1.
Dishonest
–
Dishonesty is to act without honesty. It is used to describe a lack of probity, cheating, lying or being deliberately deceptive or a lack in integrity, knavishness, perfidiosity, corruption or treacherousness. Dishonesty is the component of a majority of offences relating to the acquisition, conversion. Dishonesty has had a number of definitions, for many years, there were two views of what constituted dishonesty in English law. The first contention was that the definitions of dishonesty described a course of action, a clear test within the criminal law emerged from R v Ghosh 75 CR App. The test is two-stage, Were the persons actions honest according to the standards of reasonable, if a jury decides that they were, then the defendants claim to be honest will be credible. But, if the court decides that the actions were dishonest, the decision of whether a particular action or set of actions is dishonest remains separate from the issue of moral justification. For example, when Robin Hood robbed the Sheriff of Nottingham he knew that he was, in effect, stealing from the Crown, was acting dishonestly and would have been properly convicted of robbery. Where dishonesty is an issue in civil cases, the trend in English Law is for only the actions to be tested objectively, the Theft Act 1968 contains a single definition for dishonesty which is intended to apply to all the substantive offences. Yet, rather than defining what dishonesty is, s2 describes what it is not, allowing a jury to take an approach, thus. A person’s appropriation of property belonging to another may be dishonest notwithstanding that he is willing to pay for the property, in this, the test is subjective and a matter of fact for the jury to decide. If the owner or some person able to give a valid consent, actually consented to the taking and this provision applies to the situation in which either the consent is void ab initio or is subsequently voided. If the existence or effect of the factor is not recognised by the defendant. For example, if a contract was affected by a common or mutual mistake, but if the defendant is initially innocent, he may become dishonest is he later realises the mistake and decides to keep the property. Similarly, if has knowingly misrepresented a material fact and this has induced a consent that he knows or ought to know would not have been freely given, he will be dishonest. Note that to be abandoned, the owner must have intended to give up all rights in the property, for example, material discarded in a rubbish bin is not abandoned. The owner intends another to come, empty the bin and dispose of the property without stealing it in the process, hence, it will be theft to remove any property from a bin or legal disposal site. If the defendant knows that the owner will not sell the property, so takes the property in any event but leaves a realistic sum of money by way of payment, for the purposes of the deception offences, dishonesty is a separate element to be proved
Dishonest
–
Classes of crimes
2.
Bribery
–
Bribery is the act of giving money, goods or other forms of recompense to a recipient in exchange for an alteration of their behavior that the recipient would otherwise not alter. Gifts of money or other items of value which are available to everyone on an equivalent basis. Offering a discount or a refund to all purchasers is a rebate and is not bribery. Giving the rebate to influence them to look favorably on the utilitys rate increase applications, however. The bribe is the gift bestowed to influence the recipients conduct, in economics, the bribe has been described as rent. Bribery in bureaucracy has been viewed as a reason for the higher cost of production of goods, one must be careful of differing social and cultural norms when examining bribery. Expectations of when a transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Tipping, for example, is considered bribery in some societies, in some Spanish-speaking countries, bribes are referred to as mordida. In Arab countries, bribes may be called baksheesh or shay, french-speaking countries often use the expressions dessous-de-table, pot-de-vin, or commission occulte. While the last two expressions contain inherently a negative connotation, the expression dessous-de-table can be understood as a commonly accepted business practice. In German, the term is Schmiergeld. The forms that bribery take are numerous, for example, a motorist might bribe a police officer not to issue a ticket for speeding, a citizen seeking paperwork or utility line connections might bribe a functionary for faster service. Bribery may also take the form of a commission, a profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment. Euphemisms abound for this Bribers and recipients of bribery are likewise numerous although bribers have one common denominator, Bribery around the world is estimated at about $1 trillion. The reason for this dissociation is to make the steps of a corrupt deal already an offence and, thus. Besides, such a dissociation makes the prosecution of bribery offences easier since it can be difficult to prove that two parties have formally agreed upon a corrupt deal. A grey area may exist when payments to smooth transactions are made, in some countries, this practice is the norm, often resulting from a developing nation not having the tax structure to pay civil servants an adequate salary. Nevertheless, most economists regard bribery as a bad thing because it encourages rent seeking behaviour, a state where bribery has become a way of life is a kleptocracy
Bribery
–
Photo of cash found in Congressman
William J. Jefferson 's freezer in the August 2005 raid was shown to jurors on 8 July 2009
Bribery
–
Article II, Section 4 of the
United States Constitution
Bribery
–
Demonstration in Washington, DC
Bribery
–
A campaign to prevent bribes in
Zambia.
3.
Political corruption
–
Political corruption is the use of powers by government officials for illegitimate private gain. An illegal act by an officeholder constitutes political corruption only if the act is related to their official duties, is done under color of law or involves trading in influence. Forms of corruption vary, but include bribery, extortion, cronyism, nepotism, parochialism, patronage, influence peddling, graft, Corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking, money laundering, and human trafficking, though is not restricted to these activities. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents, the activities that constitute illegal corruption differ depending on the country or jurisdiction. For instance, some political funding practices that are legal in one place may be illegal in another, in some cases, government officials have broad or ill-defined powers, which make it difficult to distinguish between legal and illegal actions. Worldwide, bribery alone is estimated to involve over 1 trillion US dollars annually, a state of unrestrained political corruption is known as a kleptocracy, literally meaning rule by thieves. Some forms of corruption – now called institutional corruption – are distinguished from bribery, a similar problem of corruption arises in any institution that depends on financial support from people who have interests that may conflict with the primary purpose of the institution. In politics, corruption undermines democracy and good governance by flouting or even subverting formal processes and it violates a basic principle of republicanism regarding the centrality of civic virtue. More generally, corruption erodes the institutional capacity of government if procedures are disregarded, resources are siphoned off, Corruption undermines the legitimacy of government and such democratic values as trust and tolerance. Recent evidence suggests that variation in the levels of corruption amongst high-income democracies can vary depending on the level of accountability of decision-makers. Evidence from fragile states also shows that corruption and bribery can adversely impact trust in institutions, although some claim corruption reduces costs by cutting bureaucracy, the availability of bribes can also induce officials to contrive new rules and delays. Openly removing costly and lengthy regulations are better than allowing them to be bypassed by using bribes. Where corruption inflates the cost of business, it distorts the playing field, shielding firms with connections from competition. Corruption also generates economic distortion in the sector by diverting public investment into capital projects where bribes. Officials may increase the complexity of public sector projects to conceal or pave the way for such dealings. In Nigeria, for example, more than $400 billion was stolen from the treasury by Nigerias leaders between 1960 and 1999, University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers estimated that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 Sub-Saharan countries totaled $187bn, exceeding those nations external debts. In the case of Africa, one of the factors for this behavior was political instability, and this encouraged officials to stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of any future expropriation. In contrast, Asian administrations such as Suhartos New Order often took a cut on business transactions or provided conditions for development, through investment, law and order
Political corruption
–
Detail from Corrupt Legislation (1896) by
Elihu Vedder. Library of Congress
Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.
4.
Billboard
–
A billboard is a large outdoor advertising structure, typically found in high-traffic areas such as alongside busy roads. Billboards present large advertisements to passing pedestrians and drivers, typically showing large, ostensibly witty slogans, and distinctive visuals, billboards are highly visible in the top designated market areas. The largest standard-size billboards, known as Bulletins, are located primarily on highways, expressways or principal arterials. Bulletins afford greatest visibility due not only to their size, but because they allow creative customizing through extensions, posters are the other common form of billboard advertising, located mostly along primary and secondary arterial roads. Posters are a smaller format than bulletins and are viewed principally by residents and commuter traffic, billboard advertisements are designed to catch a persons attention and create a memorable impression very quickly, leaving the reader thinking about the advertisement after they have driven past it. They have to be readable in a short time because they are usually read while being passed at high speeds. Thus there are only a few words, in large print. Some billboard designs spill outside the space given to them by the billboard. The sign depicted a giant cube of beef being pierced by a fork that extended to the ground. The scents were emitted between 7–10 a. m. and 4– to 7 pm from 28 May 2010 through 18 June 2010, almost all these billboards were painted in large studios. The image was projected on the series of panels that made up the billboard. Line drawings were done, then traced with a wheel that created perforated lines. The patterns were then pounced onto the board with a chalk filled pounce bag, using oil paints, artists would use large brushes to paint the image. Once the panels were installed using hydraulic cranes, artists would go up on the installed billboard and these large, painted billboards were especially popular in Los Angeles where historic firms such as Foster & Kleiser and Pacific Outdoor Advertising dominated the industry. Eventually, these painted billboards gave way to graphic reproduction, the Sunset Strip in Los Angeles is one area where hand-painted billboards can still be found, usually to advertise upcoming films or albums. A digital billboard is a billboard that is created from computer programs, digital billboards can be designed to display running text, display several different displays from the same company, and even provide several companies a certain time slot during the day. The constantly changing texts ensure maximum impact and wide exposure to target audiences, in May 2014, Becks Beer released a billboard poster that plays audio. Conductive ink linked to sensors and speakers means that when touched, the beer company claim it to be the worlds first playable music poster
Billboard
–
A 'classic' billboard, consisting of large pieces of printed paper attached to a durable backing on a structure
Billboard
–
"World's tallest billboard" –
One Times Square,
New York
Billboard
–
Billboard at the closed Forum Hotel in
Kraków, Poland. It is the biggest billboard in Europe. It displays a new advertisement every month.
Billboard
–
Digital billboard with changing images,
Ypsilanti, MI
5.
Zambia
–
The capital city is Lusaka, in the south-central part of Zambia. The population is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the south and the Copperbelt Province to the northwest, originally inhabited by Khoisan peoples, the region was affected by the Bantu expansion of the thirteenth century. After visits by European explorers in the century, Zambia became the British protectorate of Northern Rhodesia towards the end of the nineteenth century. For most of the period, Zambia was governed by an administration appointed from London with the advice of the British South Africa Company. On 24 October 1964, Zambia became independent of the United Kingdom, Kaundas socialist United National Independence Party maintained power from 1964 until 1991. Kaunda played a key role in diplomacy, cooperating closely with the United States in search of solutions to conflicts in Rhodesia, Angola. From 1972 to 1991 Zambia was a one-party state with the UNIP as the legal political party under the motto One Zambia. Kaunda was succeeded by Frederick Chiluba of the social-democratic Movement for Multi-Party Democracy in 1991, beginning a period of social-economic growth, after Mwanawasas death, Rupiah Banda presided as Acting President before being elected President in 2008. Holding office for three years, Banda stepped down after his defeat in the 2011 elections by Patriotic Front party leader Michael Sata. Sata died on 28 October 2014, the second Zambian president to die in office, Guy Scott served briefly as interim president until new elections were held on 20 January 2015, in which Edgar Lungu was elected as the sixth President. In 2010, the World Bank named Zambia one of the worlds fastest economically reformed countries, the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa is headquartered in Lusaka. The territory of what is now Zambia was known as Northern Rhodesia from 1911 and it was renamed Zambia at independence in 1964. The new name of Zambia was derived from the Zambezi river, the area of modern Zambia is known to have been inhabited by the Khoisan until around AD300, when migrating Bantu began to settle around these areas. These early hunter-gatherer groups were either annihilated or absorbed by subsequent more organised Bantu groups. Archaeological excavation work on the Zambezi Valley and Kalambo Falls show a succession of human cultures, in particular, ancient camping site tools near the Kalambo Falls have been radiocarbon dated to more than 36,000 year ago. The fossil skull remains of Broken Hill Man, dated between 300,000 and 125,000 years BC, further shows that the area was inhabited by pre-historic man. The early history of tribes of modern-day Zambia can only be gleaned from knowledge passed down by successive generations through word of mouth, in the 12th century, major waves of Bantu-speaking immigrants arrived during the Bantu expansion. Among them, the Tonga people were the first to settle in Zambia and are believed to have come from the east near the big sea, by the late 12th century, more advanced kingdoms and empires had been established in most regions of modern-day Zambia
Zambia
–
A statue of
Scottish explorer and missionary
David Livingstone on the Zambian side of
Victoria Falls.
Zambia
–
Flag
Zambia
–
Cecil Rhodes
Zambia
–
Mwata
Kazembe XVII Paul Kanyembo Lutaba, king of the Lunda people in Zambia in 1961.
6.
Politic
–
Politics is the process of making decisions applying to all members of each group. More narrowly, it refers to achieving and exercising positions of governance — organized control over a human community, furthermore, politics is the study or practice of the distribution of power and resources within a given community as well as the interrelationship between communities. It is very often said that politics is about power, a political system is a framework which defines acceptable political methods within a given society. History of political thought can be traced back to antiquity, with seminal works such as Platos Republic, Aristotles Politics. Formal Politics refers to the operation of a system of government and publicly defined institutions. Political parties, public policy or discussions about war and foreign affairs would fall under the category of Formal Politics, many people view formal politics as something outside of themselves, but that can still affect their daily lives. Semi-formal Politics is Politics in government associations such as neighborhood associations, informal Politics is understood as forming alliances, exercising power and protecting and advancing particular ideas or goals. Generally, this includes anything affecting ones daily life, such as the way an office or household is managed, informal Politics is typically understood as everyday politics, hence the idea that politics is everywhere. The word comes from the same Greek word from which the title of Aristotles book Politics also derives, the book title was rendered in Early Modern English in the mid-15th century as Polettiques, it became politics in Modern English. The history of politics is reflected in the origin, development, the origin of the state is to be found in the development of the art of warfare. Historically speaking, all communities of the modern type owe their existence to successful warfare. Kings, emperors and other types of monarchs in many countries including China, of the institutions that ruled states, that of kingship stood at the forefront until the French Revolution put an end to the divine right of kings. Nevertheless, the monarchy is among the political institutions, dating as early as 2100 BC in Sumeria to the 21st century AD British Monarchy. Kingship becomes an institution through the institution of Hereditary monarchy, the king often, even in absolute monarchies, ruled his kingdom with the aid of an elite group of advisors, a council without which he could not maintain power. As these advisors and others outside the monarchy negotiated for power, constitutional monarchies emerged, long before the council became a bulwark of democracy, it rendered invaluable aid to the institution of kingship by, Preserving the institution of kingship through heredity. Preserving the traditions of the social order, being able to withstand criticism as an impersonal authority. Being able to manage a greater deal of knowledge and action than an individual such as the king. The greatest of the subordinates, the earls and dukes in England and Scotland
Politic
–
Political views differ on average across nations. A recreation of the
Inglehart –
Welzel Cultural Map of the World based on the
World Values Survey.
7.
Conflict of interest
–
The presence of a conflict of interest is independent of the occurrence of impropriety. Therefore, a conflict of interest can be discovered and voluntarily defused before any corruption occurs. Primary interest refers to the goals of the profession or activity, such as the protection of clients, the health of patients, the integrity of research. These secondary interests are not treated as wrong in and of themselves, applicable statutes or canons of ethics may provide standards for recusal in a given proceeding or matter. Providing that the judge or presiding officer must be free from disabling conflicts of interest makes the fairness of the less likely to be questioned. In the legal profession, the duty of loyalty owed to a client prohibits an attorney from representing any other party with interests adverse to those of a current client. The few exceptions to this rule require informed consent from all affected clients. In some circumstances, a conflict of interest can never be waived by a client, in perhaps the most common example encountered by the general public, the same firm should not represent both parties in a divorce or child custody matter. Found conflict can lead to denial or disgorgement of legal fees, or in some cases, depending upon the law or rules related to a particular organization, the existence of a conflict of interest may not, in and of itself, be evidence of wrongdoing. In fact, for professionals, it is virtually impossible to avoid having conflicts of interest from time to time. A conflict of interest can, however, become a matter, for example. A director or executive of a corporation will be subject to legal liability if a conflict of interest breaches his/her duty of loyalty, there often is confusion over these two situations. Someone accused of a conflict of interest may deny that a conflict exists because he/she did not act improperly, in fact, a conflict of interest can exist even if there are no improper acts as a result of it. Such competing interests can make it difficult to fulfill his or her duties impartially, a conflict of interest exists even if no unethical or improper act results. A conflict of interest can create an appearance of impropriety that can undermine confidence in the internal auditor, the audit activity. A conflict of interest could impair an individuals ability to perform his or her duties and responsibilities objectively, an organizational conflict of interest may exist in the same way as described above, for instance where a corporation provides two types of service to the government and these services conflict. Corporations may develop simple or complex systems to mitigate the risk or perceived risk of a conflict of interest, the influence of the pharmaceutical industry on medical research has been a major cause for concern. In 2009 a study found that a number of academic institutions do not have clear guidelines for relationships between Institutional Review Boards and industry, the official is on both sides of the deal
Conflict of interest
–
Conflict of interest in legislation [
clarification needed]
Conflict of interest
–
Sociology
8.
Discretion
–
Discretion has the meaning of acting on ones own authority and judgement. In law, discretion as to legal rulings, such as evidence is excluded at a trial. Some view discretion negatively, while some view it positively, Discretion is at all levels of law enforcement. The Art of suiting action to particular circumstances the quality of being discreet The one who is going to decide and those in a position of power are most often able to exercise discretion as to how they will apply or exercise that power. The ability to make decisions which represent a responsible choice and for which an understanding of what is lawful, see Websters Third New International Dictionary. In the legal system, discretion is defined as the ability to choose where, how. A person chooses to utilize his or her options and decides which to use, there are some arguments that implementing discretion overrules or weakens the rule of law. But, where law ends and discretion begins lies in implementing those laws, the enforcers, police officers, are tasked with enforcing these regulations, but they often have the discretion of when to file charges and arrest. For example, a violation, the police officer may simply issue a warning. In fact discretion can be found in all stages of the justice system. The victim, has the discretion to use self defense and to report the crime given the opportunity, the Dispatch officer decides the priority of the call, an officer responding has discretion to take statements from witnesses as well as detain potential suspects. The suspect/the accused has the discretion to obtain a lawyer, how they will plead, the prosecutor has the choice to prosecute a case or drop the charges as well as suggesting plea bargains. The judge has discretion every time an objection is raised or evidence is given, the jury has discretion over the final verdict. These examples are only a cross section of the chain of choices that is criminal law. Officers experience in different surroundings affect the way they react to service calls, the economic status, poverty level, race and ethnicity influence the officer and how he sees and reacts to his surroundings. Scholar Michael Banton stated that In different neighborhoods police provide different services and this is a good example of how and why police are able to use discretion in the performance of their duties. Different environments and neighborhoods provide different levels of dangers and greater levels of crime taking place than others, which is why an officer might choose to downgrade a crime in a wealthy neighborhood compared to an economically unstable one. The article also states that merely being in a different environment from the one the officer lives in or is accustomed to forces the officer to treat it differently, thus, the officer would then treat the individuals differently
Discretion
–
Discretion,
Tacuinum Sanitatis casanatensis (XIV secolo)
Discretion
–
Police Officer Making Arrest
9.
Monopoly
–
A monopoly exists when a specific person or enterprise is the only supplier of a particular commodity. The verb monopolise or monopolize refers to the process by which a company gains the ability to raise prices or exclude competitors, in economics, a monopoly is a single seller. In law, a monopoly is an entity that has significant market power, that is. Although monopolies may be big businesses, size is not a characteristic of a monopoly, a small business may still have the power to raise prices in a small industry. A monopoly is distinguished from a monopsony, in there is only one buyer of a product or service. Likewise, a monopoly should be distinguished from a cartel, in which several providers act together to coordinate services, prices or sale of goods. Monopolies, monopsonies and oligopolies are all situations in one or a few entities have market power and therefore interact with their customers. Monopolies can be established by a government, form naturally, or form by integration, in many jurisdictions, competition laws restrict monopolies. A government-granted monopoly or legal monopoly, by contrast, is sanctioned by the state, patents, copyrights, and trademarks are sometimes used as examples of government-granted monopolies. The government may also reserve the venture for itself, thus forming a government monopoly, There are four basic types of market structures in traditional economic analysis, perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly. A monopoly is a structure in which a single supplier produces, if there is a single seller in a certain market and there are no close substitutes for the product, then the market structure is that of a pure monopoly. Sometimes, there are many sellers in an industry and/or there exist many close substitutes for the goods being produced and this is termed monopolistic competition, whereas in oligopoly the companies interact strategically. Most economic textbooks follow the practice of explaining the perfect competition model. The boundaries of what constitutes a market and what does not are relevant distinctions to make in economic analysis, in a general equilibrium context, a good is a specific concept including geographical and time-related characteristics. Most studies of market structure relax a little their definition of a good, price Maker, Decides the price of the good or product to be sold, but does so by determining the quantity in order to demand the price desired by the firm. High Barriers, Other sellers are unable to enter the market of the monopoly, single seller, In a monopoly, there is one seller of the good, who produces all the output. Therefore, the market is being served by a single company, and for practical purposes. Price Discrimination, A monopolist can change the price or quantity of the product and he or she sells higher quantities at a lower price in a very elastic market, and sells lower quantities at a higher price in a less elastic market
Monopoly
–
"I Like a Little Competition"—J. P. Morgan by
Art Young. Cartoon relating to the answer
J. P. Morgan gave when asked whether he disliked competition at the
Pujo Committee.
10.
Transparency (behavior)
–
Transparency, as used in science, engineering, business, the humanities and in other social contexts, implies openness, communication, and accountability. Transparency is operating in such a way that it is easy for others to see what actions are performed and it has been defined simply as the perceived quality of intentionally shared information from a sender. Transparency is practiced in companies, organizations, administrations, and communities and it guides an organizations decisions and policies on the disclosure of information to its employees and the public, or simply the intended recipient of the information. In Norway and in Sweden, tax authorities release the skatteliste or tax list, official records showing the annual income. Regulations in Hong Kong require banks to list their top earners – without naming them – by pay band, in 2009, the Spanish government for the first time released information on how much each cabinet member is worth, but data on ordinary citizens is private. Recent research suggests there are three aspects of transparency relevant to management practice, information disclosure, clarity, and accuracy. To increase transparency, managers actively infuse greater disclosure, clarity, the strategic management of transparency therefore involves intentional modifications in disclosure, clarity, and accuracy to accomplish the organizations specific objectives. Alternatively, radical transparency is a management method where all decision making is carried out publicly. All draft documents, all arguments for and against a proposal, all decisions. This approach has grown in popularity with the rise of the Internet, two examples of organizations utilizing this style are the GNU/Linux community and Indymedia. Accountability and transparency are of relevance for non-governmental organisations. Yet these same values are found to be lacking in NGOs. Signed in 2006 by 11 NGOs active in the area of humanitarian rights, in 1997, the One World Trust created an NGO Charter, a code of conduct comprising commitment to accountability and transparency. Media transparency is the concept of determining how and why information is conveyed through various means, if the media and the public knows everything that happens in all authorities and county administrations there will be a lot of questions, protests and suggestions coming from media and the public. People who are interested in an issue will try to influence the decisions. Transparency creates an everyday participation in the processes by media. One tool used to increase participation in political processes is freedom of information legislation. Modern democracy builds on such participation of the people and media, there are, for anybody who is interested, many ways to influence the decisions at all levels in society
Transparency (behavior)
–
Shimer College students demonstrate in favor of transparency in school administration, 2010
Transparency (behavior)
–
A 2011
plaque recognizing the municipality of
Santa Barbara, Pangasinan for its "efforts in advancing the principles of
accountability and transparency in
local governance."
Transparency (behavior)
–
Ethics and principles
11.
Post-Soviet states
–
On March 11,1990, Lithuania was the first to declare its independence, with Estonia and Latvia following suit in August 1991. All three Baltic states claimed continuity from the states that existed prior to their annexation by the Soviet Union in 1944 and were admitted to the United Nations on 17 September 1991. The remaining 12 republics all subsequently seceded,12 of the 15 states, excluding the Baltic states, initially formed the CIS and most joined CSTO, while the Baltic states focused on European Union and NATO membership. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided into the following five groupings. Each of these regions has its own set of traits, owing not only to geographic and cultural factors. In addition, there are a number of de facto independent, the dissolution of the Soviet Union took place as a result and against the backdrop of general economic stagnation, even regression. In all, the process triggered severe economic declines, with Gross Domestic Product dropping by more than 40% overall between 1990 and 1995. This decline in GDP was much more intense than the 27% decline that the United States suffered in the wake of the Great Depression between 1930 and 1934. The economic shocks associated with wholesale privatization resulted in the deaths of roughly 1 million working age individuals throughout the former Soviet bloc in the 1990s, by 2007,10 of the 15 post-Soviet states had recovered and reached GDP greater than what they had in 1991. Only Moldova, Ukraine, Georgia, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan had GDP significantly below the 1991 level, the recovery in Russia was marginal, with GDP in 2006-2007 just nudging above the 1991 level. Combined with the aftershocks of the 1998 economic crisis it led to a return of more interventionist economic policies by Vladimir Putins administration. Change in Gross Domestic Product in constant prices, 1991-2015 *Economy of most Soviet republics started to decline in 1989-1990, **The year when GDP decline switched to GDP growth. List of the present Gross domestic product, The post-Soviet states listed according to their Human Development Index scores, only organizations that are mainly composed of post-Soviet states are listed in this section, organizations with wider memberships are not discussed. The 15 post-Soviet states are divided in their participation to the blocs, Belarus, Russia. It was conceived as an organization to the USSR. It currently consists of nine of the 15 former Soviet republics, with one participating state, Georgia withdrew from the CIS in August 2008. The sole exception to the above has been their recent membership in the Community of Democratic Choice, the Central Asian states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan are members of the CIS and participate in several regional organizations that have Russia as a primary mover. Such organizations are the Eurasian Economic Community, Collective Security Treaty Organization, the last two groups only became distinct once Uzbekistan withdrew from GUAM and sought membership in EurAsEc and CSTO
Post-Soviet states
–
Victory Day in
Donetsk, Ukraine, 9 May 2010
Post-Soviet states
–
Post-Soviet states in English alphabetical order: 1.
Armenia; 2.
Azerbaijan; 3.
Belarus; 4.
Estonia; 5.
Georgia; 6.
Kazakhstan; 7.
Kyrgyzstan; 8.
Latvia; 9.
Lithuania; 10.
Moldova; 11.
Russia; 12.
Tajikistan; 13.
Turkmenistan; 14.
Ukraine; 15.
Uzbekistan
12.
NGOs
–
A non-governmental organization is a not-for-profit organization that is independent from states and international governmental organizations. They are usually funded by donations but some avoid formal funding altogether and are run primarily by volunteers, NGOs are highly diverse groups of organizations engaged in a wide range of activities, and take different forms in different parts of the world. Some may have charitable status, while others may be registered for tax exemption based on recognition of social purposes, others may be fronts for political, religious, or other interests. The number of NGOs worldwide is estimated to be 3.7 million, India is estimated to have had around 2 million NGOs in 2009, just over one NGO per 600 Indians, and many times the number of primary schools and primary health centres in India. China is estimated to have approximately 440,000 officially registered NGOs, NGOs are difficult to define, and the term NGO is not always used consistently. In some countries the term NGO is applied to an organization that in another country would be called an NPO, there are many different classifications of NGO in use. The most common focus is on orientation and level of operation, an NGOs orientation refers to the type of activities it takes on. These activities might include human rights, environmental, improving health, an NGOs level of operation indicates the scale at which an organization works, such as local, regional, national, or international. The term non-governmental organization was first coined in 1945, when the United Nations was created, later the term became used more widely. One characteristic these diverse organizations share is that their non-profit status means they are not hindered by short-term financial objectives. Accordingly, they are able to devote themselves to issues which occur across longer time horizons, such as change, malaria prevention. Public surveys reveal that NGOs often enjoy a degree of public trust. NGO/GRO types can be understood by their orientation and level of how they operate, charitable orientation often involves a top-down paternalistic effort with little participation by the beneficiaries. It includes NGOs with activities directed toward meeting the needs of the poor people, in the classical community development project, participation begins with the need definition and continues into the planning and implementation stages. There is maximum involvement of the beneficiaries with NGOs acting as facilitators, community-based organizations arise out of peoples own initiatives. They can be responsible for raising the consciousness of the poor, helping them to understand their rights in accessing needed services. City-wide organizations include organizations such as chambers of commerce and industry, coalitions of business, ethnic or educational groups, national NGOs include national organizations such as the YMCAs/YWCAs, professional associations and similar groups. Some have state and city branches and assist local NGOs and they can be responsible for funding local NGOs, institutions and projects and implementing projects
NGOs
–
Valdis Dombrovskis, then
Prime Minister of Latvia, meeting an NGO representative
13.
Carl Schurz
–
Carl Christian Schurz was a German revolutionary, American statesman and reformer, U. S. Minister to Spain, Union Army General in the American Civil War, U. S. Senator and he was also an accomplished journalist, newspaper editor and orator, who in 1869 became the first German-born American elected to the United States Senate. Carl Christian Schurz was born on March 2,1829 in Liblar, in Rhenish Prussia, the son of Marianne, a speaker and journalist, and Christian Schurz. He studied at the Jesuit Gymnasium of Cologne, and learned piano under private instructors, financial problems in his family obligated him to leave school a year early, without graduating. Later he graduated from the gymnasium by passing a special examination, at Bonn, he developed a friendship with one of his professors, Gottfried Kinkel. In response to the events of the revolutions of 1848, Schurz and Kinkel founded the Bonner Zeitung. At first Kinkel was the editor and Schurz a regular contributor and these roles were reversed when Kinkel left for Berlin to become a member of the Prussian Constitutional Convention. When the Frankfurt rump parliament called for people to take up arms in defense of the new German constitution, Schurz, Kinkel, during the 1849 military campaign in Palatinate and Baden, he joined the revolutionary army, fighting in several battles against the Prussian Army. Schurz was adjunct officer of the commander of the artillery, Fritz Anneke, the Annekes would later move to the U. S. where each became Republican Party supporters. Annekes brother, Emil Anneke, was a founder of the Republican party in Michigan, when the revolutionary army was defeated at the fortress of Rastatt in 1849, Schurz was inside. Knowing that the Prussians intended to kill their prisoners, Schurz managed to escape, in 1850, he returned secretly to Prussia, rescued Kinkel from prison at Spandau and helped him to escape to Edinburgh, Scotland. Schurz then went to Paris, but the police forced him to leave France on the eve of the coup détat of 1851, remaining there until August 1852, he made his living by teaching the German language. While in London, Schurz married fellow revolutionary Johannes Ronges sister-in-law, Margarethe Meyer, in July 1852 and then, like many other Forty-Eighters, in Wisconsin, Schurz soon became immersed in the anti-slavery movement and in politics, joining the Republican Party. In 1857, he was an unsuccessful Republican candidate for lieutenant-governor, in 1858, he was admitted to the Wisconsin bar and began to practice law in Milwaukee. In the state campaign of 1859, he made a speech attacking the Fugitive Slave Law, arguing for states rights. In Faneuil Hall, Boston, on April 18,1859, he delivered an oration on True Americanism, Wisconsin Germans unsuccessfully urged his nomination for governor in 1859. During the American Civil War, Schurz served with distinction as a general in the Union Army, persuading Lincoln to grant him a commission in the Union army, Schurz was commissioned brigadier general of Union volunteers in April 1862. In June, he took command of a division, first under John C, frémont, and then in Franz Sigels corps, with which he took part in the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862
Carl Schurz
–
Carl Schurz
Carl Schurz
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Carl Schurz as a young man
Carl Schurz
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German commemorative stamp ”For freedom in Germany and America"
Carl Schurz
–
Carl Schurz is Don Quixote in this cartoon by
Thomas Nast from Harper's Weekly of April 6, 1872
14.
