1.
Botanical name
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The purpose of a formal name is to have a single name that is accepted and used worldwide for a particular plant or plant group. Later, the plant was introduced worldwide, bringing it contact with more languages. English names for plant species include, daisy, English daisy. The cultivar Bellis perennis Aucubifolia is a golden-variegated horticultural selection of this species, the botanical name itself is fixed by a type, which is a particular specimen of an organism to which the scientific name is formally attached. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor or centralize the defining features of that particular taxon. For example, the view of the family Malvaceae has been expanded in some modern approaches to include what were formerly considered to be several closely related families. Some botanical names refer to groups that are stable while for other names a careful check is needed to see which circumscription is being used. Depending on rank, botanical names may be in one part, the names of cultivated plants are not necessarily similar to the botanical names, since they may instead involve unambiguous common names of species or genera. A botanical name in three parts, i. e. an infraspecific name needs a connecting term to indicate rank, in the Calystegia example above, this is subsp. for subspecies. In botany there are ranks below that of species. A name of a subdivision of a genus also needs a connecting term, the connecting term is not part of the name itself. A taxon may be indicated by a listing in more than three parts, Saxifraga aizoon var. aizoon subvar, brevifolia f. multicaulis subf. surculosa Engl. But this is a classification, not a botanical name. The botanical name is Saxifraga aizoon subf. surculosa Engl, generic, specific, and infraspecific botanical names are usually printed in italics. For botanical nomenclature, the ICN prescribes a two-part name or binary name for any taxon below the rank of genus down to, taxa below the rank of species get a three part. A binary name consists of the name of a genus and an epithet, in the case of a species this is a specific epithet, Bellis perennis is the name of a species, in which perennis is the specific epithet. There is no connecting term involved, to indicate the rank, in the case of a subdivision of a genus the name consists of the name of a genus and a subdivisional epithet. A connecting term should be placed before the subdivisional epithet to indicate the rank, falcataria In the case of cultivated plants, there is an additional epithet which is an often non-Latin part, not written in italics
2.
Taxon
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In biology, a taxon is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is known by a particular name and given a particular ranking, especially if. It is not uncommon, however, for taxonomists to remain at odds over what belongs to a taxon, if a taxon is given a formal scientific name, its use is then governed by one of the nomenclature codes specifying which scientific name is correct for a particular grouping. Many modern systematists, such as advocates of phylogenetic nomenclature, use cladistic methods that require taxa to be monophyletic and their basic unit, therefore, is the clade rather than the taxon. Similarly, among those contemporary taxonomists working with the traditional Linnean nomenclature, an example of a well-established taxon that is not also a clade is the class Reptilia, the reptiles, birds are descendants of reptiles but are not included in the Reptilia. The term taxon was first used in 1926 by Adolf Meyer-Abich for animal groups, for plants, it was proposed by Herman Johannes Lam in 1948, and it was adopted at the VII International Botanical Congress, held in 1950. The Glossary of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature defines a taxon, a taxon encompasses all included taxa of lower rank and individual organisms. A taxon can be assigned a rank, usually when it is given a formal name. Phylum applies formally to any domain, but traditionally it was always used for animals, whereas Division was traditionally often used for plants, fungi. A prefix is used to indicate a ranking of lesser importance, the prefix super- indicates a rank above, the prefix sub- indicates a rank below. In zoology the prefix infra- indicates a rank below sub-, for instance, among the additional ranks of class are superclass, subclass and infraclass. Rank is relative, and restricted to a particular systematic schema, for example, liverworts have been grouped, in various systems of classification, as a family, order, class, or division. Many cladists do not see any need to depart from traditional nomenclature as governed by the ICZN, ICN, etc
3.
Taxonomic rank
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In biological classification, rank is the relative level of a group of organisms in a taxonomic hierarchy. Examples of taxonomic ranks are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, domain, a given rank subsumes under it less general categories, that is, more specific descriptions of life forms. Above it, each rank is classified within more general categories of organisms, the rank of any species and the description of its genus is basic, which means that to identify a particular organism, it is usually not necessary to specify ranks other than these first two. Consider a particular species, the red fox Vulpes vulpes, its next rank, as one group of the class Mammalia, all of the above are classified among those with backbones in the Chordata phylum rank, and with them among all the animals in the Animalia kingdom rank. Finally, all of the above will find their earliest relatives somewhere in their domain rank Eukarya, today, nomenclature is regulated by the nomenclature codes. There are seven main ranks, kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus. In addition, the domain is now used as one of the fundamental ranks. Also, this represents a synonym for the category of dominion. Unlike Moore, Whoese et al. did not suggest a Latin term for this category, a taxon is usually assigned a rank when it is given its formal name. The basic ranks are species and genus, when an organism is given a species name it is assigned to a genus, and the genus name is part of the species name. The species name is called a binomial, that is. For example, the name for the human species is Homo sapiens. This is usually italicized in print and underlined when italics are not available, in this case, Homo is the generic name and it is capitalized, sapiens indicates the species and it is not capitalized. There are definitions of the taxonomic ranks in the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, superfamily, family, subfamily, tribe, subtribe, genus, subgenus. The International Code of Zoological Nomenclature divides names into family-group names, genus-group names, in the genus group and species group no further ranks are allowed. At higher ranks a lower level may be denoted by adding the prefix infra, meaning lower, a taxon above the rank of species has a scientific name in one part. A species has a composed of two parts, generic name + specific name, for example Canis lupus. A subspecies has a composed of three parts, generic name + specific name + subspecific name, for example Canis lupus familiaris
4.
