1.
British Raj
–
The British Raj was the rule by the British Crown in the Indian subcontinent between 1858 and 1947. The rule is also called Crown rule in India, or direct rule in India, the resulting political union was also called the Indian Empire and after 1876 issued passports under that name. It lasted until 1947, when the British Indian Empire was partitioned into two sovereign states, the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. The British Raj extended over almost all present-day India, Pakistan and this area is very diverse, containing the Himalayan mountains, fertile floodplains, the Indo-Gangetic Plain, a long coastline, tropical dry forests, arid uplands, and the Thar desert. In addition, at times, it included Aden, Lower Burma, Upper Burma, British Somaliland. Burma was separated from India and directly administered by the British Crown from 1937 until its independence in 1948, among other countries in the region, Ceylon was ceded to Britain in 1802 under the Treaty of Amiens. Ceylon was part of Madras Presidency between 1793 and 1798, the kingdoms of Nepal and Bhutan, having fought wars with the British, subsequently signed treaties with them and were recognised by the British as independent states. The Kingdom of Sikkim was established as a state after the Anglo-Sikkimese Treaty of 1861, however. The Maldive Islands were a British protectorate from 1887 to 1965, India during the British Raj was made up of two types of territory, British India and the Native States. In general, the term British India had been used to also to the regions under the rule of the British East India Company in India from 1600 to 1858. The term has also used to refer to the British in India. The terms Indian Empire and Empire of India were not used in legislation, the monarch was known as Empress or Emperor of India and the term was often used in Queen Victorias Queens Speeches and Prorogation Speeches. The passports issued by the British Indian government had the words Indian Empire on the cover, in addition, an order of knighthood, the Most Eminent Order of the Indian Empire, was set up in 1878. At the turn of the 20th century, British India consisted of eight provinces that were administered either by a Governor or a Lieutenant-Governor, during the partition of Bengal the new provinces of Assam and East Bengal were created as a Lieutenant-Governorship. In 1911, East Bengal was reunited with Bengal, and the new provinces in the east became, Assam, Bengal, Bihar, there were 565 princely states when India and Pakistan became independent from Britain in August 1947. The princely states did not form a part of British India, the larger ones had treaties with Britain that specified which rights the princes had, in the smaller ones the princes had few rights. Within the princely states external affairs, defence and most communications were under British control, the British also exercised a general influence over the states internal politics, in part through the granting or withholding of recognition of individual rulers. Although there were nearly 600 princely states, the majority were very small
British Raj
–
An 1909 map of the British Indian Empire
British Raj
–
Flag
British Raj
–
British Raj coins during
Edward VII and
George V,
Indian Museum
British Raj
–
Imperial entities of India
2.
Governor-General of India
–
The office was created in 1773, with the title of Governor-General of the Presidency of Fort William. The officer had direct control only over Fort William, but supervised other British East India Company officials in India, complete authority over all of British India was granted in 1833, and the official came to be known as the Governor-General of India. In 1858, the territories of the East India Company came under the control of the British government. The governor-general headed the government of India, which administered the provinces of British India, including the Punjab, Bengal, Bombay, Madras, the United Provinces. To reflect the role as the representative of the monarch to the feudal rulers of the princely states, from 1858 the term Viceroy. Until 1858, the governor-general was selected by the Court of Directors of the East India Company, after 1947, the sovereign continued to appoint the governor-general, but did so on the advice of the Indian government. Governors-General served at the pleasure of the sovereign, though the practice was to have them serve five-year terms, Governors-General could have their commission rescinded and if one were removed or left a provisional governor-general was sometimes appointed until a new holder of the office could be chosen. Provisional governors-general were often chosen from among the provincial governors, many parts of the Indian subcontinent were governed by the East India Company, which nominally acted as the agent of the Mughal Emperor. In 1773, motivated by corruption in the Company, the British government assumed control over the governance of India with the passage of the Regulating Act of 1773. A Governor-General and Supreme Council of Bengal were appointed to rule over the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal, the first Governor-General and Council were named in the Act, their successors were to be elected by the East India Companys Court of Directors. The Act provided for a term for the Governor-General and Council. The Charter Act 1833 replaced the Governor-General and Council of Fort William with the Governor-General, the power to elect the Governor-General was retained by the Court of Directors, but the choice became subject to the Sovereigns approval. After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the East India Companys territories in India were put under the control of the Sovereign. The Government of India Act 1858 vested the power to appoint the Governor-General in the Sovereign, the Governor-General, in turn, had the power to appoint all lieutenant governors in India, subject to the Sovereigns approval. India and Pakistan acquired independence in 1947, but Governors-General continued to be appointed over each nation until republican constitutions were written, Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma remained Governor-General of India for some time after independence, but the two nations were otherwise headed by native Governors-General. India became a republic in 1950, Pakistan became an Islamic one in 1956. The Governor-General originally had power only over the Presidency of Fort William in Bengal, the Regulating Act, however, granted them additional powers relating to foreign affairs and defence. The powers of the Governor-General in respect of foreign affairs were increased by the India Act 1784, while the Governor-General thus became the controller of foreign policy in India, he was not the explicit head of British India
Governor-General of India
–
C. Rajagopalachari, the last Governor-General of India
Governor-General of India
–
Standard of the Governor-General
Governor-General of India
–
Warren Hastings, the first Governor-General of
Fort William from 1773 to 1785.
Governor-General of India
–
Lord Curzon in his robes as Viceroy of India, a post he held from 1899–1905.
3.