Bureau of Indian Affairs
–
The Bureau of Indian Affairs is an agency of the federal government of the United States within the U. S. Department of the Interior. The BIA’s responsibilities include providing health care to American Indians and Alaska Natives, located at 1849 C Street, NW, in Washington, D. C. the BIA is headed by a bureau director who reports to the Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs. The current director is Michael S. Black, the current assistant secretary is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Nation of Wisconsin. On January 1,2016, Roberts succeeded Kevin K. Washburn, a member of the Chickasaw Nation in Oklahoma. The Office of Justice Services, directly operates or funds law enforcement, tribal courts, OJS funded 208 law enforcement agencies, consisting of 43 BIA-operated police agencies, and 165 tribally operated agencies under contract, or compact with the OJS. The OJS also provides oversight and technical assistance to law enforcement programs when. It operates four divisions, Corrections, Drug Enforcement, the Indian Police Academy, the Office of Trust Services, works with tribes and individual American Indians and Alaska Natives in the management of their trust lands, assets, and resources. Agencies to relate to Native Americans had existed in the U. S. government since 1775, benjamin Franklin and Patrick Henry were appointed among the early commissioners to negotiate treaties with Native Americans to obtain their neutrality during the American Revolutionary War. In 1789, the U. S. Congress placed Native American relations within the newly formed War Department. By 1806 the Congress had created a Superintendent of Indian Trade, or Office of Indian Trade within the War Department, the post was held by Thomas L. McKenney from 1816 until the abolition of the factory system in 1822. The government licensed traders to have control in Indian territories. The abolition of the system left a vacuum within the U. S. government regarding Native American relations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs was formed on March 11,1824, Calhoun, who created the agency as a division within his department, without authorization from the United States Congress. He appointed McKenney as the first head of the office, which went by several names, McKenney preferred to call it the Indian Office, whereas the current name was preferred by Calhoun. In 1832 Congress established the position of Commissioner of Indian Affairs, in 1849 Indian Affairs was transferred to the U. S. Department of the Interior. In 1869, Ely Samuel Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as commissioner of Indian affairs and it emphasized being educated to European-American culture. Some were beaten for praying to their own creator god, the bureau was renamed from Office of Indian Affairs to Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1947. The rise of activist groups such as the American Indian Movement worried the U. S. government and they intended to bring attention to American Indian issues, including their demands for renewed negotiation of treaties, enforcement of treaty rights and improvement in living standards
Bureau of Indian Affairs
–
Ely S. Parker was the first Native American to be appointed as Commissioner of Indian affairs (1869–1871).
Bureau of Indian Affairs
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Seal of the U.S. Bureau of Indian Affairs
Bureau of Indian Affairs
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Cato Sells, Commissioner of Indian Affairs, 1913.
Bureau of Indian Affairs
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1940 Indians at Work magazine, published by the Office of Indian Affairs, predecessor agency to the Bureau of Indian Affairs.
15.
Bribe
–
Bribery is the act of giving money, goods or other forms of recompense to a recipient in exchange for an alteration of their behavior that the recipient would otherwise not alter. Gifts of money or other items of value which are available to everyone on an equivalent basis. Offering a discount or a refund to all purchasers is a rebate and is not bribery. Giving the rebate to influence them to look favorably on the utilitys rate increase applications, however. The bribe is the gift bestowed to influence the recipients conduct, in economics, the bribe has been described as rent. Bribery in bureaucracy has been viewed as a reason for the higher cost of production of goods, one must be careful of differing social and cultural norms when examining bribery. Expectations of when a transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Tipping, for example, is considered bribery in some societies, in some Spanish-speaking countries, bribes are referred to as mordida. In Arab countries, bribes may be called baksheesh or shay, french-speaking countries often use the expressions dessous-de-table, pot-de-vin, or commission occulte. While the last two expressions contain inherently a negative connotation, the expression dessous-de-table can be understood as a commonly accepted business practice. In German, the term is Schmiergeld. The forms that bribery take are numerous, for example, a motorist might bribe a police officer not to issue a ticket for speeding, a citizen seeking paperwork or utility line connections might bribe a functionary for faster service. Bribery may also take the form of a commission, a profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment. Euphemisms abound for this Bribers and recipients of bribery are likewise numerous although bribers have one common denominator, Bribery around the world is estimated at about $1 trillion. The reason for this dissociation is to make the steps of a corrupt deal already an offence and, thus. Besides, such a dissociation makes the prosecution of bribery offences easier since it can be difficult to prove that two parties have formally agreed upon a corrupt deal. A grey area may exist when payments to smooth transactions are made, in some countries, this practice is the norm, often resulting from a developing nation not having the tax structure to pay civil servants an adequate salary. Nevertheless, most economists regard bribery as a bad thing because it encourages rent seeking behaviour, a state where bribery has become a way of life is a kleptocracy
Bribe
–
Photo of cash found in Congressman
William J. Jefferson 's freezer in the August 2005 raid was shown to jurors on 8 July 2009
Bribe
–
Article II, Section 4 of the
United States Constitution
Bribe
–
Demonstration in Washington, DC
Bribe
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A campaign to prevent bribes in
Zambia.
16.
Organized crime
–
Some criminal organizations, such as terrorist groups, are politically motivated. Sometimes criminal organizations force people to do business with them, such as when a gang extorts money from shopkeepers for so-called protection, gangs may become disciplined enough to be considered organized. A criminal organization or gang can also be referred to as a mafia, mob, or crime syndicate, European sociologists define the mafia as a type of organized crime group that specializes in the supply of extra-legal protection and quasi law enforcement. There is a tendency to distinguish organized crime from other forms of crime, such as crime, financial crimes, political crimes, war crime, state crimes. This distinction is not always apparent and academics continue to debate the matter, for example, in failed states that can no longer perform basic functions such as education, security, or governance, organised crime, governance and war sometimes complement each other. The term Oligarchy has been used to describe democratic countries whose political, social and economic institutions come under the control of a few families, in the United States, the Organized Crime Control Act defines organized crime as he unlawful activities of a highly organized, disciplined association. Criminal activity as a process is referred to as racketeering. In the UK, police estimate that organized crime involves up to 38,000 people operating in 6,000 various groups, bureaucratic/corporate organized crime groups are defined by the general rigidity of their internal structures. An estimate on youth street gangs nationwide provided by Hannigan, et al. marked an increase of 35% between 2002 and 2010, the term “street gang” is commonly used interchangeably with “youth gang, ” referring to neighborhood or street-based youth groups that meet “gang” criteria. Some reasons youth join gangs include to feel accepted, attain status, a sense of unity brings together many of the youth gangs that lack the family aspect at home. Zones of transition are deteriorating neighborhoods with shifting populations, in such areas, conflict between groups, fighting, turf wars, and theft promote solidarity and cohesion. Participation in gang-related events during adolescence perpetuate a pattern of maltreatment on their own children years later, klein like Spergel studied the effects on members of social workers’ interventions. More interventions actually lead to greater participation and solidarity and bonds between members. Downes and Rock on Parker’s analysis, strain theory applies, labeling theory, control theory and these may also be defined by age or peer group influences, and the permanence or consistency of their criminal activity. These groups also form their own identity or public representation which are recognizable by the community at large. Some studied street gangs involved in drug dealing - finding that their structure, members saw themselves as organized criminals, gangs were formal-rational organizations, Strong organizational structures, well defined roles and rules that guided members’ behavior. Also a specified and regular means of income, padilla agreed with the two above. However some have found these to be rather than well-defined and lacking persistent focus, there was relatively low cohesion, few shared goals
Organized crime
–
Criminology and
penology
Organized crime
–
Jamaican gang leader
Christopher Coke
Organized crime
–
Mexican drug cartels and their areas of influence.
Organized crime
–
Tattooed
Yakuza gangsters
17.
Internal affairs (law enforcement)
–
Internal affairs can also refer to cases of misconduct and criminal behavior involving police officers. In different systems, internal affairs can go by names such as Internal Investigations Division, professional standards, inspectorate general, Office of Professional Responsibility. Internal affairs investigators are bound by stringent rules when conducting their investigations, in California, the Peace Officers Bill of Rights is a mandated set of rules found in the Government Code. The internal affairs function is not an enforcement function, but rather a function that works to report only. The concept of internal affairs is very broad and unique to each police department, however, the sole purpose to having an internal affairs unit is to investigate and find the truth to what occurred when an officer is accused of misconduct. An investigation can also give insight on a policy itself that may have issues, the circumstances of the complaint determines who will be investigating the complaint. The investigation of police officer misconduct can be conducted by the Internal Affairs Unit, executive police officer, in the Salt Lake City Police Department, the Civilian Review Board will also investigate the complaint, but they will do so independently. When the investigation begins, everything is documented and all employees, complainants, any physical evidence is analyzed and past behaviors of the officer in question are reviewed. Dispatch tapes, police reports, tickets, audio, and videotapes are all reviewed if available, many controversies arise because an officer investigating police misconduct may show favoritism and/or hold grudges particularly when a single officer is conducting the investigation. Some departments hire uninvolved officers or include another department or a unit to conduct the investigation. Larger agencies have the resources to have units for internal affairs. Small agencies are more abundant than some may realize with 87% of police departments in the United States employing 25 or fewer sworn officers, smaller agencies that do not have sufficient resources may have the executive officer, the accuseds supervisor, or another police department conduct an investigation. The state police may also be asked to investigate criminal behavior, however, allowing another department to investigate can result in lower morale among the officers because it can appear as an admission that the department cannot handle their own affairs. Washington, DC, has an office, created in 1999. In the state of Utah, the Internal Affairs Division must properly file a complaint before the committee can officially investigate, Complaints involving police misuse of force will be brought to the Civilian Review Board, but citizens can request the committee to investigate any other issues of misconduct
Internal affairs (law enforcement)
–
Contents
18.
Independent Police Complaints Commission
–
The IPCC was formally founded on 1 April 2004, replacing the Police Complaints Authority. Funded by the Home Office, the IPCC operates under statutory powers and it is independent of pressure groups, political parties and, in principle, of government. It can also elect to manage or supervise the investigation into a particular complaint. While some of the IPCCs investigators are former officers, the commissioners themselves cannot have worked for the police by law. It has set standards for police forces to improve the way the publics complaints are handled, the IPCC also handles appeals by the public about the way their complaint was dealt with by the local force, or its outcomes. The IPCC was given the task of increasing public confidence in the complaint system and it aims to make investigations more open, timely, proportionate and fair. Since April 2006 the IPCC has taken on responsibility for similar, serious complaints against HM Revenue and Customs, in April 2008, it additionally took on responsibility for serious complaints against UK Border Agency staff. The statutory powers and responsibilities of the Commission are set out by the Police Reform Act 2002, between 1 April 2004 and 31 March 2009 the IPCC used its powers to begin 353 independent and 759 managed investigations into the most serious complaints against the police. These included deaths in custody, shootings and fatal traffic incidents. It also handles more than 4,500 appeals a year members of the public about the way their complaint was dealt with by the local force. The vast majority of complaints are dealt with by the Professional Standards department of the force the complaint is about. The IPCCs independent investigators investigate the most serious complaints, for example where someone has died following contact with the police, there are a number of types of incidents that the police, or other agencies the IPCC oversees complaints for, must mandatorily refer to the Commission. These include deaths in custody, shootings and fatal traffic incidents as well as allegations that an officer or member of police staff has committed a serious criminal offence. Forces may also refer matters voluntarily to the IPCC and the Commission can call in any matter where there might be serious public concern, once a matter has been referred, the IPCC will make a mode of investigation decision to determine how it should be dealt with. This is done by caseworkers or investigators who submit an assessment to a Commissioner, the assessment will involve judging the available information and may mean IPCC investigators are sent to the scene. The four modes of investigation are, Independent investigations carried out by the IPCC’s own investigators, in an independent investigation, the IPCC investigators have all the powers of the police themselves. Managed investigations carried out by police Professional Standards Departments, under the direction, supervised investigations carried out by police PSDs, under their own direction and control. The IPCC will set the terms of reference for a supervised investigation, complainants have a right of appeal to the IPCC following a supervised investigation
Independent Police Complaints Commission
–
Independent Police Complaints Commission
19.
Developing countries
–
Also, the general term less-developed country should not be confused with the specific least developed country. The term developing describes a currently observed situation and not a dynamic or expected direction of progress, since the late 1990s developing countries tended to demonstrate higher growth rates than the developed ones. There is criticism of the use of the developing country. The term implies inferiority of a country or undeveloped country compared with a developed country. It assumes a desire to develop along the traditional Western model of development which a few countries, such as Cuba and Bhutan. An alternative measurement that has suggested is that of gross national happiness. Countries on the boundary between developed and developing are often categorized under the newly industrialized countries. In the 2016 edition of its World Development Indicators, the World Bank made a decision to no longer distinguish between “developed” and “developing” countries in the presentation of its data, nobody has ever agreed on a definition for these terms in the first place. Various terms are used for whatever is not a developed country, terms used include less developed country or less economically developed country, and for the more extreme, least developed country or least economically developed country. But according to the United Nations Statistics Division, There is no established convention for the designation of developed, the World Bank classifies countries into four income groups. These are set each year on July 1, economies were divided according to 2016 GNI per capita using the following ranges of income, Low income countries had GNI per capita of US$1,025 or less. Lower middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$1,026 and US$4,035, upper middle income countries had GNI per capita between US$4,036 and US$12,475. High income countries had GNI per capita above US$12,476 and this may be by absolute numbers or country ranking. The UN has developed the Human Development Index, an indicator of the above statistics. The UN sets Millennium Development Goals from a blueprint developed by all of the countries and leading development institutions. There is an association between low income and high population growth. The terms utilized when discussing developing countries refer to the intent, other terms sometimes used are less developed countries, least economically developed countries, underdeveloped nations or Third World nations, and non-industrialized nations. Conversely, developed countries, most economically developed countries, First World nations and that is, LEDCs are the poorest subset of LDCs
Developing countries
–
developing economies according to the IMF
20.
Budget
–
A budget is a quantitative expression of a financial plan for a defined period of time. It may include planned sales volumes and revenues, resource quantities, costs and expenses, assets, liabilities and it expresses strategic plans of business units, organizations, activities or events in measurable terms. A budget is the sum of money allocated for a particular purpose, a budget is a quantified financial plan for a forthcoming accounting period. A budget is an important concept in microeconomics, which uses a line to illustrate the trade-offs between two or more goods. In other terms, a budget is an organizational plan stated in monetary terms and it also helps to co-ordinate the activities of the organization by compelling managers to examine relationships between their own operation and those of other departments. Other essentials of budget include, To control resources To communicate plans to various responsibility center managers, to motivate managers to strive to achieve budget goals. Tools enable the actual operation of the business to be measured against the forecast. Lastly, tools establish the cost constraint for a project, program, on the other hand, if the figures diverge wildly from the budget, this sends an out of control signal, and the share price could suffer. Campaign planners incur two types of cost in any campaign, the first is the cost of human resource necessary to plan, the second type of expense that campaign planners incur is the hard cost of the campaign itself. A budget is a tool for an event director to predict with a reasonable accuracy whether the event will result in a profit. A budget can also be used as a pricing tool, there are two basic approaches or philosophies, when it comes to budgeting. One approach is telling you on mathematical models, and the other on people, the first school of thought believes that financial models, if properly constructed, can be used to predict the future. The focus is on variables, inputs and outputs, drivers, investments of time and money are devoted to perfecting these models, which are typically held in some type of financial spreadsheet application. The other school of thought holds that it’s not about models, no matter how sophisticated models can get, the best information comes from the people in the business. The focus is therefore in engaging the managers in the more fully in the budget process. The companies that adhere to this approach have their managers develop their own budgets, while many companies would say that they do both, in reality the investment of time and money falls squarely in one approach or the other. The budget of a government is a summary or plan of the revenues and expenditures of that government. There are three types of government budget, the operating or current budget, the capital or investment budget, the budget is prepared by the Treasury team led by the Chancellor of the Exchequer and is presented to Parliament by the Chancellor of the Exchequer on Budget Day
Budget
–
Brooklyn Museum - Comme Sisyphe - Honoré Daumier
21.
Constitutional economics
–
The political economist who seeks to offer normative advice, must, of necessity, concentrate on the process or structure within which political decisions are observed to be made. Existing constitutions, or structures or rules, are the subject of critical scrutiny, Constitutional economics has been characterized as a practical approach to apply the tools of economics to constitutional matters. For example, a concern of every nation is the proper allocation of available national economic. The legal solution to this problem falls within the scope of constitutional economics, another example is to study the compatibility of effective economic decisions with the existing constitutional framework and the limitations or the favorable conditions created by that framework. The term constitutional economics was coined in 1982 by the U. S. economist Richard McKenzie to designate the main topic of discussion at a conference held in Washington. McKenzies neologism was then adopted by another American economist, James M. Buchanan, constitutionalism has been the subject of criticism for its previous ignorance of economic issues but this criticism was taken into account by the development of constitutional economics. Buchanan rejects any organic conception of the state as superior in wisdom and this philosophical position is, in fact, the very subject matter of constitutional economics. A constitutional economics approach allows for an economic and constitutional analysis. Buchanan introduced rich cross-disciplinary concepts of citizenship and constitutional anarchy. Constitutional anarchy is a policy that may be best described as actions undertaken without understanding or taking into account the rules that define the constitutional order. This policy is justified by references to strategic tasks formulated on the basis of competing interests regardless of their subsequent impact on political structure, Buchanan also outlines importance of protection of the moral principles underlying constitutional norms. An individual may be responsible, in the standard ethical sense. Buchanan considered the term constitutionality in the sense and applied it to families, firms and public institutions. Buchanan is largely responsible for the rebirth of political economy as a scholarly pursuit, Buchanans work in public choice is often interpreted as the quintessential case of economic imperialism. However, as Amartya Sen has pointed out, Buchanan should not be identified with economic imperialism, Sen states that Buchanan has done more than most to introduce ethics, legal political thinking, and indeed social thinking into economics. Crucial to understanding Buchanans system of thought is the distinction he made between politics and policy, Politics is about the rules of the game, where policy is focused on strategies that players adopt within a given set of rules. Buchanan wrote the article entitled The Domain of Constitutional Economics, establishing the bounds of the emerging study. Individuals agree to place constraints on themselves in exchange for anticipated benefits, just as a market transaction occurs through voluntary, mutually beneficial exchange, so with political exchanges of rights and authority
Constitutional economics
–
Constitutional economics was popularized by
James M. Buchanan, for which he received the 1986
Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences (pictured here in September 2010)
22.
International Brotherhood of Teamsters
–
The International Brotherhood of Teamsters is a labor union in the United States and Canada. The union had approximately 1.3 million members in 2013, formerly known as the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauffeurs, Warehousemen and Helpers of America, the IBT is a member of the Change to Win Federation and Canadian Labour Congress. The American Federation of Labor had helped form local unions of teamsters since 1887, in November 1898, the AFL organized the Team Drivers International Union. In 1901, a group of Teamsters in Chicago, Illinois, broke from the TDIU, claiming more than 28,000 members in 47 locals, its president, Albert Young, applied for membership in the AFL. Shea effectively controlled the convention because the Chicago locals—representing nearly half the IBTs membership—supported for his candidacy en bloc, Shea was opposed by John Sheridan, president of the Ice Drivers Union of Chicago. Sheridan and George Innes, president of the TDIU, accused Shea of embezzlement in an attempt to prevent his election, Shea won the election on August 8,1903, by a vote of 605 to 480. The new grouping elected Edward L. Turley of Chicago as secretary-treasurer and it also meant that Teamsters leaders were able to demand bribes in order to avoid strikes, and control of a Teamsters local could bring organized crime significant revenues. During Sheas presidency, the entire Teamsters union was notoriously corrupt, noted labor historian John R. Commons famously concluded that during this time, the Teamsters were less a union and more a criminal organization. Several major strikes occupied the union in its first three years, in November 1903, Teamsters employed by the Chicago City Railway went out on strike. Shea attempted to stop sympathy strikes by other Teamster locals, a sympathy strike in support of 18,000 striking meat cutters in Chicago in July 1904 led to riots before the extensive use of strikebreakers led Shea to force his members back to work. In the midst of the strife in 1904, the Teamsters convention in Cincinnati, under his leadership, the union had expanded to nearly 50,000 members in 821 locals in 300 cities, making the Teamsters one of the largest unions in the United States. In 190510,000 Teamsters struck in support of locked-out tailors at Montgomery Ward, despite the revelations, Shea won re-election on August 12,1905, by a vote of 129 to 121. Shea was re-elected again in 1905 and 1906, although significant challenges to his presidency occurred each time, Sheas first trial on charges stemming from the 1905 Montgomery Ward strike ended in a mistrial. However, during the 1906 re-election Shea had promised that he would resign the presidency once his trial had ended, but he did not, and most union members withdrew their support for him. Daniel J. Tobin of Boston was elected Sheas successor by a vote of 104 to 94 in August 1907, historic references to early freight transportation in the US refer to teamsters as those who drove teams of horses pulling huge wagons. Tobin was president of the Teamsters from 1907 to 1952, although he faced opposition in his re-election races in 1908,1909 and 1910, he never faced opposition again until his retirement in 1952. The Teamsters began to dramatically and mature organizationally under Tobin. He pushed for the development of joint councils to which all local unions were forced to affiliate, Tobin also actively discouraged strikes in order to bring discipline to the union and encourage employers to sign contracts, and founded and edited the union magazine, the International Teamster
International Brotherhood of Teamsters
–
Informal portrait of (left to right)
Cornelius P. Shea, John Miller,
Fred Mader, and
Tim Murphy sitting in a row in a courtroom in Chicago, Illinois, during a labor trial. Murphy was a politician, union organizer, and reputed gangster, and he was murdered in 1928.
International Brotherhood of Teamsters
–
Teamsters
International Brotherhood of Teamsters
–
A Teamsters gathering at the
YearlyKos 2007 convention
International Brotherhood of Teamsters
–
Teamsters headquarters located beside
Capitol Hill in
Washington, D.C.
23.
La Cosa Nostra
–
The Sicilian Mafia, also known as simply the Mafia or Cosa Nostra, is a criminal syndicate in Sicily, Italy. It is an association of criminal groups that share a common organisational structure. The basic group is known as a family, clan, or cosca or cosche in Sicilian, each family claims sovereignty over a territory, usually a town or village or a neighbourhood of a larger city, in which it operates its rackets. Its members call themselves men of honour, although the public refers to them as mafiosi. The mafias core activities are protection racketeering, the arbitration of disputes between criminals, and the organizing and oversight of illegal agreements and transactions, following waves of emigration, the Mafia has spread to other countries such as the United States, Canada, and Australia. The word mafia originated in Sicily, though its origins are uncertain, the Sicilian adjective mafiusu roughly translates to mean swagger, but can also be translated as boldness, bravado. In reference to a man, mafiusu in 19th century Sicily was ambiguous, signifying a bully, arrogant but also fearless, enterprising and proud, in reference to a woman, however, the feminine-form adjective mafiusa means beautiful and attractive. The Sicilian word mafie refers to the caves near Trapani and Marsala, Sicily was once an Islamic emirate, therefore mafia might have Arabic roots. The words mafia and mafiusi are never mentioned in the play, the play is about a Palermo prison gang with traits similar to the Mafia, a boss, an initiation ritual, and talk of umirtà and pizzu. The play had great success throughout Italy, soon after, the use of the term mafia began appearing in the Italian states early reports on the phenomenon. The word made its first official appearance in 1865 in a report by the prefect of Palermo Filippo Antonio Gualterio, the term mafia has become a generic term for any organized criminal network with similar structure, methods, and interests. Nowadays people have gone so far in the direction that it has become an overused term. According to mafia turncoats, the name of the mafia is Cosa Nostra. Italian-American mafioso Joseph Valachi testified before the Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the U. S. Senate Committee on Government Operations in 1963 and he revealed that American mafiosi referred to their organization by the term cosa nostra. At the time, it was understood as a name, fostered by the FBI. The FBI even added the article la to the term, calling it La Cosa Nostra, in 1984, mafia turncoat Tommaso Buscetta revealed to anti-mafia magistrate Giovanni Falcone that the term was used by the Sicilian Mafia, as well. Buscetta dismissed the word mafia as a literary creation. Other defectors such as Antonino Calderone and Salvatore Contorno confirmed the use of Cosa Nostra by members, mafiosi introduce known members to each other as belonging to cosa nostra or la stessa cosa, meaning he is the same thing as you — a mafioso
La Cosa Nostra
–
Al Capone 's violent rise to power in
Chicago and the media attention it brought made him a lasting figure of the prohibition era and organized crime in general.
La Cosa Nostra
–
FBI chart of American Mafia bosses across the country in 1963.
La Cosa Nostra
–
Charles "Lucky" Luciano in 1948
La Cosa Nostra
–
Sammy Gravano
24.
Isaiah
–
Isaiah was the 8th century BCE Jewish prophet who gave his name to the Book of Isaiah. The exact relationship between the Book of Isaiah and any such historical Isaiah is complicated, jews and Christians consider the Book of Isaiah a part of their Biblical canon, he is the first listed of the Neviim Aharonim, the latter prophets. Muslims consider Isaiah a prophet mentioned in Muslim exegesis of canonical scriptures, the first verse of the Book of Isaiah states that Isaiah prophesied during the reigns of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz and Hezekiah, the kings of Judah. Uzziahs reign was 52 years in the middle of the 8th century BCE, Isaiah lived until the fourteenth year of Hezekiahs reign, and may have been contemporary for some years with Manasseh. Thus Isaiah may have prophesied for as long as 64 years, another interpretation, holds that it was simply an honorary title is likely. They had two sons, naming one Shear-Yashuv, meaning A remnant shall return and the younger, Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz, meaning, Spoil quickly, soon after this, Shalmaneser V determined to subdue the kingdom of Israel, Samaria was taken and destroyed. This led the king of Assyria to threaten the king of Judah, Sennacherib led a powerful army into Judah. Hezekiah was reduced to despair, and submitted to the Assyrians, but after a brief interval war broke out again. Again Sennacherib led an army into Judah, one detachment of which threatened Jerusalem, Isaiah on that occasion encouraged Hezekiah to resist the Assyrians, whereupon Sennacherib sent a threatening letter to Hezekiah, which he spread before the LORD. Whom hast thou taunted and blasphemed, and against whom hast thou exalted thy voice. Yea, thou hast lifted up thine eyes on high, even against the Holy One of Israel, according to the account in 2 Kings 19 the judgment of God now fell on the Assyrian army and wiped out 185,000 of its men. Like Xerxes in Greece, Sennacherib never recovered from the shock of the disaster in Judah and he made no more expeditions against either the Southern Levant or Egypt. The remaining years of Hezekiahs reign were peaceful, Isaiah probably lived to its close, and possibly into the reign of Manasseh, but the time and manner of his death are not specified in either the Bible or other primary sources. The Talmud says that he suffered martyrdom by being sawn in two under the orders of Manasseh, according to rabbinic Literature, Isaiah was the maternal grandfather of Manasseh. Some writers assert that Isaiah was a vegetarian, on the basis of passages in the Book of Isaiah that extol nonviolence and reverence for life, such as Isaiah 1,11,11, 6-9,65,25, and 66,3. Some of these refer to the vegetarian Isaiah, the notorious vegetarian Isaiah, and Isaiah. Gregory of Nyssa, believed that the Prophet Isaiah knew more perfectly than all others the mystery of the religion of the Gospel. Of specific note are the songs of the Suffering Servant which Christians say are a direct revelation of the nature, purpose
Isaiah
–
The Prophet Isaiah; illustration from a
Bible card published by the Providence Lithograph Company (c. 1904)
Isaiah
–
Russian icon of the Prophet Isaiah, 18th century (
iconostasis of
Transfiguration Church,
Kizhi monastery,
Karelia,
Russia).
Isaiah
–
Isaiah receives his vision of the Lord's house. A stained glass window at
St. Matthew's German Evangelical Lutheran Church in Charleston, South Carolina
Isaiah
–
Isaiah, by
Michelangelo, (c. 1508–1512,
Sistine Chapel ceiling,
Vatican City)
25.
Amos (prophet)
–
Amos was one of the Twelve Minor Prophets. An older contemporary of Hosea and Isaiah, Amos was active c, 760-755 BC during the reign of Jeroboam II. He was from the southern Kingdom of Judah but preached in the northern Kingdom of Israel, Amos wrote at a time of relative peace and prosperity but also of neglect of YHWHs laws. He spoke against an increased disparity between the wealthy and the very poor. His major themes of justice, Gods omnipotence, and divine judgment became staples of prophecy. The Book of Amos is attributed to him, before becoming a prophet, Amos was a sheep herder and a sycamore fig farmer. Amos prior professions and his claim I am not a prophet nor a son of a prophet indicate that Amos was not from the school of prophets, Amos declaration marks a turning-point in the development of Old Testament prophecy. The Bible speaks of his ministry and prophecies concluding around 762, the prophet Zechariah likely was referencing this same earthquake several centuries later. From Zechariah 14,5, And you shall flee as you fled from the earthquake in the days of Uzziah king of Judah. Despite being from the kingdom of Judah Amos prophetic message was aimed at the Northern Kingdom of Israel, particularly the cities of Samaria. Jeroboam II, ruler of the Northern kingdom, had rapidly conquered Syria, Moab, and Ammon, the whole northern empire of Solomon thus practically restored had enjoyed a long period of peace and security marked by a revival of artistic and commercial development. Social corruption and the oppression of the poor and helpless were prevalent, many availed themselves of the throngs which attended the sacred festivals to indulge in immoderate enjoyment and tumultuous revelry. Others, carried away by the association with heathen peoples which resulted from conquest or commercial contact. Amos is the first of the prophets to write down the messages he has received and he has always been admired for the purity of his language, his beauty of diction, and his poetic art. In all these respects he is Isaiahs spiritual progenitor, what we know of Amos derives solely from the book that he himself authored. This makes it hard to know who the historical Amos truly was, Amos felt himself called to preach in Bethel, where there was a royal sanctuary, and there to announce the fall of the reigning dynasty and of the northern kingdom. But he is denounced by the head priest Amaziah to King Jeroboam II and is advised to leave the kingdom, there is no reason to doubt that he was actually forced to leave the northern kingdom and to return to his native country. Being thus prevented from bringing his message to an end, and from reaching the ear of those to whom he was sent, he had recourse to writing
Amos (prophet)
–
An 18th-century Russian
icon of the prophet Amos (
Iconostasis of
Transfiguration Church,
Kizhi monastery,
Karelia,
Russia).
Amos (prophet)
–
Virgin Mary
26.
History of ancient Israel and Judah
–
Israel and Judah were related Iron Age kingdoms of the ancient Levant. The Kingdom of Israel emerged as an important local power by the 10th century BCE before falling to the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 722 BCE and this, the last nominally independent Judean kingdom, came to an end in 63 BCE with its conquest by Pompey of Rome. East of the plain and the Shephelah is a ridge, the hill country of Judah in the south, the hill country of Ephraim north of that, then Galilee. To the east again lie the valley occupied by the Jordan River, the Dead Sea, and the wadi of the Arabah. Beyond the plateau is the Syrian desert, separating the Levant from Mesopotamia, to the southwest is Egypt, to the northeast Mesopotamia. The location and geographical characteristics of the narrow Levant made the area a battleground among the entities that surrounded it. Politically and culturally it was dominated by Egypt, each city under its own ruler, constantly at odds with its neighbours, and appealing to the Egyptians to adjudicate their differences. The Canaanite city-state system broke down at the end of the Late Bronze period, the name Israel first appears in the stele of the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah c.1209 BCE, Israel is laid waste and his seed is no more. In the Late Bronze Age there were no more than about 25 villages in the highlands, the villages were more numerous and larger in the north, and probably shared the highlands with pastoral nomads, who left no remains. Other Aramaean sites also demonstrate a contemporary absence of pig remains at that time, unlike earlier Canaanite, in The Bible Unearthed, Finkelstein and Silberman summarised recent studies. They described how, up until 1967, the Israelite heartland in the highlands of western Palestine was virtually an archaeological terra incognita, since then, intensive surveys have examined the traditional territories of the tribes of Judah, Benjamin, Ephraim, and Manasseh. These surveys have revealed the emergence of a new culture contrasting with the Philistine. This new culture is characterised by a lack of remains, by an abandonment of the Philistine/Canaanite custom of having highly decorated pottery. The Israelite ethnic identity had originated, not from the Exodus and a subsequent conquest and these surveys revolutionized the study of early Israel. There was no sign of violent invasion or even the infiltration of a clearly defined ethnic group, instead, it seemed to be a revolution in lifestyle. From then on, over a period of hundreds of years until after the return of the exiles from Babylon, after the period of Ezra there is no more biblical record of them. The Hebrew language, a dialect of Canaanite, became the language of the hill country, modern scholars therefore see Israel arising peacefully and internally from existing people in the highlands of Canaan. Unusually favourable climatic conditions in the first two centuries of Iron Age II brought about an expansion of population, settlements and trade throughout the region
History of ancient Israel and Judah
–
The Iron Age
kingdom of Israel (blue) and
kingdom of Judah (yellow), with their neighbors (tan) (8th century BCE)
History of ancient Israel and Judah
–
The Canaanite god Ba'al, 14th–12th century BCE (
Louvre museum, Paris)
History of ancient Israel and Judah
–
The
Merneptah stele. While alternative translations exist, the majority of
biblical archeologists translate a set of hieroglyphs as "Israel", representing the first instance of the name Israel in the historical record.
