1.
Royal Courts of Justice
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The Royal Courts of Justice, commonly called the Law Courts, is a court building in London which houses both the High Court and Court of Appeal of England and Wales. Designed by George Edmund Street, who died before it was completed, it is a grey stone edifice in the Victorian Gothic style built in the 1870s. It is one of the largest courts in Europe and it is located on the Strand within the City of Westminster, near the border with the City of London. It is surrounded by the four Inns of Court, Kings College London, the nearest London Underground stations are Chancery Lane and Temple. The courts within the building are open to the public, although there may be some restrictions depending upon the nature of the cases being heard and those in court who do not have legal representation may receive some assistance within the building. There is a citizens advice bureau based within the Main Hall which provides free, there is also a Personal Support Unit where litigants in person can receive emotional support and practical information about court proceedings. The search for a design for the Law Courts was by way of a competition, an approach to selecting a design. The competition ran from 1866-7 and the twelve architects competing for the contract each submitted designs for the site, in 1868 it was finally decided that George Edmund Street was the winner. Building was started in 1873 by Messrs Bull & Sons of Southampton, there was a serious strike of masons at an early stage which threatened to extend to the other trades and caused a temporary stoppage of the works. In consequence, foreign workmen were brought in – mostly Germans and this aroused bitter hostility on the part of the men on strike, and the newcomers had to be housed and fed within the building. However, these disputes were settled and the building took eight years to complete. Street died before the building was opened, overcome by the work, much of the preparatory legal work was completed by Edwin Wilkins Field including promotion of the Courts of Justice Building Act of 1865 and the Courts of Justice Concentration Act of 1865. A statue of Field stands in the building, parliament paid £1,453,000 for the 6-acre site upon which 450 houses had to be demolished. The building was paid for by cash accumulated in court from the estates of the intestate to the sum of £700,000. Oak work and fittings in the court cost a further £70,000 and with decoration, the dimensions of the building are,470 feet from east to west,460 feet from north to south,245 feet from the Strand level to the tip of the fleche. Entering through the gates on the Strand, one passes under two elaborately carved porches fitted with iron gates. The carving over the porch consists of heads of the most eminent judges. Also at the front, over the Judges entrance are a stone cat
2.
Strand, London
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Strand is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. The roads name comes from the Old English strond, meaning the edge of a river, the street was popular with the British upper classes between the 12th and 17th centuries, with many historically important mansions being built between the Strand and the river. These included Essex House, Arundel House, Somerset House, Savoy Palace, Durham House, the aristocracy moved to the West End over the 17th century, following which the Strand became well known for coffee shops, restaurants and taverns. The street was a point for theatre and music hall during the 19th century. At the east end of the street are two churches, St Mary le Strand and St Clement Danes. Several authors, poets and philosophers have lived on or near the Strand, including Charles Dickens, Ralph Waldo Emerson, the street has been commemorated in the song Lets All Go Down the Strand, now recognised as a typical piece of Cockney music hall. The street is the link between the two cities of Westminster and London. It runs eastward from Trafalgar Square, parallel to the River Thames, traffic travelling eastbound follows a short crescent around Aldwych, connected at both ends to the Strand. The road marks the boundary of the Covent Garden district. The name was first recorded in 1002 as strondway, then in 1185 as Stronde and it is formed from the Old English word strond, meaning the edge of a river. Initially it referred to the bank of the once much wider Thames. The name was applied to the road itself. In the 13th century it was known as Densemanestret or street of the Danes, Strand Bridge was the name given to Waterloo Bridge during its construction, it was renamed for its official opening on the second anniversary of the coalition victory in the Battle of Waterloo. London Bus routes 6,23,139 and 176 all run along the Strand, as do numerous night bus services. During Roman Britain, what is now the Strand was part of the route to Silchester, known as Iter VIII on the Antonine Itinerary, and it was briefly part of a trading town called Lundenwic that developed around 600 AD, and stretched from Trafalgar Square to Aldwych. Alfred the Great gradually moved the settlement into the old Roman town of Londinium from around 886 AD onwards, leaving no mark of the old town, and the area returned to fields. In the Middle Ages, the Strand became the route between the separate settlements of the City of London and the royal Palace of Westminster. The landmark Eleanors Cross was built in the 13th century at the end of the Strand at Charing Cross by Edward I commemorating his wife Eleanor of Castile
3.
City of Westminster
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The City of Westminster is an Inner London borough which also holds city status. It occupies much of the area of Greater London including most of the West End. It is to the west of and adjoining the ancient City of London, directly to the east of the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea and it was created with the 1965 establishment of Greater London. Upon creation, