1.
Toilet
–
A toilet is a sanitation fixture used for the storing or disposal of human urine and feces. In developed countries, different forms of flush toilets are common. These are connected to a system in most urban areas. In many developing countries, especially in areas, dry toilets such as pit latrines. Dry toilets are usually placed in outhouses, i. e. not inside the dwelling, in many countries, private homes are designed with the flush toilet and the bath or shower in the same room, the bathroom, to simplify plumbing and reduce cost. Other cultures find this insanitary, and have one room for body-washing, public toilets are installed where their use is expected on a permanent basis, while portable toilets may be brought in for large but temporary gatherings. Chemical toilets are used in various contexts, such as passenger trains. Serious waterborne diseases such as cholera and diarrhea occur when open defecation or poor sanitation permits human waste to pollute water supplies, historically, sanitation has been a concern from the earliest stages of human settlements. The Indus Valley Civilization is particularly notable for its extensive sanitation works, for the most part, early cities emptied their waste into rivers or seas manually or via open ditches. Sanitation in ancient Rome was notably advanced, as were some of the reredorters of medieval monasteries, a precursor to the modern flush toilet system was designed by John Harington in 1596 but did not become common until the late 19th century. Even London, at time the worlds largest city, did not require indoor toilets in its building codes until after the First World War. A typical flush toilet is a ceramic bowl connected on the up side to a cistern that enables rapid filling with water, when a toilet is flushed, the sewage should flow into a septic tank or into a system connected to a Sewage treatment plant. However, in countries, this treatment does not happen. The water in the bowl is connected to a pipe shaped like an upside-down U. One side of the U channel is arranged as a tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain, the bottom of the drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. The water in the acts as a barrier to sewer gas entering the building. Sewer gas escapes through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line, the amount of water used by conventional flush toilets usually makes up a significant portion of personal daily water usage
Toilet
–
Toilets come in various shapes and forms around the world: Top:
flush toilet in a home in Australia, with dispenser for
toilet paper and a
toilet brush in its holder; Bottom: Low-cost
dry toilet (
Arborloo at a school in Zimbabwe)
Toilet
Toilet
–
Flush toilet bowl (sitting style)
Toilet
–
A poorly maintained pit latrine in Yaounde,
Cameroon
2.
Lipstick
–
Lipstick is a cosmetic product containing pigments, oils, waxes, and emollients that apply color, texture, and protection to the lips. Many colors and types of lipstick exist, as with most other types of makeup, lipstick is typically, but not exclusively, worn by women. Some lipsticks are also lip balms, to add color and hydration, ancient Americas oldest manual from the 13th century The Grolier Codex shows two Mayan woman wearing lipstick. Ancient Sumerian men and women were possibly the first to invent and wear lipstick and they crushed gemstones and used them to decorate their faces, mainly on the lips and around the eyes. Also Egyptians like Cleopatra crushed bugs to create a colour of red on their lips, also around 3000 BC to 1500 BC, women in the ancient Indus Valley Civilization applied red tinted lipstick to their lips for face decoration. Ancient Egyptians wore lipstick to show social status rather than gender and they extracted the red dye from fucus-algin,0. 01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, but this dye resulted in serious illness. Lipsticks with shimmering effects were made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales. In Australia, Aboriginal girls would paint their mouths red with ocher for puberty rituals, lip colouring started to gain some popularity in 16th-century England. During the time of Queen Elizabeth I bright red lips and a white face became fashionable. At that time, lipstick was made from a blend of beeswax, only upper class women and male actors wore makeup. It was considered brazen and uncouth to wear makeup, in the 1850s, reports were being published warning women of the dangers of using lead and vermilion in cosmetics applied to the face. By the end of the 19th century, Guerlain, a French cosmetic company, the first commercial lipstick had been invented in 1884, by perfumers in Paris, France. It was covered in paper and made from deer tallow, castor oil. Prior to this, lipstick had been created at home, complete acceptance of the undisguised use of cosmetics in England appears to have arrived for the fashionable Londoner at least by 1921. In the 19th century, lipstick was colored with carmine dye, Carmine dye was extracted from cochineal, scale insects native to Mexico and Central America which live on cactus plants. Cochineal insects produce carminic acid to deter predation by other insects, carminic acid, which forms 17% to 24% of the weight of the dried insects, can be extracted from the insects body and eggs. Mixed with aluminum or calcium salts it makes carmine dye and this lipstick did not come in a tube, it was applied with a brush. Carmine dye was expensive and the look of carmine colored lipstick was considered unnatural and theatrical, only actors and actresses could get away with wearing lipstick
Lipstick
–
A tube of lipstick
Lipstick
–
A woman applying lipstick
Lipstick
–
Woman applying lipstick with a
compact in
Washington D.C., 1943
Lipstick
–
Elizabeth Taylor helped to popularize red lipstick.
3.
Eye liner
–
Eye liner or eyeliner is a cosmetic used to define the eyes. It is applied around the contours of the eye to create a variety of aesthetic effects, eye liner was first used in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia as a dark black line around the eyes. As early as 10,000 BC, Egyptians and Mo wore various cosmetics including eye liner not only for aesthetics, research has also speculated that eye liner was worn to protect the wearer from the evil eye. The characteristic of having heavily lined eyes has been depicted in ancient Egyptian art. They produced eye liner with a variety of materials, including copper ore, Ancient Egyptian kohl contained galena, which was imported from nearby regions in the Land of Punt, Coptos and Western Asia. In the 1920s, Tutankhamuns tomb was discovered, introducing the use of eye liner to the Western world, the 1920s were an era commonly associated with many changes in womens fashion, and women felt freer to apply make-up more liberally. In the 1960s, liquid eye liner was used to create thick black, in the late twentieth and early twenty-first century, heavy eye liner use has been associated with Gothic fashion and Punk fashion. Eye liner of varying degrees of thickness has also associated with the emo subculture. Eye liner is used in a daily make-up routine to define the eye or create the look of a wider or smaller eye. Eye liner can be used as a tool to create various looks as well as highlighting different features of the eyes, eye liner can be placed in various parts of the eye to create different looks with a winged eye liner or tight lined at the waterline. Eye liner can be drawn above upper lashes or below lower lashes or both, even on the lines of your eyes. Its primary purpose is to make the lashes look lush, but it draws attention to the eye. Eye liner can also be used for showing depression in photographs, although many users of eye liner use it on a day-to-day basis for a simple definer of the eyes, there are others who use it for more than just an easy eye enlarger. There are many styles of eye liner, most of them usually revolve around the winged eye liner, which is defining around your top eyelid shape and a line, about halfway toward the end of the eyebrow. It is usually connected to the defining around the top, however today there are some drastically toned eye liner. Tight lining is the use of eye liner tight against the waterline under the lashes of the upper lid, due to the proximity to the membranes, and the surface of the eye itself, waterproof eye liner is preferred. Tight lining is a technique which makes the eyelashes appear to start back on the eyelid. Gel eye liner and an angled brush may be used to create this look
Eye liner
–
Dark
teal eye liner along the rim of the eye
Eye liner
–
Ancient Egyptian women and men wearing
kohl eyeliner, from the tomb of
Nakht in
Thebes (15th century BC).
Eye liner
–
A girl wearing eyeliner.
Eye liner
–
An eye with brown eyeliner under the bottom lashes.
4.
Eye shadow
–
Eye shadow is a cosmetic that is applied on the eyelids and under the eyebrows. It is commonly used to make the wearers eyes stand out or look more attractive, eye shadow can add depth and dimension to ones eyes, complement the eye color, make ones eyes appear larger, or simply draw attention to the eyes. Eye shadow comes in different colors and textures. It is usually made from a powder and mica, but can also be found in liquid, pencil, civilizations across the world use eye shadow predominantly on females but also occasionally on males. In Western society, it is seen as a feminine cosmetic, in Gothic fashion, black or similarly dark-colored eye shadow and other types of eye makeup are popular among both sexes. Many people use eye shadow simply to improve their appearance, but it is commonly used in theatre and other plays, to create a memorable look, with bright. Depending on skin tone and experience, the effect of eye shadow usually brings out glamour, the use of eye shadow attempts to replicate the natural eye shadow that some women exhibit due to a natural contrasting pigmentation on their eyelids. Natural eye shadow can range anywhere from a glossy shine to ones eyelids, to a pinkish tone, eye shadow can be applied in a wide variety of ways depending upon the desired look and formulation. Typically application is done using fingers or brushes, the most important aspect of applying eye shadow, and makeup in general, is blending well. However, you must not forget to include a primer to limit the chances of creases in your eye shadow later, to remove eye shadow, a commercial eye makeup remover can be utilized, though a rich face wash will usually remove all traces of color. Generally it is easy to remove, and simple water and soap can be used, eye shadow, eyeliner, and mascara may also be removed using baby oil. There are also makeup wipes that can be used, cosmetics have been used for as long as there have been people to use them. Face painting is mentioned in the Old Testament, and eye shadow was used in Egyptian burials dating back to 10,000 BC, the word cosmetae was first used to describe Roman slaves whose duty was to bathe men and women in perfume. As early as 10,000 BC, men and women used scented oils and ointments to clean and soften their skin, dyes and paints were used to color the skin, body and hair. They rouged their lips and cheeks, stained their nails with henna, kohl was a dark-colored powder made of crushed antimony, burnt almonds, lead, oxidized copper, ochre, ash, malachite, and chrysocolla or any combination thereof. It was applied with a small stick, the upper and lower eyelids were painted in a line that extended to the sides of the face for an almond effect. In addition to reducing sun glare, it was believed that kohl eyeliner could restore good eyesight, kohl was kept in a small, flat-bottomed pot with a wide, tiny rim and a flat, disk-shaped lid. According to images of the time, the use of makeup was not limited to women, highly polished silver and copper mirrors aided the application of makeup
Eye shadow
–
An eye with heavy purple eye shadow
Eye shadow
–
A powder eye shadow palette with brown shades for normal day wear; the two center colors are sparkly while the silver and white shades are for creating shadows and highlights.
Eye shadow
–
Nefertiti bust with eye shadow applied
5.
Human hair color
–
Hair color is the pigmentation of hair follicles due to two types of melanin, eumelanin and pheomelanin. Generally, if more eumelanin is present, the color of the hair is darker, if less eumelanin is present, the darker a persons natural hair color is, the more individual hair follicles they have on their scalp. Levels of melanin can vary over time causing a persons hair color to change, particular hair colors are associated with ethnic groups. Gray or white hair is associated with age, the Fischer–Saller scale, named after Eugen Fischer and Karl Saller, is used in physical anthropology and medicine to determine the shades of hair color. The scale uses the designations, A, B to E, F to L, M to O, P to T, U to Y and Roman numerals I to IV. Two types of pigment give hair its color, eumelanin and pheomelanin, pheomelanin colors hair orange and red. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair, eumelanin, which has two subtypes of black or brown, determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in hair, whereas a higher concentration of brown eumelanin results in brown hair. High amounts of black eumelanin result in hair, while low concentrations result in gray hair. Pheomelanin is more stable than black eumelanin, but less chemically stable than brown eumelanin. This is why bleach gives darker hair a reddish tinge during the artificial coloring process, as the pheomelanin continues to break down, the hair will gradually become red, then orange, then yellow, and finally white. The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established, according to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color. One phenotype has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele, a person with a brown allele will have brown hair, a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child, the possibility of which trait may appear in an offspring can be determined with a Punnett square. The other gene pair is a pair, where the non-red allele is dominant. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, the two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red, nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect, a persons genotype for a multifactorial trait can interact with the environment to produce varying phenotypes. Black hair is the darkest hair color and it has large amounts of eumelanin and is less dense than other hair colors
Human hair color
–
A variety of the hair colors. From top left, clockwise:
black,
brown,
blonde,
white,
red.
Human hair color
–
Black hair
Human hair color
–
Natural black hair
Human hair color
–
Dark brown hair
6.
Human physical appearance
–
Human physical appearance is the outward phenotype or look of human beings. There are infinite variations in human phenotypes, though society reduces the variability to distinct categories, humans are acutely sensitive to their physical appearance. Some differences in appearance are genetic, others are the result of age, lifestyle or disease. Some people have linked some differences, with ethnicity, such as skeletal shape, different cultures place different degrees of emphasis on physical appearance and its importance to social status and other phenomena. Various factors are considered relevant in relation to the appearance of humans. Humans are distributed across the globe with the exception of Antarctica, in adults, average weight varies from around 40 kilos for the smallest and most lightly built tropical people to around 80 kilos for the heavier northern peoples. Size also varies between the sexes, the dimorphism in humans being more pronounced than that of chimpanzees. The colouration of skin, hair and eyes also varies considerably, with darker pigmentation domination in tropical climates and lighter in polar regions. Aging Hair loss Blushing, crying, fainting, hiccup, yawning, laughing, stuttering, sexual arousal, Sweating, shivering, nose bleeding, clothing, including headgear and footwear, some clothes alter or mold the shape of the body. As for footwear, high heels make a person look taller, for example, the same persons appearance can be quite different, depending on whether they use any of the aforementioned modifications. Exercises, for example, bodybuilding Capes Goggles Hair ornaments Hats and caps Headdresses Headphones/Handsfree phone headset Jewelry Masks Prosthetic limbs Sunglasses Watch
Human physical appearance
–
The human body
7.
Aroma compound
–
An aroma-compound, also known as an odorant, aroma, fragrance, or flavor, is a chemical compound that has a smell or odor. A chemical-compound has a smell or odor when it is volatile to be transported to the olfactory system in the upper-part of the nose. Generally molecules meeting this specification have molecular weights of <300, flavors affect both the sense of taste and smell, whereas fragrances affect only smell. Flavors tend to be occurring, and fragrances tend to be synthetic. Aroma-compounds can be found in food, wine, spices, floral scent, perfumes, fragrance oils, for example, many form biochemically during the ripening of fruits and other crops. In wines, most form as byproducts of fermentation, an odorizer may add an odorant to a dangerous odorless substance, like propane, natural gas, or hydrogen, as a safety measure. Note, Carvone, depending on its chirality, offers two different smells, furaneol 1-Hexanol cis-3-Hexen-1-ol Menthol High concentrations of aldehydes tend to be very pungent and overwhelming, but low concentrations can evoke a wide range of aromas. Acetaldehyde Hexanal cis-3-Hexenal Furfural Hexyl cinnamaldehyde Isovaleraldehyde – nutty, fruity, cocoa-like Anisic aldehyde – floral, sweet and it is a crucial component of chocolate, vanilla, strawberry, raspberry, apricot, and others. Its smell is so potent it can be detected several hundred meters downwind mere seconds after a container is opened, butane-1-thiol, commonly called normal-butyl mercaptan is a chemical-intermediate. Olfactory-receptors are cell-membrane receptors on the surface of neurons in the olfactory system that detect air-borne. In mammals, olfactory-receptors are expressed on the surface of the epithelium in the nasal cavity. In 2005–06, fragrance-mix was the third-most-prevalent allergen in patch tests, Fragrance was voted Allergen of the Year in 2007 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society. The composition of fragrances is usually not disclosed in the label of products, hiding the actual chemicals of the formula, the EPA, however, does not conduct independent-safety testing but relies on data provided by the manufacturer. In 2010 the International Fragrance Association published a list of 3,059 chemicals used in 2011 based on a voluntary-survey of its members and it was estimated to represent about 90% of the worlds production-volume of fragrances
Aroma compound
–
Patch test
Aroma compound
8.
Chemical compound
–
A chemical compound is an entity consisting of two or more atoms, at least two from different elements, which associate via chemical bonds. Many chemical compounds have a numerical identifier assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service. For example, water is composed of two atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, the chemical formula is H2O. A compound can be converted to a different chemical composition by interaction with a chemical compound via a chemical reaction. In this process, bonds between atoms are broken in both of the compounds, and then bonds are reformed so that new associations are made between atoms. Schematically, this reaction could be described as AB + CD → AC + BD, where A, B, C, and D are each unique atoms, and AB, CD, AC, and BD are each unique compounds. A chemical element bonded to a chemical element is not a chemical compound since only one element. Examples are the diatomic hydrogen and the polyatomic molecule sulfur. Chemical compounds have a unique and defined chemical structure held together in a spatial arrangement by chemical bonds. Pure chemical elements are not considered chemical compounds, failing the two or more atom requirement, though they often consist of molecules composed of multiple atoms. There is varying and sometimes inconsistent nomenclature differentiating substances, which include truly non-stoichiometric examples, from chemical compounds, other compounds regarded as chemically identical may have varying amounts of heavy or light isotopes of the constituent elements, which changes the ratio of elements by mass slightly. Characteristic properties of compounds include that elements in a compound are present in a definite proportion, for example, the molecule of the compound water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio of 2,1. In addition, compounds have a set of properties. The physical and chemical properties of compounds differ from those of their constituent elements, however, mixtures can be created by mechanical means alone, but a compound can be created only by a chemical reaction. Some mixtures are so combined that they have some properties similar to compounds. Other examples of compound-like mixtures include intermetallic compounds and solutions of metals in a liquid form of ammonia. Compounds may be described using formulas in various formats, for compounds that exist as molecules, the formula for the molecular unit is shown. For polymeric materials, such as minerals and many metal oxides, the elements in a chemical formula are normally listed in a specific order, called the Hill system
Chemical compound
–
Pure
water (H 2 O) is an example of a compound: the
ball-and-stick model of the molecule (above) shows the spatial association of two parts
hydrogen (white) and one part
oxygen (red)
9.
