman killing a Varangian who tried to rape her, whereupon his comrades praised her and gave her his possessions.
Byzantine Literature
–
A Byzantine
Gospel of the 13th century, it shows the increasing trend towards the use of
Ivory as an artistic tool.
38.
Friedrich Carl von Savigny
–
Friedrich Carl von Savigny was a German jurist and historian. Savigny was born at Frankfurt, of a family recorded in the history of Lorraine, after the fashion of German students, Savigny visited several universities, notably Jena, Leipzig and Halle, and returning to Marburg, took his doctors degree in 1800. At Marburg he lectured as Privatdozent on criminal law and the Pandects, in 1803 Savigny published Das Recht des Besitzes. Anton Thibaut hailed it as a masterpiece which brought the old uncritical study of Roman law to an end and it quickly obtained a European reputation, and still remains a prominent landmark in the history of jurisprudence. In 1804 he married Kunigunde Brentano, sister of Bettina von Arnim, the same year he embarked on an extensive tour through France and south Germany in search of fresh sources of Roman law. In 1808 Savigny was appointed professor of Roman law at Landshut. He remained in position for a year and a half. In 1810 he was appointed to the chair of Roman law at the new University of Berlin and this was the busiest time of his life. He was engaged in lecturing, in the government of the university, during his time in Berlin Savigny befriended Niebuhr and Eichhorn. In 1814 Savigny wrote the pamphlet Vom Beruf unserer Zeit für Gesetzgebung und Rechtswissenschaft, in an earlier pamphlet Thibaut had argued for the creation of a unified legal code for Germany, independent of the influence of foreign legal systems. Savigny argued that such a codification of the law would have an adverse effect, according to Savigny the damage which had been caused by the neglect of former generations of jurists could not be quickly repaired, and more time was required to set the house in order. Moreover, a legal code would almost certainly be influenced by natural law, with its infinite arrogance. It was Savignys opinion that jurisprudence should be saved from the hollow abstractions of such a work as the Institutiones juris naturae et gentium of Christian Wolff. Savigny opposed this conception of jurisprudence to the study of the positive law. However, Savigny did not oppose to the introduction of new laws or of a new system of laws, in 1815 Savigny, together with Karl Friedrich Eichhorn and Johann Friedrich Ludwig Göschen, founded the Zeitschrift für geschichtliche Rechtswissenschaft, the organ of the new historical school. In this periodical Savigny made known to the world the discovery by Niebuhr at Verona of the lost text of Gaius, Savigny pronounced it to be the work of Gaius himself and not, as Niebuhr suggested, of Ulpian. The same year,1815, Savigny published the first volume of his Geschichte des römischen Rechts im Mittelalter and he had been prompted to write this work by his early instructor Weiss. Savigny intended it to be a history of Roman law from Irnerius to the present time
Friedrich Carl von Savigny
–
Friedrich Carl von Savigny
39.
Edward Gibbon
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Edward Gibbon FRS was an English historian, writer and Member of Parliament. Edward Gibbon was born in 1737, the son of Edward and Judith Gibbon at Lime Grove and he had six siblings, five brothers and one sister, all of whom died in infancy. As a youth, Gibbons health was under constant threat and he described himself as a puny child, neglected by my Mother, starved by my nurse. At age nine, he was sent to Dr. Woddesons school at Kingston upon Thames and he then took up residence in the Westminster School boarding house, owned by his adored Aunt Kitty, Catherine Porten. Following a stay at Bath in 1752 to improve his health, at the age of 15 Gibbon was sent by his father to Magdalen College, Oxford, where he was enrolled as a gentleman-commoner. He was ill-suited, however, to the atmosphere and later rued his 14 months there as the most idle and unprofitable of his life. In that tract, Middleton denied the validity of such powers, Gibbon promptly objected and he was further corrupted by the free thinking deism of the playwright/poet couple David and Lucy Mallet, and finally Gibbons father, already in despair, had had enough. David Womersley has shown, however, that Gibbons claim to having been converted by a reading of Middleton is very unlikely, and was introduced only into the final draft of the Memoirs in 1792–93. Within weeks of his conversion, the adolescent was removed from Oxford and sent to live under the care and tutelage of Daniel Pavillard, Reformed pastor of Lausanne, Switzerland. It was here that he one of his lifes two great friendships, that of Jacques Georges Deyverdun, and that of John Baker Holroyd. Just a year and a later, after his father threatened to disinherit him, on Christmas Day,1754. The various articles of the Romish creed, he wrote, disappeared like a dream, Gibbon returned to England in August 1758 to face his father. There could be no refusal of the elders wishes, Gibbon put it this way, I sighed as a lover, I obeyed as a son. He proceeded to cut off all contact with Curchod, even as she vowed to wait for him and their final emotional break apparently came at Ferney, France in the spring of 1764, though they did see each other at least one more time a year later. The following year he embarked on the Grand Tour, which included a visit to Rome, Womersley notes the existence of good reasons to doubt the statements accuracy. In June 1765, Gibbon returned to his fathers house, and these years were considered by Gibbon as the worst five of his life, but he tried to remain busy by making early attempts towards writing full histories. His first historical narrative known as the History of Switzerland, which represented Gibbons love for Switzerland, was never published nor finished, even under the guidance of Deyverdun, Gibbon became too critical of himself, and completely abandoned the project, only writing 60 pages of text. However, after Gibbons death, his writings on Switzerlands history were discovered and published by Lord Sheffield in 1815, soon after abandoning his History of Switzerland, Gibbon made another attempt towards completing a full history
Edward Gibbon
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Portrait, oil on canvas, of Edward Gibbon by Sir
Joshua Reynolds (1723–1792)
Edward Gibbon
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Edward Gibbon, by Henry Walton (died 1813)
Edward Gibbon
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Portchester Castle came under Gibbon's command for a brief period while he was an officer in the Hampshire militia.
Edward Gibbon
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Blue plaque to Gibbon on Bentinck Street, London