27.
Torah
–
The Torah is the central reference of Judaism. It has a range of meanings and it can most specifically mean the first five books of the twenty-four books of the Tanakh, and it usually includes the rabbinic commentaries. In rabbinic literature the word Torah denotes both the five books and the Oral Torah, the Oral Torah consists of interpretations and amplifications which according to rabbinic tradition have been handed down from generation to generation and are now embodied in the Talmud and Midrash. According to the Midrash, the Torah was created prior to the creation of the world, traditionally, the words of the Torah are written on a scroll by a scribe in Hebrew. A Torah portion is read publicly at least once every three days in the presence of a congregation, reading the Torah publicly is one of the bases for Jewish communal life. The word Torah in Hebrew is derived from the root ירה, the meaning of the word is therefore teaching, doctrine, or instruction, the commonly accepted law gives a wrong impression. Other translational contexts in the English language include custom, theory, guidance, the earliest name for the first part of the Bible seems to have been The Torah of Moses. This title, however, is neither in the Torah itself. It appears in Joshua and Kings, but it cannot be said to refer there to the entire corpus, in contrast, there is every likelihood that its use in the post-Exilic works was intended to be comprehensive. Other early titles were The Book of Moses and The Book of the Torah, Christian scholars usually refer to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible as the Pentateuch, a term first used in the Hellenistic Judaism of Alexandria, meaning five books, or as the Law. The Torah starts from the beginning of Gods creating the world, through the beginnings of the people of Israel, their descent into Egypt, and it ends with the death of Moses, just before the people of Israel cross to the promised land of Canaan. Interspersed in the narrative are the teachings given explicitly or implicitly embedded in the narrative. This is followed by the story of the three patriarchs, Joseph and the four matriarchs, God gives to the patriarchs a promise of the land of Canaan, but at the end of Genesis the sons of Jacob end up leaving Canaan for Egypt due to a regional famine. They had heard there was a grain storage and distribution facility in Egypt. Exodus begins the story of Gods revelation to his people of Israel through Moses, Moses receives the Torah from God, and teaches His laws and Covenant to the people of Israel. It also talks about the first violation of the covenant when the Golden Calf was constructed, Exodus includes the instructions on building the Tabernacle and concludes with its actual construction. Leviticus begins with instructions to the Israelites on how to use the Tabernacle, leviticus 26 provides a detailed list of rewards for following Gods commandments and a detailed list of punishments for not following them. Numbers tells how Israel consolidated itself as a community at Sinai, set out from Sinai to move towards Canaan, even Moses sins and is told he would not live to enter the land
Torah
–
Sefer Torah at old
Glockengasse Synagogue (reconstruction),
Cologne
Torah
–
Silver Torah Case,
Ottoman Empire Museum of Jewish Art and History
Torah
–
Reading of the Torah
Torah
–
Tanakh (Judaism)
28.
New Testament
–
The New Testament is the second major part of the Christian biblical canon, the first part being the Old Testament, based on the Hebrew Bible. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of Jesus, as well as events in first-century Christianity, Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as sacred scripture. The New Testament has frequently accompanied the spread of Christianity around the world and it reflects and serves as a source for Christian theology and morality. Both extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are also incorporated into the various Christian liturgies, the New Testament has influenced religious, philosophical, and political movements in Christendom and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music. In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books, John A. T. Robinson, Dan Wallace, and William F. Albright dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD. Others give a date of 80 AD, or at 96 AD. Over time, some disputed books, such as the Book of Revelation, other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as 1 Clement, the Shepherd of Hermas, and the Diatessaron, were excluded from the New Testament. However, the canon of the New Testament, at least since Late Antiquity, has been almost universally recognized within Christianity. The term new testament, or new covenant first occurs in Jeremiah 31,31, the same Greek phrase for new covenant is found elsewhere in the New Testament. Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes testament and covenant as alternative translations, John Wycliffes 1395 version is a translation of the Latin Vulgate and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews, Lo. Days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant with the house of Israel, for he reproving him saith, Lo. Days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament on the house of Israel, use of the term New Testament to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to Tertullian. In Against Marcion, written circa 208 AD, he writes of the Divine Word, by the 4th century, the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. Lactantius, a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin Institutiones Divinae and that which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the law and the prophets—is called the Old, but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The canon of the New Testament is the collection of books that most Christians regard as divinely inspired, several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality. The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, the Slavonic, Armenian and Ethiopian traditions have different New Testament book orders. Each of the four gospels in the New Testament narrates the life, death, the word gospel derives from the Old English gōd-spell, meaning good news or glad tidings. The gospel was considered the good news of the coming Kingdom of Messiah, and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, Gospel is a calque of the Greek word εὐαγγέλιον, euangelion
New Testament
–
Books of the New Testament
New Testament
–
Evangelist Mathäus und der Engel, by
Rembrandt.
New Testament
–
Saint Paul Writing His Epistles, 17th-century painting. Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary.
New Testament
–
Papyrus Bodmer VIII, at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, showing 1 and 2 Peter.
29.
Jesus
–
Jesus, also referred to as Jesus of Nazareth or Jesus Christ, was a Jewish preacher and religious leader who became the central figure of Christianity. Christians believe him to be the Son of God and the awaited Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament, Jesus was a Galilean Jew who was baptized by John the Baptist and subsequently began his own ministry, preaching his message orally and often being referred to as rabbi. He was arrested and tried by the Jewish authorities, and was crucified by the order of Pontius Pilate, Jesus debated fellow Jews on how to best follow God, performed healings, taught in parables and gathered followers. After his death, his followers believed he rose from the dead, and his birth is celebrated annually on December 25 as a holiday known as Christmas, his crucifixion is honored on Good Friday, and his resurrection is celebrated on Easter. The widely used calendar era AD, from the Latin anno Domini, most Christians believe Jesus enables humans to be reconciled to God. The Nicene Creed asserts that Jesus will judge the living and the dead either before or after their bodily resurrection, the great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three persons of a Divine Trinity. A minority of Christian denominations reject Trinitarianism, wholly or partly, in Islam, Jesus is considered one of Gods important prophets and the Messiah. Muslims believe Jesus was a bringer of scripture and was born of a virgin but was not the Son of God, the Quran states that Jesus himself never claimed divinity. To most Muslims, Jesus was not crucified but was raised into Heaven by God. Judaism rejects the belief that Jesus was the awaited Messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill Messianic prophecies, a typical Jew in Jesus time had only one name, sometimes supplemented with the fathers name or the individuals hometown. Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as Jesus of Nazareth, Jesus neighbors in Nazareth refer to him as the carpenter, the son of Mary and brother of James and Joses and Judas and Simon, the carpenters son, or Josephs son. In John, the disciple Philip refers to him as Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth, the name Jesus is derived from the Latin Iesus, a transliteration of the Greek Ἰησοῦς. The Greek form is a rendering of the Hebrew ישוע, a variant of the earlier name יהושע, the name Yeshua appears to have been in use in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus. The 1st century works of historian Flavius Josephus, who wrote in Koine Greek, the etymology of Jesus name in the context of the New Testament is generally given as Yahweh is salvation. Since early Christianity, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as Jesus Christ, the word Christ is derived from the Greek Χριστός, which is a translation of the Hebrew משיח, meaning the anointed and usually transliterated into English as Messiah. Christians designate Jesus as Christ because they believe he is the Messiah, whose arrival is prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, in postbiblical usage, Christ became viewed as a name—one part of Jesus Christ—but originally it was a title. The term Christian has been in use since the 1st century, the four canonical gospels are the only substantial sources for the life and message of Jesus. Acts of the Apostles refers to the ministry of Jesus
Jesus
–
(
stained glass at
St John's Ashfield in
Sydney, Australia)
Jesus
Jesus
–
A 3rd-century Greek
papyrus of the
Gospel of Luke
Jesus
–
Adoration of the Shepherds by
Gerard van Honthorst, 1622.
30.
Martin Luther
–
Martin Luther, O. S. A. was a German professor of theology, composer, priest, monk and a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. Luther came to reject several teachings and practices of the Roman Catholic Church and he strongly disputed the Catholic view on indulgences as he understood it to be, that freedom from Gods punishment for sin could be purchased with money. Luther proposed a discussion of the practice and efficacy of indulgences in his Ninety-five Theses of 1517. His translation of the Bible into the vernacular made it accessible to the laity. It fostered the development of a version of the German language, added several principles to the art of translation, and influenced the writing of an English translation. His hymns influenced the development of singing in Protestant churches and his marriage to Katharina von Bora, a former nun, set a model for the practice of clerical marriage, allowing Protestant clergy to marry. In two of his works, Luther expressed antagonistic views towards Jews, writing that Jewish homes and synagogues should be destroyed, their money confiscated. Condemned by virtually every Lutheran denomination, these statements and their influence on antisemitism have contributed to his controversial status, Martin Luther was born to Hans Luder and his wife Margarethe on 10 November 1483 in Eisleben, Saxony, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. He was baptized as a Catholic the next morning on the feast day of St. Martin of Tours and his family moved to Mansfeld in 1484, where his father was a leaseholder of copper mines and smelters and served as one of four citizen representatives on the local council. He had several brothers and sisters, and is known to have close to one of them. Hans Luther was ambitious for himself and his family, and he was determined to see Martin, his eldest son, become a lawyer. He sent Martin to Latin schools in Mansfeld, then Magdeburg in 1497, where he attended a school operated by a lay group called the Brethren of the Common Life, the three schools focused on the so-called trivium, grammar, rhetoric, and logic. Luther later compared his education there to purgatory and hell, in 1501, at the age of 19, he entered the University of Erfurt, which he later described as a beerhouse and whorehouse. He was made to wake at four every morning for what has been described as a day of rote learning and he received his masters degree in 1505. In accordance with his fathers wishes, Luther enrolled in law school at the university that year but dropped out almost immediately. Luther sought assurances about life and was drawn to theology and philosophy, expressing particular interest in Aristotle, William of Ockham, philosophy proved to be unsatisfying, offering assurance about the use of reason but none about loving God, which to Luther was more important. Reason could not lead men to God, he felt, for Luther, reason could be used to question men and institutions, but not God. Human beings could learn about God only through divine revelation, he believed and he later attributed his decision to an event, on 2 July 1505, he was returning to university on horseback after a trip home
Martin Luther
–
Luther (1529) by
Lucas Cranach the Elder
Martin Luther
–
Portraits of Hans and Margarethe Luther by
Lucas Cranach the Elder, 1527
Martin Luther
–
Luther as an
Augustinian friar
Martin Luther
–
According to one account, Luther nailed his
Ninety-Five Theses to the door of
All Saints' Church in
Wittenberg on 31 October 1517, sparking the
Reformation. The
Latin inscription above informs the reader that the original door was destroyed by a fire, and that in 1857, King
Frederick William IV of Prussia ordered the replacement be made. Luther's theses were engraved into today's bronze gate (pictured).
31.
Indulgence
–
In the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church, an indulgence is a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins. It may reduce the temporal punishment after death, in the state or process of purification called Purgatory and this temporal punishment would not be considered time, as Purgatory, like Heaven and Hell, is said to exist outside of time. The recipient of an indulgence must perform an action to receive it and this is most often the saying of a specified prayer, but may also include the visiting of a particular place, or the performance of specific good works. They draw on the Treasury of Merit accumulated by Christs superabundantly meritorious sacrifice on the cross and they are granted for specific good works and prayers in proportion to the devotion with which those good works are performed or prayers recited. By the late Middle Ages, the abuse of indulgences, mainly through commercialization, had become a problem which the Church recognized but was unable to restrain effectively. Indulgences were from the beginning of the Protestant Reformation a target of attacks by Martin Luther, eventually the Catholic Counter-Reformation curbed the excesses, but indulgences continue to play a role in modern Catholic religious life. Reforms in the 20th century largely abolished the quantification of indulgences and these days or years were meant to represent the equivalent of time spent in penance, although it was widely taken to mean time spent in Purgatory. The reforms also reduced the number of indulgences granted for visiting particular churches. When a person sins, he acquires certain liabilities, the liability of guilt, a mortal sin is equivalent to refusing friendship with God and communion with the only source of eternal life. The loss of life with God, and the eternal death of hell that is the effect of this rejection, is called the eternal punishment of sin. The Sacrament of Penance removes the guilt and the liability of eternal punishment related to mortal sin, though your sins are like scarlet, they shall be white as snow, though they are red like crimson, they shall become like wool. The forgiveness of sin and restoration of communion with God entail the remission of the punishment of sin. The process of sanctification and interior renewal requires not only forgiveness from the guilt of sin and this purification process gives rise to temporal punishment, because, not involving a total rejection of God, it is not eternal and can be expiated. While patiently bearing sufferings and trials of all kinds and, when the day comes, serenely facing death, the Christian must strive to accept this temporal punishment of sin as a grace. He should strive by works of mercy and charity, as well as by prayer, the temporal punishment that follows sin is thus undergone either during life on earth or in purgatory. Indulgences are a help towards achieving this purification, an indulgence does not forgive the guilt of sin, nor does it provide release from the eternal punishment associated with unforgiven mortal sins. Similarly, an indulgence is not a permit to commit sin, ordinarily, forgiveness of mortal sins is obtained through Confession. According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, The treasury of the Church is the value, which can never be exhausted
Indulgence
–
Inscription on the
Basilica of St. John Lateran in
Rome: Indulgentia plenaria perpetua quotidiana toties quoties pro vivis et defunctis (English trans: "Perpetual everyday plenary indulgence on every occasion for the living and the dead")
Indulgence
–
St. Peter's Basilica,
Vatican City
Indulgence
–
Archbishop Socrates B. Villegas bestows the
Easter Mass Plenary Indulgence in 2012 (St. John the Evangelist Metropolitan Cathedral,
Dagupan City, Pangasinan).
Indulgence
–
Engraving of the
Mass of Saint Gregory by
Israhel van Meckenem, 1490s, with an unauthorized indulgence at the bottom
32.
Princeton University
–
Princeton University is a private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. The institution moved to Newark in 1747, then to the current site nine years later, Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences, and engineering. The university has ties with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton Theological Seminary, Princeton has the largest endowment per student in the United States. The university has graduated many notable alumni, two U. S. Presidents,12 U. S. Supreme Court Justices, and numerous living billionaires and foreign heads of state are all counted among Princetons alumni body. New Light Presbyterians founded the College of New Jersey in 1746 in order to train ministers, the college was the educational and religious capital of Scots-Irish America. In 1754, trustees of the College of New Jersey suggested that, in recognition of Governors interest, gov. Jonathan Belcher replied, What a name that would be. In 1756, the moved to Princeton, New Jersey. Its home in Princeton was Nassau Hall, named for the royal House of Orange-Nassau of William III of England, following the untimely deaths of Princetons first five presidents, John Witherspoon became president in 1768 and remained in that office until his death in 1794. During his presidency, Witherspoon shifted the focus from training ministers to preparing a new generation for leadership in the new American nation. To this end, he tightened academic standards and solicited investment in the college, in 1812, the eighth president the College of New Jersey, Ashbel Green, helped establish the Princeton Theological Seminary next door. The plan to extend the theological curriculum met with approval on the part of the authorities at the College of New Jersey. Today, Princeton University and Princeton Theological Seminary maintain separate institutions with ties that include such as cross-registration. Before the construction of Stanhope Hall in 1803, Nassau Hall was the sole building. The cornerstone of the building was laid on September 17,1754, during the summer of 1783, the Continental Congress met in Nassau Hall, making Princeton the countrys capital for four months. The class of 1879 donated twin lion sculptures that flanked the entrance until 1911, Nassau Halls bell rang after the halls construction, however, the fire of 1802 melted it. The bell was then recast and melted again in the fire of 1855, James McCosh took office as the colleges president in 1868 and lifted the institution out of a low period that had been brought about by the American Civil War. McCosh Hall is named in his honor, in 1879, the first thesis for a Doctor of Philosophy Ph. D. was submitted by James F. Williamson, Class of 1877. In 1896, the officially changed its name from the College of New Jersey to Princeton University to honor the town in which it resides
Princeton University
–
A commemorative 3-cent stamp from 1953 celebrating the bicentennial of
Nassau Hall
Princeton University
–
Seal of Princeton University
Princeton University
–
John Witherspoon, President of the College (1768-94), signer of the
Declaration of Independence
Princeton University
–
A Birds-eye view of campus in 1906
33.
Hermeneutical
–
Hermeneutics is the theory and methodology of interpretation, especially the interpretation of biblical texts, wisdom literature, and philosophical texts. Modern hermeneutics includes both verbal and non-verbal communication as well as semiotics, presuppositions, and pre-understandings, Hermeneutics has been broadly applied in the humanities, especially in law, history and theology. Hermeneutics was initially applied to the interpretation, or exegesis, of scripture, the terms hermeneutics and exegesis are sometimes used interchangeably. Hermeneutics is a discipline which includes written, verbal. Hermeneutic, as a noun, refers to some particular method of interpretation. Hermeneutics is derived from the Greek word ἑρμηνεύω, from ἑρμηνεύς and it is one of the earliest extant philosophical works in the Western tradition to deal with the relationship between language and logic in a comprehensive, explicit and formal way. The early usage of hermeneutics places it within the boundaries of the sacred, a divine message must be received with implicit uncertainty regarding its truth. This ambiguity is an irrationality, it is a sort of madness that is inflicted upon the receiver of the message, only one who possesses a rational method of interpretation could determine the truth or falsity of the message. Folk etymology places its origin with Hermes, the mythological Greek deity who was the messenger of the gods, besides being a mediator between the gods and between the gods and men, he led souls to the underworld upon death. Hermes was also considered to be the inventor of language and speech, an interpreter, a liar, a thief and these multiple roles made Hermes an ideal representative figure for hermeneutics. As Socrates noted, words have the power to reveal or conceal and these principles ranged from standard rules of logic to more expansive ones, such as the rule that a passage could be interpreted by reference to another passage in which the same word appears. The rabbis did not ascribe equal persuasive power to the various principles, traditional Jewish hermeneutics differed from the Greek method in that the rabbis considered the Tanakh to be without error. Any apparent inconsistencies had to be understood by means of examination of a given text within the context of other texts. Vedic hermeneutics involves the exegesis of the Vedas, the earliest holy texts of Hinduism, the Mimamsa was the leading hermeneutic school and their primary purpose was understanding what Dharma involved by a detailed hermeneutic study of the Vedas. They also derived the rules for the rituals that had to be performed precisely. The foundational text is the Mimamsa Sutra of Jaimini with a commentary by Śabara. The Mimamsa sutra summed up the rules for Vedic interpretation. Buddhist hermeneutics deals with the interpretation of the vast Buddhist literature, particularly those texts which are said to be spoken by the Buddha, Buddhist hermeneutics is deeply tied to Buddhist spiritual practice and its ultimate aim is to extract skillful means of reaching spiritual enlightenment or nirvana
Hermeneutical
–
Hermes, messenger of the gods.
34.
Individual salvation
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Salvation is being saved or protected from harm or being saved or delivered from a dire situation. In religion, salvation is stated as the saving of the soul from sin, the academic study of salvation is called soteriology. In religion, salvation is the saving of the soul from sin and it may also be called deliverance or redemption from sin and its effects. Salvation is considered to be caused either by the grace of a deity, by free will and personal efforts through prayer and asceticism, religions often emphasize the necessity of both personal effort—for example, repentance and asceticism—and divine action. In contemporary Judaism, redemption, refers to God redeeming the people of Israel from their various exiles and this includes the final redemption from the present exile. Judaism holds that adherents do not need personal salvation as Christians believe, jews do not subscribe to the doctrine of original sin. In Judaism, salvation is related to the idea of redemption. God as the spirit and Creator of the World, is the source of all salvation for humanity. So redemption or salvation depends on the individual, Judaism stresses that salvation cannot be obtained through anyone else or by just invoking a deity or believing in any outside power or influence. The Messiah is not considered as a divine or supernatural being but as a dominating human influence in an age of universal peace. When examining Jewish intellectual sources throughout history, there is clearly a spectrum of opinions regarding death versus the afterlife, possibly an over-simplification, one source says salvation can be achieved in the following manner, Live a holy and righteous life dedicated to Yahweh, the God of Creation. Fast, worship, and celebrate during the appropriate holidays, by origin and nature, Judaism is an ethnic religion. Therefore, salvation has been conceived in terms of the destiny of Israel as the elect people of Yahweh. In the biblical text of Psalms, there is a description of death, the first reference to resurrection is collective in Ezekiels vision of the dry bones, when all the Israelites in exile will be resurrected. There is a reference to individual resurrection in the Book of Daniel and it was not until the 2nd century BCE that there arose a belief in an afterlife, in which the dead would be resurrected and undergo divine judgment. Before that time, the individual had to be content that his posterity continued within the holy nation, the salvation of the individual Jew was connected to the salvation of the entire people. This belief stemmed directly from the teachings of the Torah, in the Torah, God taught his people sanctification of the individual. However, he expected them to function together and be accountable to one another
Individual salvation
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Allegory of Salvation by
Wolf Huber (ca. 1543),
Kunsthistorisches Museum in
Vienna
Individual salvation
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Allegory of Salvation by Antonius Heusler (ca. 1555),
National Museum in
Warsaw.