Priority (nomenclature)
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Priority is a fundamental principle of modern botanical nomenclature and zoological nomenclature. Essentially, it is the principle of recognising the first valid application of a name to a plant or animal. There are two aspects to this, The first formal name given to a plant or animal taxon shall be the name that is to be used, called the valid name in zoology. Once a name has been used, no subsequent publication of that name for another taxon shall be valid or validly published, there are formal provisions for making exceptions to this principle. If an archaic or obscure prior name is discovered for a taxon, the current name can be declared a nomen conservandum or conserved name. Similarly, if the current name for a taxon is found to have an archaic or obscure prior homonym, the principle of priority has not always been in place. When Carl Linnaeus laid the foundations of modern nomenclature, he offered no recognition of prior names, the botanists who followed him were just as willing to overturn Linnaeuss names. The first sign of recognition of priority came in 1813, when A. P. de Candolle laid out some principles of good nomenclatural practice and he favoured retaining prior names, but left wide scope for overturning poor prior names. During the 19th century, the principle gradually came to be accepted by almost all botanists, botanists on one side of the debate argued that priority should be universal and without exception. This would have meant a major disruption as countless names in current usage were overturned in favour of archaic prior names. In 1891, Otto Kuntze, one of the most vocal proponents of this position, did just that and he then followed with further such publications in 1893,1898 and 1903. His efforts, however, were so disruptive that they appear to have benefited his opponents, by the 1900s, the need for a mechanism for the conservation of names was widely accepted, and details of such a mechanism were under discussion. The current system of modified priority was essentially put in place at the Cambridge Congress of 1930, the Principle of Priority is one of the guiding principles of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, defined by Article 23. There are exceptions, another name may be given precedence by any provision of the Code or by any ruling of the Commission and it is a fundamental guiding precept that preserves the stability of biological nomenclature. It was first formulated in 1842 by an appointed by the British Association to consider the rules of zoological nomenclature. In 1855, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa for a new species of pronghorn, however, it is now thought that his specimen belonged to an unusual individual of an existing species, Antilocapra americana, with a name published by George Ord in 1815. The older name, by Ord, takes priority, with Antilocapra anteflexa becoming a junior synonym, in 1856, Johann Jakob Kaup published the name Leptocephalus brevirostris for a new species of eel. However, it was realized in 1893 that the described by Kaup was in fact the juvenile form of the European eel
5.
Synonym (taxonomy)
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For example, Linnaeus was the first to give a scientific name to the Norway spruce, which he called Pinus abies. This name is no longer in use, it is now a synonym of the current scientific name which is Picea abies, unlike synonyms in other contexts, in taxonomy a synonym is not interchangeable with the name of which it is a synonym. In taxonomy, synonyms are not equals, but have a different status, for any taxon with a particular circumscription, position, and rank, only one scientific name is considered to be the correct one at any given time. A synonym cannot exist in isolation, it is always an alternative to a different scientific name, given that the correct name of a taxon depends on the taxonomic viewpoint used a name that is one taxonomists synonym may be another taxonomists correct name. Synonyms may arise whenever the same taxon is described and named more than once, independently. They may also arise when existing taxa are changed, as when two taxa are joined to one, a species is moved to a different genus. To the general user of scientific names, in such as agriculture, horticulture, ecology, general science. A synonym is a name that was used as the correct scientific name but which has been displaced by another scientific name. Thus Oxford Dictionaries Online defines the term as a name which has the same application as another. In handbooks and general texts, it is useful to have mentioned as such after the current scientific name. Synonyms used in this way may not always meet the strict definitions of the synonym in the formal rules of nomenclature which govern scientific names. Changes of scientific name have two causes, they may be taxonomic or nomenclatural, a name change may be caused by changes in the circumscription, position or rank of a taxon, representing a change in taxonomic, scientific insight. A name change may be due to purely nomenclatural reasons, that is, based on the rules of nomenclature, the earliest such name is called the senior synonym, while the later name is the junior synonym. One basic principle of zoological nomenclature is that the earliest correctly published name, synonyms are important because if the earliest name cannot be used, then the next available junior synonym must be used for the taxon. Objective synonyms refer to taxa with the type and same rank. For example, John Edward Gray published the name Antilocapra anteflexa in 1855 for a species of pronghorn, however, it is now commonly accepted that his specimen was an unusual individual of the species Antilocapra americana published by George Ord in 1815. Ords name thus takes precedence, with Antilocapra anteflexa being a subjective synonym. Objective synonyms are common at the level of genera, because for various reasons two genera may contain the type species, these are objective synonyms