Coconut oil
–
Coconut oil, or copra oil, is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of mature coconuts harvested from the coconut palm. Because of its high saturated fat content, it is slow to oxidize and, thus, resistant to rancidification, Coconut oil can be extracted through dry or wet processing. Dry processing requires that the meat be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight, the copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producing the coconut oil and a high-protein, high-fiber mash. The mash is of quality for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants. The all-wet process uses raw coconut rather than dried copra, the more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil. This used to be done by prolonged boiling, but this produces an oil and is not economical. Modern techniques use centrifuges and pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves, steam distillation, wet processes also require investment of equipment and energy, incurring high capital and operating costs. Proper harvesting of the coconut makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil-making process, copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with and produces an inferior product with lower yields. Conventional coconut oil processors use hexane as a solvent to extract up to 10% more oil than produced with just rotary mills and they then refine the oil to remove certain free fatty acids to reduce susceptibility to rancidification. Virgin coconut oil can be produced from coconut milk, meat. Producing it from the fresh meat involves either wet-milling or drying the residue, VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by grating and drying it to a moisture content of 10–12%, then using a manual press to extract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut and mixing it with water, the milk can also be fermented for 36–48 hours, the oil removed, and the cream heated to remove any remaining oil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the other liquids, Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the production of coconut milk. A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 1,440 kilograms yield around 170 kilograms of copra from which around 70 litres of oil can be extracted. Refined, bleached, and deodorized oil is made from copra, dried coconut kernel. This yields practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dry weight of the coconut and this crude coconut oil is not suitable for consumption because it contains contaminants and must be refined with further heating and filtering. Another method for extraction of coconut oil involves the action of alpha-amylase, polygalacturonases. Unlike virgin coconut oil, refined coconut oil has no taste or aroma
Coconut oil
–
Solidified "coconut butter" sold by a
Norwegian company
Coconut oil
–
Traditional way of making coconut oil using an
ox -powered mill in
Seychelles
Coconut oil
–
Coconuts drying outdoors in
Kozhikode,
Kerala for making
copra, which is used for making coconut oil
Coconut oil
–
Coconut tree
10.
Mascara
–
Mascara is a cosmetic commonly used to enhance the eyelashes. It may darken, thicken, lengthen, and/or define the eyelashes, normally in one of three forms—liquid, cake, or cream—the modern mascara product has various formulas, however, most contain the same basic components of pigments, oils, waxes, and preservatives. The Collins English Dictionary defines mascara as, a substance for darkening, lengthening, curling, coloring. The Oxford English Dictionary adds that mascara is used on the eyebrows as well. The OED also references mascaro from works published in the late 15th century. In 1886, the Peck & Snyder Catalogue advertises, “Mascaro or Water Cosmetique… For darkening the eyebrow and moustaches without greasing them and making them prominent. ”In 1890, the Century Dictionary defined mascara as “a kind of paint used for the eyebrows and eyelashes by actors. ”And in 1894, N. Lynn advises in Lynn’s Practical Hints for Making-up, “to darken eyelashes, paint with mascara, or black paint, with a small brush. The Oxford English Dictionary also cites an alternative Catalan definition that describes soot or a black smear, there is even strong support for a possible source from the Arabic word maskharah or ‘buffoon’. The Hebrew word משקרות as relating to womens eyes is found in Isaiah 3,16, latin treatises sometimes used the word mascara when referring to witches. Aesthetic adornment is a universal and mascara can be documented in ancient Egypt. Records from around 4000 BC refer to a substance called kohl that was used to darken eyelashes, eyes, kohl was used to mask the eyes, believed to ward off evil spirits and protect the soul, by both men and women. Often composed of galena, malachite, and charcoal or soot, crocodile stool, honey, through Egypt’s influence, kohl usage persisted in the subsequent Babylonian, Greek and Roman empires. Makeup was considered unsightly and uncouth in Western culture until the Victorian era, during the Victorian era, social opinion shifted radically towards the promotion of cosmetics, and women were known to spend a majority of their day occupied with beauty regimens. Great efforts were made to create the illusion of long, dark eyelashes, attempting this, Victorian women made a type of mascara in their own homes. They would heat a mixture of ash or lampblack and elderberry juice on a plate, the product that people would recognize as mascara today did not develop until the 19th century. A chemist named Eugene Rimmel developed a cosmetic using the newly invented petroleum jelly, the name Rimmel became synonymous with the substance and still translates to “mascara” in the Portuguese, Spanish, Greek, Turkish, Romanian, and Persian languages today. Across the Atlantic Ocean and at roughly the time, in 1913. Later in 1917, he started a business from the product that grew to become the company Maybelline. The mascara developed by two men consisted of petroleum jelly and coal in a set ratio
Mascara
–
A mascara tube and a wand applicator
Mascara
–
Mascara being applied.
Mascara
–
Mascara coated eyelashes.
11.
Foundation (cosmetics)
–
Foundation is a skin coloured makeup applied to the face to create an even, uniform colour to the complexion, to cover flaws and, sometimes, to change the natural skintone. Some foundations also function as a moisturizer, sunscreen, astringent or base layer for more complex cosmetics, foundation applied to the body is generally referred to as body painting. The use of cosmetics to enhance complexion reaches back into antiquity, “Face painting” is mentioned in the Old Testament. In 200 B. C. ancient Greek women applied white lead powder and it was considered fashionable for Greek women to have a pale complexion. Roman women also favoured a pale complexion, wealthy Romans favoured white lead paste, which could lead to disfigurements and death. Men also wore makeup to lighten their skin tone and they used white lead powder, chalk, and creams to lighten their skin tone. The cream was made from fat, starch, and tin oxide. The fat was rendered from animal carcasses and heated to remove the color, tin oxide was made out of heating tin metal in open air. The animal fat provided a smooth texture, while the tin oxide provided color to the cream, in the 6th century, women would often bleed themselves to achieve a pale complexion. During the Italian Renaissance, many women applied water–soluble lead paint to their faces, throughout the 17th century and the Elizabethan era, women wore ceruse, a lethal mixture of vinegar and white lead. They also applied egg whites to their faces to create a shiny complexion, many men and women died from wearing lead-based make-up. In the 18th century, Louis XV made it fashionable for men to wear lead-based makeup, theatrical actors wore heavy white base. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Victorian women wore little or no makeup, queen Victoria abhorred make-up and deemed that it was only appropriate for prostitutes and loose women to wear it. It was only acceptable for actors or actresses to wear make-up, in the late 19th century, women would apply a whitening mixture made out of zinc oxide, mercury, lead, nitrate of silver, and acids. Some women stayed out of the sun, ate chalk, in the Edwardian era, women wore base and did not bleach their skin as much as they did in previous centuries. Modern foundation can trace its roots to Carl Baudin of the Leipziger Stadt theatre in Germany and he is the inventor of greasepaint. He wanted to conceal the joint between his wig and forehead, so he developed a flesh-coloured paste made of zinc, ochre and this formulation was so popular with other actors that Baudin began producing it commercially, and, as such, gave birth to the first theatrical makeup. This would be the standard for theatrical make-up until 1914, when makeup artist Max Factor created Flexible Greasepaint that was more reflective under the lighting on movie sets
Foundation (cosmetics)
–
Thick, unblended foundation on skin
12.
Rouge (cosmetics)
–
Rouge, also called blush or blusher, is a cosmetic typically used by women to redden the cheeks so as to provide a more youthful appearance, and to emphasize the cheekbones. Rouge was used as early as in ancient Egypt and it was also applied on the lips, the way lipstick would be used today. In some times and places, such as the English Regency, in Britain in the late Victorian Age, wearing visible makeup such as rouge was associated with low morals. Ladies resorted to pinching their cheeks to make them appear red instead, various substances have been used as rouge. In ancient Greece for example, crushed mulberries were favoured, while red beet juice, crushed strawberries, modern rouge generally consists of a red-coloured talcum-based powder that is applied with a brush to the cheek. The colouring is usually either the substance of safflor, or a solution of carmine in ammonium hydroxide, a cream-based variant of rouge is schnouda, a colourless mixture of Alloxan with cold cream, which also colours the skin red. The majority of blushes found in drugstore or high-end stores are in the form of pressed-powder, the blush lies flat on the pan, unlike baked blushes. These are best suited for people with oily skin, using a pressed-powder blush for people with dry skin is not recommended because the powder might cling to dry patches of their skin. Pressed-powder blushes usually last long on the skin, are easily blended and are very buildable, for these reasons, pressed powder blushes are usually used by makeup artists during special occasions like weddings or events that project harsh lighting. Pressed-powder blushes come in many finishes, including matte, shimmer, cream blushes usually come in a short, round container, much like a lip balm or solid perfume. These blushes are best suited for people with dry skin, cream blush is typically blended using fingers or a stippling brush. Since the nature of the blush is a cream, it can be layered with a blush to improve longevity of use. Mineral baked blush can be differentiated from pressed-powder blushes mainly because of its appearance on the pan and it is luminous, has shimmery veins and shaped like a dome. Mineral baked blushes are made from a liquid that is baked into solid form and this means that there is less talc and more pigment. Because it is originally liquid form, spraying the pan with water can make the blush creamy, however, it does change back to its solid form when it dries. Mineral baked powder is very sheer when applied, but is buildable and can be the choice for someone who is going for a more flushed. Stippling brush, suitable for softening out harsh lines and blend together blush, bronzer and it is most suitable for applying cream blush. Fluffy brush, suitable for dispersing the colour of the blush, flat brush, The type of brush included with many, especially drugstore, blushes
Rouge (cosmetics)
–
A set of rouge with a brush
Rouge (cosmetics)
–
A dancer wearing rouge
Rouge (cosmetics)
–
Shale rouge palette of the
Naqada I culture, c. 4000–3500 BCE
13.
Lotion
–
A lotion is a low-viscosity topical preparation intended for application to unbroken skin. By contrast, creams and gels have higher viscosity, Lotions are applied to external skin with bare hands, a brush, a clean cloth, cotton wool, or gauze. While lotion may be used as a delivery system, many lotions, especially hand lotions and body lotions are meant instead to simply smooth, moisturize. These may be used in anti-aging lotions, which can also be classified as a cosmetic in many cases, the Food and Drug Administration voiced concern about lotions not classified as drugs that advertise anti-aging or anti-wrinkle properties. Dermatologists can prescribe lotions to treat or prevent skin diseases and it is not unusual for the same drug ingredient to be formulated into a lotion, cream and ointment. Creams are the most convenient of the three but are inappropriate for application to regions of hairy skin such as the scalp, while a lotion is less viscous, non-comedogenic lotions are recommended for use on acne prone skin. A2006 study found that application of hospital grade lotion after hand washing significantly reduced skin roughness and dryness, care must be taken not to use consumer lotions in a hospital environment, as the perfumes and allergens may be a danger to those who are immunodeficient. Most lotions are oil-in-water emulsions using a substance such as cetearyl alcohol to keep the emulsion together, but water-in-oil lotions are also formulated. The key components of a skin lotion, cream or gel emulsion are the aqueous and oily phases. A wide variety of ingredients such as fragrances, glycerol, petroleum jelly, dyes, preservatives, proteins. Since thickness and consistency are key factors in lotions and creams, manufacturing lotions and creams can be completed in two cycles, Emollients and lubricants are dispersed in oil with blending and thickening agents. Perfume, color and preservatives are dispersed in the water cycle, active ingredients are broken up in both cycles depending on the raw materials involved and the desired properties of the lotion or cream. A typical oil-in-water manufacturing process might go like this, Step 1, Step 3, Prepare the water phase containing emulsifiers and stabilizers. Step 4, Mix the oil and water to form an emulsion and it can make all the difference in manufacturing time and costs. Conventional agitators can present a number of problems including agglomerates and longer processing times, on the other hand, high shear in-line mixers can produce quality lotions and creams without many of the complications encountered with conventional mixers. Sonolation is also a process that is growing in popularity, there is currently no regulation over use of the term hypoallergenic, and even pediatric skin products with the label were found to still contain allergens. Those with eczema are especially vulnerable to a reaction with lotion, as their compromised skin barrier allows preservatives to bind with. A2015 study funded by the California Breast Cancer Research Program found that parabens, cold cream Moisturizer Barrier cream Lotions during the early 19th century
Lotion
–
Lotion and
shampoo at The
Banff Centre
Lotion
–
Ginseng hand cream from
North Korea
14.
Shampoo
–
Shampoo is a hair care product, typically in the form of a viscous liquid, that is used for cleaning hair. Less commonly, shampoo is available in bar form, like a bar of soap, Shampoo is used by applying it to wet hair, massaging the product into the hair, and then rinsing it out. Some users may follow a shampooing with the use of hair conditioner, the goal of using shampoo is to remove the unwanted build-up in the hair without stripping out so much sebum as to make hair unmanageable. Shampoo is generally made by combining a surfactant, most often sodium lauryl sulfate or sodium sulfate, with a co-surfactant. There are also intended for animals that may contain insecticides or other medications to treat skin conditions or parasite infestations such as fleas. The word shampoo entered the English language from India during the colonial era and it dates to 1762, and is derived from Hindi chāmpo, itself derived from the Sanskrit root chapayati. Sake Dean Mahomed is identified as a promoter of the practice in Britain. In India, a variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times, a very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called Ksuna in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contains saponins which are a natural surfactant, the extract of soapberries, a tropical tree widespread in India, creates a lather which Indian texts called phenaka. It leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable, other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai, soapnuts, hibiscus flowers, ritha and arappu. Guru Nanak, the prophet and the first Guru of Sikhism, made references to soapberry tree. Cleansing with hair and body massage during daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India, when they returned to Europe, they introduced the newly learnt habits, including hair treatment they called shampoo. During the early stages of shampoo in Europe, English hair stylists boiled shaved soap in water and added herbs to give the hair shine, commercially made shampoo was available from the turn of the 20th century. A1914 ad for Canthrox Shampoo in American Magazine showed young women at camp washing their hair with Canthrox in a lake, magazine ads in 1914 by Rexall featured Harmony Hair Beautifier and Shampoo. In 1927, liquid shampoo was invented by German inventor Hans Schwarzkopf in Berlin, originally, soap and shampoo were very similar products, both containing the same naturally derived surfactants, a type of detergent. Modern shampoo as it is today was first introduced in the 1930s with Drene. Early shampoos used in Indonesia were made from the husk and straw of rice, the husks and straws were burned into ash, and the ashes are mixed with water to form lather. The ashes and lather were scrubbed into the hair and rinsed out, leaving the hair clean, afterwards, coconut oil was applied to the hair in order to moisturize it
Shampoo
–
Shampoo lather in hair
Shampoo
–
Bottles of shampoo and
lotions manufactured in the early 20th century by the C.L. Hamilton Co. of
Washington, D.C.
Shampoo
–
Swedish ad for toiletries, 1905/1906.
Shampoo
–
Typical liquid shampoo
15.
Hairstyling product
–
Hairstyle products are used to change the texture and/or shape of hair, or to hold a hairstyle in place. Hairstyling products have had a significant impact on the creation of various hairstyles, for the ancient Egyptians, physical appearance was very important to the embalming process. Hair was often styled to maintain the individuality of the deceased, a fatty substance, now known as hair gel, was used to style hair and keep it in place. The ancient Gauls had invented a waxy substance, similar to hair wax. Many years later, the same substance was used as a cleaning agent. In 1948, Chase Products became the first company to package hair spray, Hair spray became very popular in the 1950s due to its ability to keep hair in place and prevent hair from falling out of a styled look. Hair gel is a product that is used to stiffen hair into a particular hairstyle. The end result is similar to, but stronger than, those of hair spray, Hair gel is most commonly used in the hairstyling of men, but it is not gender specific. Hair gel can come in tubes, pots, small bags, Hair wax is a thick hair styling product containing wax, which helps hold hair in place. Unlike some products such as hair gel which leave the hard in texture. Many manufacturers are now releasing different versions of hair wax, such as pomade, putty, glue, glypto, whip, Hair mousse is a product added to hair for extra volume and shine. It is most commonly produced as a cream, but can also be found as a spray, Hair mousse adds volume without causing clumps or buildup. It is an alternative to hair gel. Mousse is generally applied to the roots of damp hair before drying or styling. Mousse may also be used to add definition to curls, or to add texture to hair for a beach blown effect, pomade is a greasy or waxy substance that makes hair look slick and shiny. Unlike hair spray and hair gel, pomade does not dry, a special shampoo can be used to quicken the removal process. Other products which have the effect as pomade but make hair less greasy include olive oil, dish washing liquid. Most pomades contain petroleum jelly and mineral oil, and many also contain some sort of wax and they may also contain perfume and coloring agents
Hairstyling product
–
A small pot of hair wax
Hairstyling product
–
Hair styled with hair gel
16.
Hair gel
–
Hair gel is a hairstyling product that is used to harden hair into a particular hairstyle. Analysis of ancient Egyptians mummies has shown that they styled their hair using a fat-based gel, the researchers behind the analysis say that the Egyptians used the product to ensure that their style stayed in place in both life and death. Natalie McCreesh, an archaeological scientist from the KNH Centre for Biomedical Egyptology at the University of Manchester, England, and her colleagues studied hair samples taken from 18 mummies. The oldest is approximately 3,500 years old, but most were excavated from a cemetery in the Dakhleh Oasis in the Western Desert and date from Greco-Roman times, around 2,300 years ago. In 1929, the British company Chemico Works invented Brylcreem, which became the leader among hair styling products in both the U. K. and the U. S. during the following decades. In the 1960s, modern hair gel was invented in the United States, many brands of hair gel in North America and the UK come in numbered variants. Higher numbered gels maintain a hold on hair, while lower numbers do not make the hair as stiff. A category typically referred to as ethnic gels is designed and manufactured specifically for sculpting the hair texture common to African Americans, some forms of hair gel are marketed to consumers who want to spike their hair in the style that emerged from the hardcore punk subculture in the 1980s. Some hair gels include temporary hair coloring, which includes variants in unnatural colors associated with various subcultures, such as the goths, cationic polymers are among the main functional components of hair gel. The positive charges in the polymers causes them to stretch, making the gel more viscous, the positive charges also bind the gel to the negatively charged amino acids on the surface of the keratin molecules in the hair. More complicated polymer formulas exist, i. e. a copolymer of vinylpyrrolidone, methacrylamide, Hair mousse Hair wax Pomade Summer Storm. Big Red Toybox, The Vintage Toy Encyclopedia
Hair gel
–
Hair styled with hair gel
17.
Hair spray
–
Hair spray is a common cosmetic product that is sprayed onto hair to keep it stiff or in a certain style. The spray can be dispensed from a pump or aerosol spray nozzle, modern hair sprays were developed around the time of the aerosol can in the 1940s, and the first patents describing copolymers for hair styling were published in the 1940s. Hair spray products are a blend of industrial polymers that provide structural support to hair. These frequently include copolymers of polyvinylpyrrolidone and polyvinyl acetate and these active ingredients make up only a small portion of a hairspray. The majority of a canister is filled with volatile solvents necessary to solubilize and aerosolize the copolymer mixture and these include simple alcohols like ethanol or tert-butanol to solubilize the active ingredients, and dimethyl ether or mixed hydrocarbons as propellants. The copolymer mixture, solubilizing agents, and propellants are highly volatile and flammable. For this reason, hair sprays have been used for combustion in potato cannons. Hairspray became common after the patent of the process and the making of the aerosol spray can during the 1940s. The first to package it was Chase products in 1948, as the beauty industry saw that the aerosol cans used in World War II for insecticides could be used as a dispenser for hairspray. It thrived and became popular and mass-produced, as updos. By 1964, it became the highest selling beauty product on the market, however, sales declined in the 1970s as hairstyles became predominately worn straight and loose. By the 1980s, hairspray’s popularity came back as big hairstyles resurged with the metal scene. Today, hairsprays are formulated as flexible, medium, and maximum hold, hairspray is an aerosol product containing many harmful chemicals. Because of its application, hair spray is extremely flammable. In 1993, the FDA released a statement to prevent hair spray-related fires. Prior to this statement, many caused by the use of this product had been reported. Volatile Organic Compounds, which cause smog, are found in these types of products. These compounds, known as CFCs, can cause harm to the ozone and are related to global warming and these are harmful to people as well
Hair spray
–
Two varieties of modern hair sprays.
18.
Perfume
–
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives and solvents - used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living-spaces a pleasant scent. Ancient texts and archaeological excavations show the use of perfumes in some of the earliest human civilizations, the word perfume derives from the Latin perfumare, meaning to smoke through. Perfumery, as the art of making perfumes, began in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, the worlds first-recorded chemist is considered a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oil, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered, in India, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilization. One of the earliest distillations of Ittar was mentioned in the Hindu Ayurvedic text Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita, in 2004 –2005, archaeologists uncovered what are believed to be the worlds oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus. The perfumes date back more than 4,000 years and they were discovered in an ancient perfumery, a 4, 000-square-meter factory housing at least 60 stills, mixing bowls, funnels, and perfume bottles. In ancient times people used herbs and spices, such as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, the book also described 107 methods and recipes for perfume-making and perfume-making equipment, such as the alembic. The Persian chemist Ibn Sina introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation and he first experimented with the rose. Until his discovery, liquid perfumes consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals, rose water was more delicate, and immediately became popular. Both the raw ingredients and the technology significantly influenced western perfumery and scientific developments. The art of perfumery was known in western Europe from 1221, taking account the monks recipes of Santa Maria delle Vigne or Santa Maria Novella of Florence. In the east, the Hungarians produced in 1370 a perfume made of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution – best known as Hungary Water – at the behest of Queen Elizabeth of Hungary. The art of perfumery prospered in Renaissance Italy, and in the 16th century the personal perfumer to Catherine de Medici, Rene the Florentine and his laboratory was connected with her apartments by a secret passageway, so that no formulae could be stolen en route. Thanks to Rene, France quickly became one of the European centers of perfume, cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence, which had begun in the 14th century, grew into a major industry in the south of France. Between the 16th and 17th centuries, perfumes were used primarily by the wealthy to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing, partly due to this patronage, the perfume industry developed. In 1693, Italian barber Giovanni Paolo Feminis created a perfume water called Aqua Admirabilis, today best known as eau de cologne, by the 18th century the Grasse region of France, Sicily, and Calabria were growing aromatic plants to provide the growing perfume industry with raw materials. Even today, Italy and France remain the center of European perfume design, Perfume types reflect the concentration of aromatic compounds in a solvent, which in fine fragrance is typically ethanol or a mix of water and ethanol. Various sources differ considerably in the definitions of perfume types, the intensity and longevity of a perfume is based on the concentration, intensity and longevity of the aromatic compounds, or perfume oils, used
Perfume
–
"The perfume of this winter -
Vogue “;
poster by Jupp Wiertz, 1926/27
Perfume
–
Perfume Bottles
Perfume
–
Egyptian scene depicting the preparation of Lily perfume, 4th century BC
Perfume
–
Etruscan perfume vase shaped like a female head, 2nd century BC
19.
Eau de Cologne
–
Eau de Cologne, or simply cologne, is a perfume originating from Cologne, Germany. In a base of ethanol, eau de cologne contains a mixture of citrus oils including oils of lemon, orange, tangerine, clementine, bergamot, lime, grapefruit, blood orange. It can also contain oils of neroli, lavender, rosemary, thyme, oregano, petitgrain, jasmine, olive, oleaster, in contemporary American English usage, the term cologne has become a generic term for perfumes usually marketed towards men. The original Eau de Cologne is a spirit-citrus perfume launched in Cologne in 1709 by Giovanni Maria Farina, an Italian perfume maker from Santa Maria Maggiore Valle Vigezzo. In 1708, Farina wrote to his brother Jean Baptiste, I have found a fragrance that reminds me of an Italian spring morning, of mountain daffodils and he named his fragrance Eau de Cologne, in honour of his new hometown. The most famous Original Eau de Cologne is 4711, named after its location at Glockengasse No.4711 and it was also developed in the 18th century by Wilhelm Mülhens in Cologne and is therefore one of the oldest still produced fragrances in the world. On 12 December 2006, the perfumes and cosmetics company Mäurer & Wirtz took over 4711 from Procter & Gamble and has expanded it to a whole brand since then. The Eau de Cologne composed by Farina was used only as a perfume and his ability to produce a constantly homogeneous fragrance consisting of dozens of monoessences was seen as a sensation at the time. At the time, a vial of this aqua mirabilis cost half the annual salary of a civil servant. When free trade was established in Cologne by the French in 1797, Giovanni Maria Farinas formula has been produced in Cologne since 1709 by Farina opposite the Jülichplatz and to this day remains a secret. His shop at Obenmarspforten opened in 1709 and is today the worlds oldest fragrance factory, in 1806, Jean Marie Joseph Farina, a grand-grand-nephew of Giovanni Maria Farina, opened a perfumery business in Paris that was later sold to Roger & Gallet. That company now owns the rights to Eau de Cologne extra vieille in contrast to the Original Eau de Cologne from Cologne. Originally the water of Cologne was believed to have the power to ward off bubonic plague. By drinking the cologne the citrus oil scent would be exuded through the pores, much as flea shampoo for dogs can be based on citrus oils today. In modern times, Eau de Cologne or cologne, has become a generic term, the term cologne can be applied to perfume for men or women, but it conventionally refers to perfumes marketed towards men. In former Soviet countries, varieties of Troynoy Eau de Cologne may be used as a surrogate alcohol among poor alcoholics,4711 Cologne Johann Maria Farina gegenüber dem Jülichs-Platz Perfume Fenaroli, Giovanni, Maggesi, L. Acqua di Colonia. Rivista italiana essenze, profumi, piante offizinali, olii vegetali, le materie prime per lacqua di colonia. Physical Chemistry, Understanding Our Chemical World, variations on the Eau de Cologne Theme. Wilhelm, Jürgen, ed. Das große Köln-Lexikon, citations Works cited Eckstein, Markus, Sykes, John
Eau de Cologne
–
An eau de cologne by Farina (1709)
Eau de Cologne
–
4711 cologne - the most famous Eau de Cologne
20.
Food and Drug Administration
–
The Food and Drug Administration is a federal agency of the United States Department of Health and Human Services, one of the United States federal executive departments. As of 2017, 3/4th of the FDA budget is funded by the pharmaceutical companies due to the Prescription drug user fee act and these include regulating lasers, cellular phones, condoms and control of disease on products ranging from certain household pets to sperm donation for assisted reproduction. The FDA is led by the Commissioner of Food and Drugs, appointed by the President with the advice, the Commissioner reports to the Secretary of Health and Human Services. Dr. Robert M. Califf, MD is the current commissioner, who took over in February 2016 for Dr. Stephen Ostroff, the FDA has its headquarters in unincorporated White Oak, Maryland. The agency also has 223 field offices and 13 laboratories located throughout the 50 states, the United States Virgin Islands, in 2008, the FDA began to post employees to foreign countries, including China, India, Costa Rica, Chile, Belgium, and the United Kingdom. The site was renamed from the White Oak Naval Surface Warfare Center to the Federal Research Center at White Oak, the first building, the Life Sciences Laboratory, was dedicated and opened with 104 employees on the campus in December 2003. Only one original building from the facility was kept. All other buildings are new construction, the project is slated to be completed by 2017, assuming future Congressional funding While most of the Centers are located in the Washington, D. C. The Office of Regulatory Affairs is considered the eyes and ears of the agency, the Office of Regulatory Affairs is divided into five regions, which are further divided into 20 districts. Districts are based roughly on the divisions of the federal court system. Each district comprises a main office and a number of Resident Posts. ORA also includes the Agencys network of laboratories, which analyze any physical samples taken. Though samples are usually food-related, some laboratories are equipped to analyze drugs, cosmetics, the Office of Criminal Investigations was established in 1991 to investigate criminal cases. Unlike ORA Investigators, OCI Special Agents are armed, and dont focus on aspects of the regulated industries. In many cases, OCI pursues cases involving Title 18 violations, OCI Special Agents often come from other criminal investigations backgrounds, and work closely with the Federal Bureau of Investigation, Assistant Attorney General, and even Interpol. OCI receives cases from a variety of sources—including ORA, local agencies, OCI is a smaller branch, comprising about 200 agents nationwide. The FDA frequently works with federal agencies, including the Department of Agriculture, Drug Enforcement Administration, Customs and Border Protection. Often local and state government agencies also work with the FDA to provide regulatory inspections, the FDA regulates more than US$1 trillion worth of consumer goods, about 25% of consumer expenditures in the United States
Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 31 houses the Office of the Commissioner and the Office of Regulatory Affairs.
Food and Drug Administration
–
Regulation of therapeutic goods in the United States
Food and Drug Administration
–
FDA Building 51 houses the Center for Drug Evaluation and Research.
Food and Drug Administration
–
Harvey W. Wiley, chief advocate of the Food and Drug Act
21.
Soap
–
SOAP is a protocol specification for exchanging structured information in the implementation of web services in computer networks. Its purpose is to induce extensibility, neutrality and independence, SOAP allows processes running on disparate operating systems to communicate using Extensible Markup Language. Since Web protocols like HTTP are installed and running on all operating systems, SOAP allows clients to invoke web services and receive responses independent of language, SOAP provides the Messaging Protocol layer of a web services protocol stack for web services. The server then returns a SOAP response, e. g. prices, location, since the generated data comes in a standardized machine-parsable format, the requesting application can then integrate it directly. SOAP was designed as a protocol in 1998 by Dave Winer, Don Box, Bob Atkinson, and Mohsen Al-Ghosein for Microsoft. Due to politics within Microsoft, the specification was not made available until it was submitted to IETF13 September 1999, because of Microsofts hesitation, Dave Winer shipped XML-RPC in 1998. The submitted Internet Draft did not reach RFC status and is not considered a standard as such. Version 1.1 of the specification was published as a W3C Note on 8 May 2000, since version 1.1 did not reach W3C Recommendation status, it can not be considered a standard either. Version 1.2 of the specification, however, became a W3C recommendation on June 24,2003, the SOAP specification was maintained by the XML Protocol Working Group of the World Wide Web Consortium until the group was closed 10 July 2009. SOAP originally stood for Simple Object Access Protocol but version 1.2 of the standard dropped this acronym, SOAP specification can be broadly defined to be consisting of the following 3 conceptual components, Protocol concepts, encapsulation concepts and Network concepts. SOAP, The set of rules formalizing and governing the format, SOAP Nodes, These are physical/logical machines with processing units which are used to transmit/forward, receive and process SOAP messages. SOAP Roles, Over the path of a SOAP message, all assume a specific role. The role of the node defines the action that the node performs on the message it receives, for example, a role none means that no node will process the SOAP header in any way and simply transmit the message along its path. SOAP protocol binding, A SOAP message needs to work in conjunction with other protocols to be transferred over a network, for example, a SOAP message could use TCP as a lower layer protocol to transfer messages. These bindings are defined in the SOAP protocol binding framework, SOAP features, SOAP provides a messaging framework only. However, it can be extended to add features such as reliability, security etc, there are rules to be followed when adding features to the SOAP framework. SOAP module, A collection of specifications regarding the semantics of SOAP header to describe any new features being extended upon SOAP, a module needs to realize 0 or more features. SOAP requires modules to adhere to prescribed rules, SOAP message, Represents the information being exchanged between 2 soap nodes
Soap
22.
Nefertiti Bust
–
The Nefertiti Bust is a painted stucco-coated limestone bust of Nefertiti, the Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten. The work is believed to have crafted in 1345 B. C. by the sculptor Thutmose, because it was found in his workshop in Amarna. It is one of the most copied works of ancient Egypt, owing to the work, Nefertiti has become one of the most famous women of the ancient world, and an icon of feminine beauty. A German archaeological team led by Ludwig Borchardt discovered the bust in 1912 in Thutmoses workshop and it is currently on display at the Neues Museum in Berlin, where it was originally displayed before World War II. The Nefertiti bust has become a symbol of Berlin as well as ancient Egypt. Nefertiti herself has become quite an icon, Nefertiti is widely known for her beauty and versatility. It has also been the subject of an argument between Egypt and Germany over Egyptian demands for its repatriation. It was dragged into controversy by the Body of Nefertiti art exhibition, however various testing and analysis of the bust have proved it to be authentic. Nefertiti was the 14th-century BC Great Royal Wife of the Egyptian Pharaoh Akhenaten of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt, Akhenaten initiated a new monotheistic form of worship called Atenism dedicated to the Sun disc Aten. Theories suggest she could have been an Egyptian royal by birth, a princess or the daughter of a high government official named Ay. She may have been the co-regent of Egypt with Akhenaten, who ruled from 1352 BC to 1336 BC, Nefertiti bore six daughters to Akhenaten, one of whom, Ankhesenpaaten, married Tutankhamun, Nefertitis stepson. Nefertiti was thought to have disappeared from history in the year of Akhenatens reign. She may also have become a pharaoh in her own right. However, it is now known that she was alive in the sixteenth year of her husbands reign from a limestone quarry inscription found at Dayr Abū Ḥinnis. Dayr Abū Ḥinnis is located on the side of the Nile. The bust of Nefertiti is believed to have been crafted about 1345 BC by the sculptor Thutmose, the bust does not have any inscriptions, but can be certainly identified as Nefertiti by the characteristic crown, which she wears in other surviving depictions, for example the house altar. The Nefertiti bust was found on 6 December 1912 at Amarna by the German Oriental Company and it was found in what had been the sculptor Thutmoses workshop, along with other unfinished busts of Nefertiti. Borchardts diary provides the main account of the find, he remarks
Nefertiti Bust
–
The iconic bust of
Nefertiti is part of the
Egyptian Museum of Berlin collection, currently on display in the
Neues Museum.
Nefertiti Bust
–
A "house altar" (c. 1350 BC) depicting Akhenaten, Nefertiti and three of their daughters. Note Nefertiti wears a crown similar to that depicted on the bust.
Nefertiti Bust
–
Nefertiti bust
Nefertiti Bust
–
Right profile and front
23.
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
Kohl is an ancient eye cosmetic, traditionally made by grinding stibnite for similar purposes to charcoal used in mascara. It is widely used in South Asia, the Middle East, North Africa, the Horn of Africa and it is worn mostly by women, but also by some men and children. Kohl has also used in India as a cosmetic for a long time. In addition, mothers would apply kohl to their infants eyes soon after birth, some did this to strengthen the childs eyes, and others believed it could prevent the child from being cursed by the evil eye. The Arabic name كحل kuḥl and the Biblical Hebrew כחל kaḥal are cognates, transliteration variants of Arabic dialectal pronunciation include kohl or kuhl. The Persian word for kohl is sormeh and it is known as either surmah or kājal in South Asia. In West Africa, it is known as tozali or kwalli. The English word alcohol is a loan of the Arabic word, the Russian word for antimony, сурьма, is a loan from the Persian term. The cosmetic palettes used for its preparation assumed a prominent role in the late Predynastic Egyptian culture, Kohl was originally used as protection against eye ailments. There was also a belief that darkening around the eyes would protect one from the rays of the sun. Galena eye paint was applied in Ancient Egypt. Upper eyelids were painted black and lower ones were colored green, Ancient graves from the pre-historic Tasian culture point to the early application of galena in Egypt, a custom stretching from the Badarian period through to the Coptic era. Although found locally, both black galena and green malachite were also imported from regions in Western Asia, Coptos. The 18th Dynasty Ancient Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut would also grind charred frankincense into kohl eyeliner and this is the first recorded use of the resin. The frankincense itself had originally been obtained during an expedition to the ancient Land of Punt in this New Kingdom dynasty, additionally, the pioneering Muslim scholar Ibn Abi Shayba described in a legal compilation how to apply kohl to the eye, as narrated by earlier authorities. Berber and Arab women in North Africa and the Middle East, respectively, a vertical line is drawn from the bottom lip to the chin and along the bridge of the nose. Originally the line from the lip to the chin shows whether a women is married or not. This form of using Kohl on the face originates from the Arabian Peninsula, usage of kohl eye paint in the Horn of Africa dates to the ancient Kingdom of Punt
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
A 4th-century AD double cosmetic tube for kohl from the
Louvre Museum in
Paris.
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
Ancient kohl cosmetic tube from western
Iran, dated 800-500 BCE.
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
An
18th Dynasty Ancient Egyptian kohl container inscribed for Queen
Tiye (1410-1372 BCE).
Kohl (cosmetics)
–
Ancient Egyptian women wearing kohl, from a tomb mural in
Thebes (1420-1375 BCE).
24.
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
–
Toulouse-Lautrec is among the best-known painters of the Post-Impressionist period, with Cézanne, Van Gogh and Gauguin. In a 2005 auction at Christies auction house, La Blanchisseuse, his painting of a young laundress, sold for US$22.4 million. The last part of his name means he was a member of an aristocratic family and his younger brother was born in 1867, but died the following year. After the death of his brother, Henris parents separated and a nanny ended up taking care of him, at the age of eight, Henri went to live with his mother in Paris where he drew sketches and caricatures in his exercise workbooks. The family quickly realised that Henris talents lay in drawing and painting, a friend of his father, René Princeteau, visited sometimes to give informal lessons. Some of Henris early paintings are of horses, a speciality of Princeteau, in 1875, Toulouse-Lautrec returned to Albi because his mother had concerns about his health. He took thermal baths at Amélie-les-Bains and his mother consulted doctors in the hope of finding a way to improve her sons growth, Toulouse-Lautrecs parents, the Comte and Comtesse, were first cousins, and he suffered from congenital health conditions sometimes attributed to a family history of inbreeding. At age 13, Toulouse-Lautrec fractured his right femur, at age 14, he fractured his left. The breaks did not heal properly, modern physicians attribute this to an unknown genetic disorder, possibly pycnodysostosis, or a variant disorder along the lines of osteopetrosis, achondroplasia, or osteogenesis imperfecta. Rickets aggravated by praecox virilism has also been suggested, afterwards, his legs ceased to grow, so that as an adult he was extremely short. He developed an adult-sized torso, while retaining his child-sized legs, additionally, he is reported to have had hypertrophied genitals. Physically unable to participate in many activities enjoyed by males his age and he became an important Post-Impressionist painter, art nouveau illustrator, and lithographer, and, through his works, recorded many details of the late-19th-century bohemian lifestyle in Paris. Toulouse-Lautrec contributed a number of illustrations to the magazine Le Rire during the mid-1890s, after initially failing college entrance exams, he passed his second attempt and completed his studies. Toulouse-Lautrecs mother had high ambitions and, with the aim of her son becoming a fashionable and respected painter and he was drawn to Montmartre, the area of Paris famous for its bohemian lifestyle and the haunt of artists, writers, and philosophers. Studying with Bonnat placed Toulouse-Lautrec in the heart of Montmartre, an area he rarely left over the next 20 years. After Bonnat took a new job, Toulouse-Lautrec moved to the studio of Fernand Cormon in 1882 and studied for a five years. At this time he met Émile Bernard and Vincent van Gogh, Cormon, whose instruction was more relaxed than Bonnats, allowed his pupils to roam Paris, looking for subjects to paint. During this period, Toulouse-Lautrec had his first encounter with a prostitute, which led him to paint his first painting of a prostitute in Montmartre, a woman rumoured to be Marie-Charlet
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
–
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
–
La Toilette (fr), oil on board, 1896
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
–
Woman at the Tub from the Portfolio Elles (Femme au Tub) (1896)
Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec
–
Toulouse-Lautrec's grave in
Verdelais
25.
Museo del Objeto del Objeto
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The Museo del Objeto del Objeto, or MODO, is a museum in Mexico City and the first museum in Mexico dedicated to design and communications. The museum offers workshops, seminars, conferences and other activities intended to promote design, the Museo del Objeto del Objeto is part of a long tradition in Mexico City of collectors who donate their collections in order to found or expand museums. Art collectors and other kinds of collectors have been behind such as Soumaya, Franz Mayer, Museo del Juguete. Collectors have also been important to the development of museums in the country as well. The museum is an entity under a foundation of the same name, which was founded by Bruno Newman. The museum is one of several efforts in the country to promote and consolidate information about the history, Newman’s collection forms the basis of the museum foundation’s mission, which is to encourage the research and promotion of communication and design in Mexico. MODO is considered to be the first of its kind, with many of its objects not normally displayed in museums in the country and it focuses on the analysis of its collection and similar objects using the principles of design and communications as well as the use of new technologies. The museum is dedicated to the support of collectors of every day objects, promoting formal arrangement. One reason the museum promotes collecting is that very often items related to design and communication are simply thrown away as junk, such as 1980s sneakers, work to establish the museum started in 2004, with the inventorying, cataloging and photographing of each of the pieces. The last was not only for conservation purposes, but also to allow access to the pieces electronically. The building, a mansion in Colonia Roma, was restored for the museum. The museum was inaugurated in October 2010, the opening of the museum drew a number of international diplomats, including those from Russia, Guatemala, Haiti and Slovenia. Diplomats were invited to the event because the collection contains objects from various countries outside of Mexico, La Gunilla Editores is the publishing branch of the MODO organization. It is dedicated to the research and publication of related to design. Much of its work complements that of the museum producing books and its first eight books include Mexténcil, Calcomanías, Black Book México and Arte Urbe, which relates to graffiti in Mexico as a communication mode. Recorrido con Recordaciones y Encuentros con Conocidos are guidebooks to parts of Mexico and its capital, mODO’s gift shop promotes young, mostly Mexican designers to distribute their work. Another line of products are based on the museum’s permanent collection. The museum offers workshops, seminars, conferences and other activities designed to promote design, the museum’s permanent collection is based on the private collection of Bruno Newman, amassed over forty years
Museo del Objeto del Objeto
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Museo Objeto del Objeto
Museo del Objeto del Objeto
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Glendora coffee can, first half of 20th century.
Museo del Objeto del Objeto
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Morley's Prickly Pear Soap. Paper wrapping, beginning of 20th century.
Museo del Objeto del Objeto
–
Washing machine and carpet sweeper from the permanent collection.
26.
Ancient Greek
–
Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
Ancient Greek
–
Inscription about the construction of the statue of
Athena Parthenos in the
Parthenon, 440/439 BC
Ancient Greek
–
Ostracon bearing the name of
Cimon,
Stoa of Attalos
Ancient Greek
–
The words ΜΟΛΩΝ ΛΑΒΕ as they are inscribed on the marble of the 1955
Leonidas Monument at
Thermopylae
27.
History of cosmetics
–
The history of cosmetics spans at least 6000 years and is present in almost every society on earth. Some argue that body art was the earliest form of ritual in human culture. The evidence for this comes in the form of utilised red mineral pigments including crayons associated with the emergence of Homo sapiens in Africa, archaeological evidence of cosmetics certainly dates from ancient Egypt and Greece. The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics, cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament—2 Kings 9,30 where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and the book of Esther describes various beauty treatments as well. Cosmetics were also used in ancient Rome, although much of Roman literature suggests that it was frowned upon and it is known that some women in ancient Rome invented make up including lead-based formulas, to whiten the skin, and kohl was used to line the eyes. The use of cosmetics in Ancient Egypt is well documented, kohl and lacewing flies have their roots in north Africa. Remedies to treat wrinkles containing ingredients such as gum of frankincense, for scars and burns, a special ointment was made of red ochre, kohl, and sycamore juice. An alternative treatment was a poultice of carob grounds and honey, or an ointment made of knotgrass, to improve breath the ancient Africans chewed herbs, frankincense, or licorice root stick, which is still in use today. Jars of what could be compared with setting lotion have been found to contain a mixture of beeswax and these doubled as remedies for problems such as baldness and greying hair. They also used these products on their mummies, because they believed that it would make them irresistible in the after life, cosmetics were used in Persia and what is today the Middle East from ancient periods. Kohl is a powder that is used widely across the Arab world. It is used as a powder or smeared to darken the edges of the similar to eyeliner. After Arab tribes converted to Islam and conquered areas, in some areas cosmetics were only restricted if they were to disguise the real look in order to mislead or cause uncontrolled desire. In Islamic law, despite these requirements, there is no prohibition on wearing cosmetics. An early teacher in the 10th century was Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi, or Abulcasis, a chapter of the 19th volume was dedicated to cosmetics. As the treatise was translated into Latin, the chapter was used in the West. Al-Zahrawi considered cosmetics a branch of medicine, which he called Medicine of Beauty and he deals with perfumes, scented aromatics and incense. There were perfumed sticks rolled and pressed in molds, perhaps the earliest antecedents of present-day lipsticks
History of cosmetics
–
Nefertiti bust with
eye liner applied ~1,320 BC (~3,300 years ago)
History of cosmetics
–
Egyptian cosmetics box from the
Bronze Age,
Hecht Museum,
Haifa
History of cosmetics
–
A
Beijing opera performer with traditional stage make up.
History of cosmetics
–
A maiko in the
Gion district of
Kyoto, Japan, in full make-up. The style of the lipstick indicates that she is still new.
28.
Sumer
–
Living along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, Sumerian farmers were able to grow an abundance of grain and other crops, the surplus of which enabled them to settle in one place. Proto-writing in the dates back to c.3000 BC. The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC, modern historians have suggested that Sumer was first permanently settled between c.5500 and 4000 BC by a West Asian people who spoke the Sumerian language, an agglutinative language isolate. These conjectured, prehistoric people are now called proto-Euphrateans or Ubaidians, some scholars contest the idea of a Proto-Euphratean language or one substrate language. Reliable historical records begin much later, there are none in Sumer of any kind that have dated before Enmebaragesi. Juris Zarins believes the Sumerians lived along the coast of Eastern Arabia, todays Persian Gulf region, Sumerian civilization took form in the Uruk period, continuing into the Jemdet Nasr and Early Dynastic periods. During the 3rd millennium BC, a cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of Sumerian on Akkadian is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a scale, to syntactic, morphological. This has prompted scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the 3rd millennium BC as a Sprachbund, Sumer was conquered by the Semitic-speaking kings of the Akkadian Empire around 2270 BC, but Sumerian continued as a sacred language. Native Sumerian rule re-emerged for about a century in the Neo-Sumerian Empire or Third Dynasty of Ur approximately 2100-2000 BC, the term Sumerian is the common name given to the ancient non-Semitic-speaking inhabitants of Mesopotamia, Sumer, by the East Semitic-speaking Akkadians. The Sumerians referred to themselves as ùĝ saĝ gíg ga, phonetically /uŋ saŋ gi ga/, literally meaning the black-headed people, the Akkadian word Shumer may represent the geographical name in dialect, but the phonological development leading to the Akkadian term šumerû is uncertain. Hebrew Shinar, Egyptian Sngr, and Hittite Šanhar, all referring to southern Mesopotamia, in the late 4th millennium BC, Sumer was divided into many independent city-states, which were divided by canals and boundary stones. Each was centered on a dedicated to the particular patron god or goddess of the city. The Sumerian city-states rose to power during the prehistoric Ubaid and Uruk periods, classical Sumer ends with the rise of the Akkadian Empire in the 23rd century BC. Following the Gutian period, there is a brief Sumerian Renaissance in the 21st century BC, the Amorite dynasty of Isin persisted until c.1700 BC, when Mesopotamia was united under Babylonian rule. The Sumerians were eventually absorbed into the Akkadian population, 2500–2334 BC Akkadian Empire period, c. 2218–2047 BC Ur III period, c, 2047–1940 BC The Ubaid period is marked by a distinctive style of fine quality painted pottery which spread throughout Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. It appears that this culture was derived from the Samarran culture from northern Mesopotamia and it is not known whether or not these were the actual Sumerians who are identified with the later Uruk culture
Sumer
–
Map of Sumer
Sumer
–
The
Samarra bowl, at the
Pergamonmuseum, Berlin. The
swastika in the center of the design is a reconstruction.
Sumer
–
Fragment of
Eannatum 's
Stele of the Vultures
29.
Gemstone
–
A gemstone is a piece of mineral crystal which, in cut and polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments. However, certain rocks or organic materials that are not minerals are used for jewelry and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their luster or other properties that have aesthetic value. Rarity is another characteristic that lends value to a gemstone, apart from jewelry, from earliest antiquity engraved gems and hardstone carvings, such as cups, were major luxury art forms. A gem maker is called a lapidary or gemcutter, a worker is a diamantaire. The carvings of Carl Fabergé are significant works in this tradition, the traditional classification in the West, which goes back to the ancient Greeks, begins with a distinction between precious and semi-precious, similar distinctions are made in other cultures. In modern usage the precious stones are diamond, ruby, sapphire, other stones are classified by their color, translucency and hardness. Another unscientific term for semi-precious gemstones used in art history and archaeology is hardstone, in modern times gemstones are identified by gemologists, who describe gems and their characteristics using technical terminology specific to the field of gemology. The first characteristic a gemologist uses to identify a gemstone is its chemical composition, for example, diamonds are made of carbon and rubies of aluminium oxide. Next, many gems are crystals which are classified by their crystal system such as cubic or trigonal or monoclinic, another term used is habit, the form the gem is usually found in. For example, diamonds, which have a crystal system, are often found as octahedrons. Gemstones are classified into different groups, species, and varieties, for example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Other examples are the Emerald, aquamarine, red beryl, goshenite, heliodor, and morganite, gems are characterized in terms of refractive index, dispersion, specific gravity, hardness, cleavage, fracture, and luster. They may exhibit pleochroism or double refraction and they may have luminescence and a distinctive absorption spectrum. Material or flaws within a stone may be present as inclusions, gemstones may also be classified in terms of their water. This is a grading of the gems luster, transparency. Very transparent gems are considered first water, while second or third water gems are those of a lesser transparency, there is no universally accepted grading system for gemstones. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America in the early 1950s, historically, all gemstones were graded using the naked eye
Gemstone
–
A selection of gemstone pebbles made by tumbling rough rock with abrasive grit, in a rotating drum. The biggest pebble here is 40 mm long (1.6 inches).
Gemstone
–
Group of precious and semiprecious stones —both uncut and faceted— including (clockwise from top left)
diamond, uncut synthetic
sapphire,
ruby, uncut
emerald, and
amethyst crystal cluster.
Gemstone
–
Spanish emerald and gold pendant at
Victoria and Albert Museum
Gemstone
–
Enamelled gold, amethyst and pearl pendant, about 1880, Pasquale Novissimo (1844–1914), V&A Museum number M.36-1928
30.
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
The Indus Valley Civilisation was a Bronze Age civilisation mainly in the northwestern regions of South Asia, extending from what today is northeast Afghanistan to Pakistan and northwest India. Along with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia it was one of three early civilisations of the Old World, and of the three, the most widespread, at its peak, the Indus Civilisation may have had a population of over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in handicraft, the Indus cities are noted for their urban planning, baked brick houses, elaborate drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings. The discovery of Harappa, and soon afterwards, Mohenjo-Daro, was the culmination of work beginning in 1861 with the founding of the Archaeological Survey of India in the British Raj, excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. This Harappan civilisation is called the Mature Harappan culture to distinguish it from the cultures immediately preceding and following it. The early Harappan cultures were preceded by local Neolithic agricultural villages, as of 1999, over 1,056 cities and settlements had been found, of which 96 have been excavated, mainly in the general region of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra Rivers and their tributaries. Among the settlements were the urban centres of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganeriwala in Cholistan. The Harappan language is not directly attested and its affiliation is uncertain since the Indus script is still undeciphered, a relationship with the Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family is favoured by a section of scholars. Recently, Indus sites have been discovered in Pakistans northwestern Frontier Province as well, other IVC colonies can be found in Afghanistan while smaller isolated colonies can be found as far away as Turkmenistan and in Maharashtra. The largest number of colonies are in the Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, Indus Valley sites have been found most often on rivers, but also on the ancient seacoast, for example, Balakot, and on islands, for example, Dholavira. There is evidence of dry river beds overlapping with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, many Indus Valley sites have been discovered along the Ghaggar-Hakra beds. Among them are, Rupar, Rakhigarhi, Sothi, Kalibangan, Harappan Civilisation remains the correct one, according to the common archaeological usage of naming a civilisation after its first findspot. John wrote, I was much exercised in my mind how we were to get ballast for the line of the railway and they were told of an ancient ruined city near the lines, called Brahminabad. Visiting the city, he found it full of hard well-burnt bricks, and, convinced there was a grand quarry for the ballast I wanted. These bricks now provided ballast along 93 miles of the track running from Karachi to Lahore. In 1872–75, Alexander Cunningham published the first Harappan seal and it was half a century later, in 1912, that more Harappan seals were discovered by J. J. H. MacKay, and Marshall. By 1931, much of Mohenjo-Daro had been excavated, but excavations continued, such as that led by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, director of the Archaeological Survey of India in 1944. Among other archaeologists who worked on IVC sites before the independence in 1947 were Ahmad Hasan Dani, Brij Basi Lal, Nani Gopal Majumdar, and Sir Marc Aurel Stein
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
Indus Valley Civilization
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
Ceremonial vessel, Harappan, 2600–2450 BCE.
LACMA
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
Excavated ruins of
Mohenjo-daro, with the
Great Bath in the front
Indus Valley Civilisation
–
Indus Valley pottery, 2500–1900 BCE
. PMID 21991328. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025656.
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