Fort William, India
–
Fort William is a fort built in Calcutta on the eastern banks of the River Hooghly, the major distributary of the River Ganges, during the early years of the Bengal Presidency of British India. It was named after King William III of England and Ireland, in front of the Fort is the Maidan, which used to be a part of the Fort and is the largest urban park in Calcutta. There are actually two Fort Williams, the old and the new, the original was built in 1696 by the British East India Company under the supervision of John Goldsborough. Sir Charles Eyre started construction near the bank of the River Hooghly with the South-East Bastion and it was named after King William III in 1700. John Beard, his successor, added the North-East Bastion in 1701, the original building had two stories and projecting wings. An internal guard room became the Black Hole of Calcutta, in 1756, the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj Ud Daulah, attacked the Fort, temporarily conquered the city, and changed its name to Alinagar. This led the British to build a new fort in the Maidan, the rebuilding of the fort was started by Robert Clive in 1758, after the Battle of Plassey, and completed in 1781 at a cost of approximately two million pounds. The area around the Fort was cleared, and the Maidan became the Lungs of Kolkata and it stretches for around 3 km in the north-south direction and is around 1 km wide. Fort William is one of Kolkatas most enduring Raj era edifice. This is a fort of stupendous dimensions and is spread over an area of 70.9 hectares and it was built by Robert Clive in the year 1781. The Old Fort was repaired and used as a house from 1766 onwards. Today this fort located in the periphery of the lush green Maidan is the property of Indian Army, the headquarters of Eastern Command is based at Fort William and it has provisions for accommodating 10,000 army personnel. The Army guards it heavily, and civilian entry is restricted, the Fort is built of brick and mortar in the shape of an irregular octagon with an area 5 km². Five of its sides face landward, and three towards the Hooghly River, the design is that of a star fort, suited to defence against cannon, but from before the advent of explosive shells. It is surrounded by a dry moat 9 m deep and 15 m broad, there are six gates, Chowringhee, Plassey, Calcutta, Water Gate, St Georges and the Treasury Gate. There are similar forts at places like Thalassery in Kerala and it has a 9-hole golf course currently
Fort William, India
–
Fort William, a view from the inside, c. 1828
Fort William, India
–
A view of Calcutta from Fort William (1807).
Fort William, India
–
Plan (top-view) of Fort William, c. 1844
Fort William, India
–
Fort William 1735
4.
East India Company
–
The company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire in India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen Elizabeth I on 31 December 1600, wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned the Companys shares. Initially the government owned no shares and had only indirect control, during its first century of operation the focus of the Company was trade, not the building of an empire in India. The company eventually came to rule large areas of India with its own armies, exercising military power. Despite frequent government intervention, the company had recurring problems with its finances, the official government machinery of British India had assumed its governmental functions and absorbed its armies. Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, London merchants presented a petition to Queen Elizabeth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean, one of them, Edward Bonventure, then sailed around Cape Comorin to the Malay Peninsula and returned to England in 1594. In 1596, three ships sailed east, however, these were all lost at sea. Two days later, on 24 September, the Adventurers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen for support of the project, the Adventurers convened again a year later. For a period of fifteen years the charter awarded the newly formed company a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magellan. Anybody who traded in breach of the charter without a licence from the Company was liable to forfeiture of their ships and cargo, the governance of the company was in the hands of one governor and 24 directors or committees, who made up the Court of Directors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Proprietors, ten committees reported to the Court of Directors. According to tradition, business was transacted at the Nags Head Inn, opposite St Botolphs church in Bishopsgate. Sir James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601, in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the second voyage. Early in 1608 Alexander Sharpeigh was appointed captain of the Companys Ascension, thereafter two ships, Ascension and Union sailed from Woolwich on 14 March 1607–8. Initially, the company struggled in the trade because of the competition from the already well-established Dutch East India Company. The company opened a factory in Bantam on the first voyage, the factory in Bantam was closed in 1683. During this time belonging to the company arriving in India docked at Surat. In the next two years, the company established its first factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal
East India Company
–
Imperial entities of India
East India Company
–
Company flag after 1801
East India Company
–
James Lancaster commanded the first East India Company voyage in 1601
East India Company
–
Red Dragon fought the Portuguese at the
Battle of Swally in 1612, and made several voyages to the
East Indies.
5.
Government of India Act 1858
–
The Government of India Act 1858 was an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed on August 2,1858. Its provisions called for the liquidation of the British East India Company, however, before this bill was to be passed, Palmerstone was forced to resign on another issue. Later Edward Henry Stanley, 15th Earl of Derby introduced another bill which was titled as “An Act for the Better Government of India”. This act provided that India was to be governed directly and in the name of the Crown, the Indian Rebellion of 1857 forced the British Government to pass the Act. The Companys territories in India were to be vested in the Queen, India was to be governed in the Queens name. The Queens Principal Secretary of State received the powers and duties of the Companys Court of Directors, a council of fifteen members was appointed to assist the Secretary of State for India. The council became a body in India affairs. For all the communications between Britain and India, the Secretary of State became the real channel, the Secretary of State for India was empowered to send some secret despatches to India directly without consulting the Council. He was also authorised to constitute special committees of his Council, the Crown was empowered to appoint a Governor-General and the Governors of the Presidencies. An Indian Civil Service was to be created under the control of the Secretary of State, hereto all the property and other assets of the East India Company were transferred to the Crown. The Crown also assumed the responsibilities of the Company as they related to treaties, contracts, the Act ushered in a new period of Indian history, bringing about the end of Company rule in India
Government of India Act 1858
6.
British government
–
Her Majestys Government, commonly referred to as the UK government or British government, is the central government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The government is led by the Prime Minister, who all the remaining ministers. The prime minister and the other most senior ministers belong to the supreme decision-making committee, the government ministers all sit in Parliament, and are accountable to it. After an election, the monarch selects as prime minister the leader of the party most likely to command a majority of MPs in the House of Commons. Under the uncodified British constitution, executive authority lies with the monarch, although this authority is exercised only by, or on the advice of, the prime minister, the Cabinet members advise the monarch as members of the Privy Council. They also exercise power directly as leaders of the Government Departments, the current prime minister is Theresa May, who took office on 13 July 2016. She is the leader of the Conservative Party, which won a majority of seats in the House of Commons in the election on 7 May 2015. Prior to this, Cameron and the Conservatives led a government from 2010 to 2015 with the Liberal Democrats. A key principle of the British Constitution is that the government is responsible to Parliament, Britain is a constitutional monarchy in which the reigning monarch does not make any open political decisions. All political decisions are taken by the government and Parliament and this constitutional state of affairs is the result of a long history of constraining and reducing the political power of the monarch, beginning with the Magna Carta in 1215. Parliament is split into two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the House of Commons is the lower house and is the more powerful. The House of Lords is the house and although it can vote to amend proposed laws. Parliamentary time is essential for bills to be passed into law, Ministers of the Crown are responsible to the House in which they sit, they make statements in that House and take questions from members of that House. For most senior ministers this is usually the elected House of Commons rather than the House of Lords, since the start of Edward VIIs reign, in 1901, the prime minister has always been an elected member of Parliament and therefore directly accountable to the House of Commons. Under the British system the government is required by convention and for reasons to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons. It requires the support of the House of Commons for the maintenance of supply, by convention if a government loses the confidence of the House of Commons it must either resign or a General Election is held. The support of the Lords, while useful to the government in getting its legislation passed without delay, is not vital, a government is not required to resign even if it loses the confidence of the Lords and is defeated in key votes in that House. The House of Commons is thus the Responsible house, the prime minister is held to account during Prime Ministers Question Time which provides an opportunity for MPs from all parties to question the PM on any subject
British government
–
Main entrance of
10 Downing Street, the residence and offices of the First Lord of HM Treasury
British government
–
Logo of Her Majesty's Government
British government
–
Refurbishment notice at Old Fire Station,
Oxford, showing HM Government support.
7.
London
–
London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
London
–
Palace of Westminster,
Buckingham Palace and
Central London skyline
London
London
London
–
The name London may derive from the
River Thames
8.
India Office
–
The India Office was a British government department created in 1858 to oversee the administration, through a Viceroy and other officials, of the Provinces of British India. These territories comprised most of the nations of Bangladesh, Burma, India. The department was headed by the Secretary of State for India, a member of the British cabinet, upon the partition of British India in 1947 into the two new independent dominions of India and Pakistan, the India Office was closed down. Responsibility for the United Kingdoms relations with the two new countries was transferred to the Commonwealth Relations Office, the Company soon established a network of factories throughout the south and east Indies in Asia. Over a period of 250 years the Company underwent several changes in its basic character. A period of rivalry between the Old and New Companies after 1698 resulted in the formation in 1709 of the United Company of Merchants Trading to the East Indies. The Company continued to exercise responsibility, under the supervision of the Board, the Board of Control maintained its separate office close to the Government buildings in Westminster. Other groups of involvement have also resulted from India Office interest in the status of Indian emigrants to the West Indies, south and east Africa, establishment of Burma Office 1947 Birth of India and Pakistan. The official archives of the India Office Records are complemented by over 300 collections, the comprise 14 kilometres of shelves of volumes, files and boxes of papers, together with 70,000 volumes of official publications and 105,000 manuscript and printed maps. Secretary of State for India Under-Secretary of State for India Governor-General of India History of India History of West Bengal Datta, the India Office Library, Its History, Resources, and Functions, Library Quarterly, 36#2 pp. 99–148, Arnold P. Kaminsky. The India Office Library, Who Owns It,1,1966, pp. 1–10 Moir, Martin. A General Guide to the India Office Records 331 pages Seton, the India Office 299 pages Williams, Donovan
India Office
–
The western or
park end of the
Foreign and Commonwealth Office 's building in 1866. It was then occupied by the Foreign and India Offices, while the Home and Colonial Offices occupied the
Whitehall end.
9.
Cabinet of the United Kingdom
–
Ministers of the Crown, and especially Cabinet ministers, are selected primarily from the elected members of House of Commons, and also from the House of Lords, by the Prime Minister. Cabinet ministers are heads of government departments, mostly with the office of Secretary of State for, the collective co-ordinating function of the Cabinet is reinforced by the statutory position that all the Secretaries of State jointly hold the same office, and can exercise the same powers. The Cabinet is the ultimate decision-making body of the executive within the Westminster system of government in constitutional theory. The political and decision-making authority of the cabinet has been reduced over the last several decades. The Cabinet is the committee of Her Majestys Privy Council, a body which has legislative, judicial and executive functions. Its decisions are implemented either under the existing powers of individual government departments. Since the reign of King George I the Cabinet has been the executive group of British government. Both he and George II made use of the system, as both were not native English speakers, unfamiliar with British politics, and thus relied heavily on selected groups of advisers, the term minister came into being since the royal officers ministered to the sovereign. The name and institution have been adopted by most English-speaking countries, and this development grew out of the exigencies of the First World War, where faster and better co-ordinated decisions across Government were seen as a crucial part of the war effort. All these demanded a highly organised and centralised Government centred on the Cabinet, Cabinet ministers, like all ministers, are appointed and may be dismissed by the monarch at pleasure on the advice of the Prime Minister. The allocation and transfer of responsibilities between ministers and departments is generally at the Prime Ministers discretion. The extent to which the Government is collegial varies with political conditions, any change to the composition of the Cabinet involving more than one appointment is customarily referred to as a reshuffle, a routine reshuffle normally occurs every summer. The number in addition to the Prime Minister is currently 21, the Cabinet Secretary does not have a political appointment such as Secretary of State and is not a member of the Cabinet, but is the professional Head of Her Majestys Civil Service. In formal constitutional terms, the Cabinet is a committee of Her Majestys Most Honourable Privy Council, all Cabinet members are made Privy Counsellors shortly after appointment if not already Privy Counsellors, but only selected Privy Counsellors are appointed to the Cabinet or invited to attend. MPs and peers in the Cabinet use the style the Right Honourable The Cabinet has come to be made up almost entirely of members of the House of Commons, the Leader of the House of Lords is a member of the House of Lords. Otherwise it is rare for a peer to sit in the Cabinet, the Lord Chancellor was formerly the presiding officer of the House of Lords, but since 2007 need not be a member of the Lords, and members of the House of Commons have been appointed. The number of ministers who are peers has increased since 1997. Occasionally cabinet members are selected from outside the Houses of Parliament, harold Wilson appointed Frank Cousins and Patrick Gordon Walker to the 1964 cabinet despite their not being MPs at the time
Cabinet of the United Kingdom
–
The Cabinet table
Cabinet of the United Kingdom
–
United Kingdom
Cabinet of the United Kingdom
–
Buildings
Cabinet of the United Kingdom
10.
Impeachment
–
Impeachment is the process by which a legislative body formally levels charges against a high official of Government. Impeachment does not necessarily mean removal from office, it is only a statement of charges, akin to an indictment in criminal law. Once an individual is impeached, he or she must then face the possibility of conviction via legislative vote, in the United States, for example, impeachment at the Federal level is reserved for those who may have committed high crimes and misdemeanors. Several Federal officials, including two Presidents and several judges, have been impeached over the course of US history, US President Richard Nixon resigned before Watergate scandal impeachment proceedings could begin. The federal procedure in the United States involves a vote for impeachment in the House of Representatives on a document known as the Article of Impeachment, each separate grounds will be a separate Article. House members who support the impeachment then appoint managers who will act like prosecutors in the preparation for the Senate hearing, the defendant has the right to legal counsel, the right to cross-examine all witnesses and to testify in his or her defense. The senators must also take an oath or affirmation that they perform their duties honestly. The hearing cannot be conducted without a 50% plus one quorum, after the hearing the deliberations are held in private. Removal requires a majority of the Senate. Impeachment has its origins in English law but fell out of use in the 18th century and it exists under constitutional law in many nations around the world, including Brazil, the Republic of Ireland, Philippines, Russia, South Korea and the United States. The word impeachment derives from Latin root impedicare expressing the idea of becoming caught or entrapped, and has analogues in the modern French verb empêcher, medieval popular etymology also associated it with derivations from the Latin impetere. Impeachment was first used in the British political system, specifically, the process was first used by the English Good Parliament against Baron Latimer in the second half of the 14th century. In private organizations, a motion to impeach can be used to prefer charges, the Austrian Federal President can be impeached by the Federal Assembly before the Constitutional Court. The constitution also provides for the recall of the president by a referendum, neither of these courses has ever been taken. This is likely because while the President is vested with considerable powers on paper, he acts as a ceremonial figurehead in practice. The President of the Federative Republic of Brazil, state governors and municipal mayors may be impeached by the Chamber of Deputies, upon conviction, the officeholder has his political rights revoked for eight years--which has the effect of barring him from running for any office. On December 30,1992, Fernando Collor de Mello, the 32nd President of Brazil, the Senate nonetheless voted to convict Collor and bar him from holding any office for eight years, due to evidence of bribery and misappropriation. On April 17,2016, the Brazilian Chamber of Deputies approved the opening of the impeachment case against the president, Dilma Rousseff, the case was later revised by the Federal Senate which, on May 12, approved the suspension of the President
Impeachment
–
The impeachment trial of President
Bill Clinton in 1999, Chief Justice
William H. Rehnquist presiding. The House managers are seated beside the quarter-circular tables on the left and the president's personal counsel on the right, much in the fashion of
President Andrew Johnson's trial.
11.
Warren Hastings
–
He was accused of corruption and impeached in 1787, but after a long trial he was acquitted in 1795. He was made a Privy Counsellor in 1814, Hastings was born in Churchill, Oxfordshire in 1732 to a poor father, Penystone Hastings, and a mother, Hester Hastings, who died soon after he was born. He attended Westminster School where he was a contemporary of the future Prime Ministers Lord Shelburne and he joined the British East India Company in 1750 as a clerk and sailed out to India reaching Calcutta in August 1750. Hastings built up a reputation for work and diligence, and spent his free time learning about India and mastering Urdu. He was rewarded for his work in 1752 when he was promoted and sent to Kasimbazar, while there he received further lessons about the nature of East Indian politics. This made British trading posts throughout Bengal increasingly insecure, as Siraj ud-Daulah was known to harbour anti-European views, when Alivardi Khan died in April 1756, the British traders and small garrison at Kasimbazar were left vulnerable. On 3 June, after being surrounded by a larger force. Hastings was imprisoned with others in the Bengali capital, Murshidabad, while the Nawabs forces marched on Calcutta, the garrison and civilians were then locked up under appalling conditions in the Black Hole of Calcutta. While there, he met and married Mary Buchanan, the widow of one of the victims of the Black Hole, shortly afterwards a British expedition from Madras under Robert Clive arrived to rescue them. Hastings served as a volunteer in Clives forces as they retook Calcutta in January 1757, after this swift defeat, the Nawab urgently sought peace and the war came to an end. Clive was impressed with Hastings when he met him, and arranged for his return to Kasimbazar to resume his pre-war activities, later in 1757 fighting resumed, leading to the Battle of Plassey, where Clive won a decisive victory over the Nawab. Siraj ud-Daulah was overthrown and replaced by his uncle Mir Jafar, in 1758 Hastings became the British Resident in the Bengali capital of Murshidabad – a major step forward in his career – at the instigation of Clive. Hastings personally sympathised with Mir Jafar and regarded many of the placed on him by the Company as excessive. As he grew older, Mir Jafar became gradually less effective in ruling the state, Hastings expressed his doubts to Calcutta over the move, believing they were honour-bound to support Mir Jafar, but his opinions were overruled. Hastings established a relationship with the new Nawab and again had misgivings about the demands he relayed from his superiors. In 1761 he was recalled and appointed to the Calcutta council, Hastings was personally angered when he conducted an investigation into trading abuses in Bengal. He alleged some European and British-allied Indian merchants were taking advantage of the situation to enrich themselves personally, Hastings felt this was bringing shame on Britains reputation, and he urged the ruling authorities in Calcutta to put an end to it. The Council considered his report but ultimately rejected Hastings proposals and he was criticised by other members
Warren Hastings
–
His Excellency The Right Honourable Warren Hastings
Warren Hastings
–
Warren Hastings with his Wife Marian in their Garden at, Alipore circa 1784-7.
Warren Hastings
–
The trial of Warren Hastings, 1788
Warren Hastings
–
Hastings painted by
Johann Zoffany, 1783-1784.
12.
Impeachment of Warren Hastings
–
The impeachment of Warren Hastings was a failed attempt between 1788 and 1795 to impeach the first Governor-General of India in the Parliament of Great Britain. Hastings was accused of misconduct during his time in Calcutta particularly relating to mismanagement, the prosecution was led by Edmund Burke and became a wider debate about the role of the East India Company and the expanding empire in India. The trial did not sit continuously and the case dragged on for seven years, when the eventual verdict was given Hastings was overwhelmingly acquitted. It has been described as probably the British Isles most famous, certainly the longest, born in 1732, Warren Hastings spent much of his adult life in India after first travelling out as a clerk of the East India Company in 1750. The old structure of rule had come under strain as the Companys holdings had expanded in recent decades from isolated trading posts to large swathes of territory and population. The powers of the Governor General were balanced out by the establishment of a Calcutta Council which had the authority to veto his decisions, Hastings spent much of his time in office marshalling his own supporters on the Council in an effort to avoid being outvoted. Hastings soon ran into opposition on the Council and his principal enemy was the Irish-born politician Philip Francis. Francis developed a dislike of Hastings and was convinced that the Governor Generals policies were self-serving. This was a belief shared with other members of the Council whom he was able to influence. Francis and Hastings personal rivalry continued for years and led to a duel between them in 1780 in which Francis was wounded, but not killed. Francis returned to Britain in 1781 and began raising questions about Hastings conduct and he found support from many leading opposition Whigs. In 1780 Hyder Ali, the ruler of Mysore, went to war with the company after British forces captured the French-controlled port of Mahé. The Commander in Chief Eyre Coote went south with reinforcements and defeated Hyders army in a series of battles which helped to steady the position in the Carnatic, Hyder was unable to secure victory and the war ended in a stalemate. It was halted by the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784 which largely restored the status quo ante bellum, even so, the British position in India had been severely threatened. The war shook public confidence and raised questions about the mismanagement by the Companys agents in India. It proved to be a catalyst for the campaign in London against Hastings which gathered strength during the ensuing years. The Company had already gone through scandals in the 1760s and 1770s, against this backdrop the criticisms circulated by Francis and others provoked a general consensus that the 1773 India Act hadnt been sufficient to rein in the alleged excesses. The Indian question again became a political issue
Impeachment of Warren Hastings
–
Warren Hastings in 1768
Impeachment of Warren Hastings
–
Hastings' initial accuser Sir
Philip Francis.
Impeachment of Warren Hastings
–
The M.P.
Edmund Burke led the prosecution of Hastings
Impeachment of Warren Hastings
–
The testimony of
Lord Cornwallis, Hastings' successor as
Governor General, was a major boost to his defence.
13.
Whitehall
–
Whitehall is a road in the City of Westminster, Central London, which forms the first part of the A3212 road from Trafalgar Square to Chelsea. It is the main thoroughfare running south from Trafalgar Square towards Parliament Square, consequently, the name Whitehall is used as a metonym for British civil service, and as the geographic name for the surrounding area. The name was taken from the Palace of Whitehall that was the residence of Kings Henry VIII through to William III, before its destruction by fire in 1698, only the Banqueting House survived. Whitehall was originally a road that led to the front of the palace. As well as government buildings, the street is known for its statues and monuments, including Britains primary war memorial. The Whitehall Theatre, now the Trafalgar Studios, has been a place for farce comedies since the mid-20th century. The name Whitehall was used for buildings in the Tudor period. It either referred to a made of light stone, or as a general term for any festival building. This included the Royal Palace of Whitehall, which in turn gave its name to the street, the street is about 0.4 miles long and runs through the City of Westminster. It is part of the A3212, a road in Central London that leads towards Chelsea via the Houses of Parliament. It runs south from Trafalgar Square, past numerous government buildings, including the old War Office building, Horse Guards, the Ministry of Defence, the Cabinet Office and it ends at the Cenotaph, the road ahead being Parliament Street. Great Scotland Yard and Horse Guards Avenue branch off to the east, the nearest tube stations are Charing Cross at the north end, and Westminster at the south. Numerous London bus routes run along Whitehall, including 12,24,53,88,159 and 453. It had become a street by the 16th century, and had become a popular place to live by the 17th, with residents including Lord Howard of Effingham. The Palace of Whitehall, to the east of the road, was originally named York Palace, the palace was redesigned in 1531–32 and became the Kings main residence later in the decade. He married Ann Boleyn here in 1533, followed by Jane Seymour in 1536, Charles I owned an extensive art collection at the palace and several of William Shakespeares plays had their first performances here. It ceased to be a residence after 1689, when William III moved to Kensington Palace. The palace was damaged by fire in 1691, following which the front entrance was redesigned by Sir Christopher Wren, in 1698, most of the palace burned to the ground owing to an accident started by a careless washerwoman
Whitehall
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Whitehall pictured in 2012, with
The Cenotaph and
Monument to the Women of World War II in the middle of the carriageway, and the clock tower housing
Big Ben in the background.
Whitehall
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Whitehall, looking south in 1740:
Inigo Jones '
Banqueting House (1622) on the left,
William Kent 's Treasury buildings (1733–37) on the right, the
Holbein Gate (1532, demolished 1759) at centre.
Whitehall
–
Whitehall, looking north in 1953, with
Earl Haig Memorial in the middle of the carriageway.
Whitehall
–
The Cenotaph
14.
John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn
–
John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn OM PC was a British Liberal statesman, writer and newspaper editor. Initially a journalist, he was elected a Member of Parliament in 1883 and he was Chief Secretary for Ireland in 1886 and between 1892 and 1895, Secretary of State for India between 1905 and 1910 and again in 1911 and Lord President of the Council between 1910 and 1914. Morley was a political commentator, and biographer of his hero. Morley is best known for his writings and for his reputation as the last of the great nineteenth-century Liberals and he opposed imperialism and the Boer War. His opposition to British entry into the First World War as an ally of Russia led him to government in August 1914. Morley was born in Blackburn, Lancashire, the son of Jonathan Morley and Priscilla Mary was educated at Cheltenham College, University College School and Lincoln College, Oxford. He quarrelled with his father over religion, and had to leave Oxford early without an honours degree and he wrote, in obvious allusion to this rift, On Compromise. Morley was called to the bar before deciding to pursue a career in journalism and he was the editor of the Fortnightly Review from 1867 to 1882 and of the Pall Mall Gazette from 1880 to 1883 before going into politics. He was unsuccessful in Blackburn, and also failed to win a seat when he contested the City of Westminster at the 1880 general election, Morley was then elected as Liberal Member of Parliament for Newcastle upon Tyne at a by-election in February 1883. Morley was a prominent Gladstonian Liberal, in Newcastle, his constituency association chairman was the effective Robert Spence Watson, a leader of the National Liberal Federation and its chairman from 1890 to 1902. Newcastle, however, was a dual member constituency and Morleys parliamentary colleague, Joseph Cowen, was a radical in perpetual conflict with the Liberal Party, who owned the Newcastle Chronicle. Cowen attacked Morley from the left, and sponsored working men candidates on his retirement from the seat, showing favour to the local Tory candidate, Charles Frederic Hamond. Morley, with Watsons machine, withstood the Cowen challenge until the 1895 general election, when the tactics caused the ejection of Morley and he had during the interval taken a leading part in parliament, but his tenure of the chief secretaryship of Ireland was hardly a success. The Irish gentry made things as difficult for him as possible, and he lost his seat in the 1895 general election but soon found another in Scotland, when he was elected at a by-election in February 1896 for the Montrose Burghs. From 1889 onwards, Morley resisted the pressure from leaders in Newcastle to support a maximum working day of eight hours enforced by law. Morley objected to this because it would interfere in natural economic processes and it would be thrusting an Act of Parliament like a ramrod into all the delicate and complex machinery of British industry. For example, an Eight Hours Bill for miners would impose on an industry with great diversity in local and natural conditions a universal regulation, Morley told trade unionists that the only right way to limit working hours was through voluntary action from them. His outspokenness against any eight hours bill, rare among politicians, in September 1891, two mass meetings saw labour leaders such as John Burns, Keir Hardie and Robert Blatchford all called for action against Morley
John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn
–
Lord Morley of Blackburn
John Morley, 1st Viscount Morley of Blackburn
–
Portrait of Lord Morley of Blackburn by
Walter William Ouless.
15.
P. Rajagopalachari
–
Diwan Bahadur Sir Perungavur Rajagopalachari, KCSI, CIE, also spelt in contemporary records as Sir P. Rajagopala Achariyar, was an Indian administrator. He was the Diwan of Cochin State from December 1896 to August 1901, Rajagopalachari was born in Madras and educated at Presidency College and Madras Law College. He joined the Judicial Department Indian Civil Service on 3 May 1886 and was appointed deputy collector in December 1887, from 2 May 1890 to December 1896, he served as assistant collector and magistrate in Madras Province. In December 1896, Rajagopalachari was appointed Diwan by Maharaja Rama Varma of Cochin and he served in his capacity from 1896 to 1901. During his tenure as diwan, the Cochin Native Merchants Association was founded and this later became the Indian Chamber of Commerce and Industry - Cochin. In 1901, the Central Records of the Cochin State were established at Tripunithura and this later evolved into the Kerala State Archives Department. The Sadhu Jana Paripalana Sangham was established in 1907 by social reformer Ayyankali to campaign for education for Dalits, Rajagopalachari was supportive of the movement, and in 1907 the government of Travancore passed an order for the admission of Dalit children in schools. However, the landlords who owned most of the schools were obstinate in allowing Dalit children into their schools. Low caste agragrian workers refused to farm their fields, in 1910, Rajagopalachari and Mitchell, who headed the education department, made the order for admission of Dalit children public, thereby putting an end to the controversy. Rajagopalachari also brought reforms in the administration. Dalits, who were excluded from the administration, were made eligible for nomination to the State Assembly. Ayyankali became the first Dalit member to be nominated to the Travancore State Assembly, Rajagopalachari also donated 8acres of land for the construction of an Islamic college by Sheikh Mohammad Hamadani Thangal. Rajagopalacharis administration had its own share of controversies, M. A. Shakoor, in his biography of Vakkom Moulavi, calls Rajagopalacharis administration authoritarian. In 1914, Rajagopalachari returned to Madras as Secretary of the Judicial Department, in 1917, he was appointed to the Council of the Governor of Madras. When the Madras Legislative Council came into being, as per the provisions of the Government of India Act 1919, on 17 December 1920 and it is believed that he was instrumental in formulating the no-confidence motion against the Justice Party Government of the Raja of Panagal. His tenure came to an end in 1923 and he was succeeded by L. D. Samikannu Pillai, in 1923, he was appointed to the Council of India in London, resigning in 1925 due to ill-health and returning to India. Rajagopalachari was appointed Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire in 1909, a bust of Rajagopalachari is present in the hall of the Madras Legislative Council. Rajagopalachari had a brother P. Narasimhachari who was a Justice in High Court - Rangoon and he also had notable grand nephews - C. T. Rajagopal, C. T. Venugopal and C. T. Krishnama Chari History of Cochin
P. Rajagopalachari
–
Sir Perungavur Rajagopalachari
16.
Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana
–
Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana, KCSI, OBE was the Punjab Unionist party Premier of the Punjab during the climactic period of 1942-47. He belongs to the Tiwana Jat clan and he was born at Chak Muzafar Abad in Kalra district, Punjab, India. Tiwana was educated, like his father, at Aitchison College, at the age of 16 he volunteered for war service and was commissioned to the 17th Cavalry as a temporary honorary second lieutenant in the Indian Land Forces on 17 April 1918. In addition to his brief World War I service, Tiwana also briefly served in the Afghan campaign which followed and he was advanced to honorary second lieutenant on 21 November 1919, and was promoted to the honorary rank of captain on 17 April 1923. Tiwana thereafter assisted his father in the management of the estates in the Punjab, taking responsibility for them while his father was in London. Tiwana remained in this post until 1942, succeeding Sir Sikander as Prime Minister of the Punjab from 1942 until 1947 and he was promoted to honorary lieutenant-colonel on 12 January 1943. Appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India in the 1946 Kings Birthday Honors, Tiwana resigned his premiership on 2 March 1947. Shaukat Hayat Khan Khizr Tiwana, Ian Talbot, Oxford University Press, c 2002
Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana
–
Malik Khizar Hayat Tiwana (right), Premier of the
Punjab, with
Sikh leader
Master Tara Singh (centre), and
Mohammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the
Unionist Muslim League at the
Simla Conference called by viceroy
Lord Wavell in June 1945.
17.
Abdul Qadir (Muslim leader)
–
Sir Abdul Qadir was an editor and Muslim community leader in British India. He was the leader of Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam in 1941 and he used his position as the lead of this organization to form other, pro-partition of India organizations. Qadir was born in Ludhiana on 15 March 1874, Qadir was the editor of the Observer, the first Muslim newspaper published in English in 1898. In 1901 he launched the magazine Makhzan, an Urdu language publication and this magazine published the early works of Allama Muhammad Iqbal. In 1904 Qadir went to law in London, and was called to the bar in 1907 after which he returned to India. Qadir had been knighted by the British in the 1927 Birthday Honours and he died on 9 February 1950 at the age of 75 and buried in Miani Sahib Graveyard, Lahore. His son Manzur Qadir, was a prominent Pakistani jurist who served as the Foreign Minister of Pakistan during the rule of Ayub Khan. Indian Muslims and the Partition of India
Abdul Qadir (Muslim leader)
–
Khan Bahadur Sir Sheikh Abdul Qadir
18.
Government of India Act 1935
–
The Government of India Act,1935 was originally passed in August 1935, and is said to be the longest Act of Parliament ever enacted by that time. Because of its length, the Act was retroactively split by the Government of India Act,1935 into two separate Acts, The Government of India Act,1935, having 321 sections and 10 schedules. The Government of Burma Act,1935, having 159 sections and 6 schedules, references in literature on Indian political and constitutional history are usually to the shortened Government of India Act,1935, rather than to the text of the Act as originally enacted. The parts of the Act intended to establish the Federation of India never came into operation, the remaining parts of the Act came into force in 1937, when the first elections under the act were also held. Indians had increasingly been demanding a role in the government of their country since the late 19th century. That Act introduced a system of government known as provincial diarchy. The intention had been that a review of Indias constitutional arrangements, however, division between Congress and Muslim representatives proved to be a major factor in preventing agreement as to much of the important detail of how federation would work in practice. Against this practice, the new Conservative-dominated National Government in London decided to go ahead with drafting its own proposals, a joint parliamentary select committee, chaired by Lord Linlithgow, reviewed the white paper proposals at great length. On the basis of this paper, the Government of India Bill was framed. At the committee stage and later, to appease the diehards, the safeguards were strengthened, the bill duly passed into law in August 1935. The diarchy system included a list of subjects reserved by the British Government, the British had complete control over the reserved subjects and could exert special powers into the transferred subjects. The Reserved subjects were, Taxation, Revenue, Foreign Relations/Policies, Justice department, Police, Power Resources, the Transferred Subjects included, Forest Department, Local Government, Education, Public Health and Social Welfare. Indian demands were by now centering on British India achieving constitutional parity with the existing Dominions which would have meant complete autonomy within the British Commonwealth. A different approach was considered by some, though, as the draft constitution in the Nehru Report included such a bill of rights. In 1947, relatively few amendments in the Act made it the functioning interim constitutions of India and he must have tact, courage, and ability and be endowed with an infinite capacity for hard work. “We have put into this Bill many safeguards, ” said Sir Robert Horne… “but all of those safeguards revolve about an individual. He is the linch-pin of the whole system…, if the Viceroy fails, nothing can save the system you have set up. ”However, doing so without good reason would totally sink their credibility with groups in India whose support the act was aimed at securing. Some contrasting views, “In the federal government… the semblance of government is presented. ”Lord Lothian, in a talk lasting forty-five minutes, came straight out with his view on the Bill
Government of India Act 1935
19.
Central Legislative Assembly
–
The Central Legislative Assembly was the lower house of the Imperial Legislative Council, the legislature of British India. It was created by the Government of India Act 1919, implementing the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms and it was also sometimes called the Indian Legislative Assembly and the Imperial Legislative Assembly. The Council of States was the house of the legislature for India. As a result of Indian independence, the Legislative Assembly was dissolved on 14 August 1947 and its place taken by the Constituent Assembly of India and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. The new Assembly was the house of a bicameral parliament, with a new Council of State as the upper house. However, both its powers and its electorate were limited, the Assembly had 145 members who were either nominated or indirectly elected from the provinces. The rest 12 came from the provinces, madras, Bombay and Bengal nominated two officials while United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar & Orissa, Central Provinces, Assam and Burma nominated one each. The other 10 non-officials were nominated from the provinces namely two from Bengal, United Provinces and Punjab and one each from Bombay, Bihar & Orissa, Berar, initially, of its 142 members,101 were elected and 41 were nominated. Of the 101 elected members,52 came from general constituencies,29 were elected by Muslims,2 by Sikhs,7 by Europeans,7 by landlords, later, one seat each was added for Delhi, Ajmer-Merwara and the North West Frontier Province. The constituencies were divided as follows, The Government of India Act 1935 introduced further reforms, the Assembly continued as the lower chamber of a central Indian parliament based in Delhi, with two chambers, both containing elected and appointed members. The Assembly increased in size to 250 seats for members elected by the constituencies of British India, however, elections for the reformed legislature never took place. The Central Legislative Assembly met in the Council Hall and later to the Viceregal Lodge in Old Delhi both of which are now located in Delhi University. A new Council House was conceived in 1919 as the seat of the future Legislative Assembly, the Council of State, the foundation stone was laid on 12 February 1921 and the building was opened on 18 January 1927 by Lord Irwin, the Viceroy and Governor-General. The Council House later changed its name to Parliament House, or Sansad Bhavan, the Non-cooperators were at least partly successful in this, as out of almost a million electors for the Assembly, only some 182,000 voted. After the withdrawal of the movement, a group within the Indian National Congress formed the Swaraj Party. The Swaraj Party led by Motilal Nehru as the leader of the Opposition was able to secure the defeat, or at least the delay, of finance bills and other legislation. However, after 1926, the members of the Swaraj Party either joined the government or returned to the Congress which continued its boycott of the legislature during the Civil Disobedience Movement. In 1934, the Congress ended its boycott of the legislatures, the last elections to the assembly were held in 1945
Central Legislative Assembly
–
The circular Parliament Building (
Sansad Bhavan) in
New Delhi, home of the Central Legislative Assembly
20.
Imperial Legislative Council
–
The Imperial Legislative Council was a legislature for British India from 1861 to 1947. It succeeded the Council of the Governor-General of India, and was succeeded by the Constituent Assembly of India, during the rule of the East India Company, the council of the Governor-General of India had both executive and legislative responsibilities. The council had four members of the Council elected by the Court of Directors, the first three members were permitted to participate on all occasions, but the fourth member was only allowed to sit and vote when legislation was being debated. In 1858, the British Crown took over the administration from the East India Company, instead, the one member who had a vote only on legislative questions came to be appointed by the Sovereign, and the other three members by the Secretary of State for India. The Regulating Act of 1773 limited the influence of the Governor-General of India and established the Council of Four, pitts India Act of 1784 reduced the membership to three, and also established the India Board. The Indian Councils Act 1861 made several changes to the Councils composition, the council was now called the Governor-Generals Legislative Council or the Imperial Legislative Council. Three members were to be appointed by the Secretary of State for India, the Governor-General was empowered to appoint an additional six to twelve members. The five individuals appointed by the Indian Secretary or Sovereign headed the executive departments, there were 45 Indians nominated as additional non-official members from 1862 to 1892. Out of these 25 were zamindars and 7 were rulers of princely states, the others were lawyers, magistrates, journalists and merchants. The participation of the Indian members in the meetings was negligible. The members were allowed to ask questions in the Council but not allowed to ask supplementaries or discuss the answer and they were however empowered to discuss the annual financial statement under certain restrictions but could not vote on it. Ananda Charlu, Madras Rahimtulla M. B. E Nominated Ratodero Larrkanao Nawab Syed Muhammad Bahadur, Madras Nawab Fateh Ali Khan Kazilbash, Punjab R. G. For the first time, Indians were admitted to membership, and there were six Muslim representatives, K. R. Subba Rao Pantulu, C. The Governor-General nonetheless retained significant power over legislation and he could authorise the expenditure of money without the Legislatures consent for ecclesiastical, political defence purposes, and for any purpose during emergencies. He was permitted to veto, or even stop debate on, if he recommended the passage of a bill, but only one chamber co-operated, he could declare the bill passed over the objections of the other chamber. The Legislature had no authority over foreign affairs and defence, Council of India Council of State Viceroys Executive Council Central Legislative Assembly Interim Government of India History of Assembly at Legislative Assembly of Delhi website
Imperial Legislative Council
–
Imperial Legislative Council
21.
Interim Government of India
–
It remained in place until 15 August 1947, the date of the independence of the two new nations of India and Pakistan. After the end of the Second World War, the British authorities in India released all prisoners who had participated in the Quit India movement. The newly elected government of Clement Attlee dispatched the 1946 Cabinet Mission to India to formulate proposals for the formation of a government that would lead to an independent India. The elections for the Constituent Assembly were not direct elections, as the members were elected from each of the legislative assemblies. In the event, the Indian National Congress won a majority of the seats, some 69 per cent, the Congress had clear majorities in eight of the eleven provinces of British India. The Muslim League won the seats allocated to the Muslim electorate, the Viceroys Executive Council became the executive branch of the interim government. The senior Congress leader Vallabhbhai Patel held the second-most powerful position in the Council, heading the Department of Home Affairs, Department of Information, the Sikh leader Baldev Singh was responsible for the Department of Defence and Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari was named to head the Department of Education and arts. Asaf Ali, a Muslim Congress leader, headed the Department of Railways, upon the Muslim League joining the interim government, the second highest-ranking League politician, Liaquat Ali Khan, became the head of the Department of Finance. Abdur Rab Nishtar headed the Departments of Posts and Air and Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar headed the Department of Commerce, the League nominated a Scheduled Caste Hindu politician, Jogendra Nath Mandal, to lead the Department of Law. Meanwhile, the Constituent Assembly, from which the Interim Government was drawn, Viceroys Executive Council Council of State Imperial Legislative Council Central Legislative Assembly
Interim Government of India
–
Members of the interim government outside the Council Room in the
Viceroy's House, New Delhi, shortly before their swearing-in ceremony. From left to right: Sarat Chandra Bose, Jagjivan Ram, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Syed Ali Zaheer.
Interim Government of India
–
Flag
Interim Government of India
–
A reproduction of a historical telegram from the Constituent Assembly, which included a message of goodwill from the US government to the assembly.
22.
World Digital Library
–
The World Digital Library is an international digital library operated by UNESCO and the United States Library of Congress. It aims to expand non-English and non-western content on the Internet, the WDL opened with 1,236 items. As of late 2015, it more than 12,000 items from nearly 200 countries. After almost 20 years without participation, the United States re-established its permanent delegation to the United Nations Educational, Scientific, google Inc. became the first partner of this public–private partnership and donated $3 million to support development of the World Digital Library in 2005. Foremost was the belief that the World Digital Library should engage partners in planning the four project areas, technical architecture, selection, governance. The participants formed working groups to address the challenges of each of the four project areas. The working groups presented their findings to the larger WDL group in July 2007, findings from this planning process were presented at the thirty-fourth session of the UNESCO General Conference in October 2007 in Paris, France. In early September 2008, the Organization of American States agreed to join with the Library of Congress in developing the World Digital Library, secretary General José Miguel Insulza signed the Contributor Agreement with Librarian of Congress, Dr. James Billington, at an OAS headquarters ceremony. The World Digital Library was launched on April 21,2009 at UNESCO headquarters in Paris, the World Digital Library and Universal Access to Knowledge. Oudenaren, John Van, Beyond Access, Digitization to Preserve Culture, Library of Congress, UNESCO Oudenaren, World Digital Library In The Developing World
World Digital Library
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The World Digital Library homepage on launch day, April 21, 2009
23.
Arthur Berriedale Keith
–
Prof Arthur Berriedale Keith DCL DLit LLD was a Scottish constitutional lawyer, scholar of Sanskrit and Indologist. He became Regius Professor of Sanskrit and Lecturer in Constitutional History in the University of Edinburgh and he served in this role from 1914 to 1944. He is buried in Grange Cemetery in Edinburgh with his wife, the grave lies on the south side of the central vaults, adjacent to the central archway through the vaults. The Theory of State Succession Responsible Government in the Dominions 1st edition, Ltd, London The British Commonwealth of Nations. Its Territories and Constitutions, British Life and Thought, No,1, Longmans Green & Co. Ltd. Arthur Berriedale Keith, 1879-1944, The Chief Ornament of Scottish Learning, guide to Arthur Berriedale Keith Papers and Correspondence, 1896-1941
Arthur Berriedale Keith
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The grave of Arthur Berriedale Keith, Grange Cemetery, Edinburgh
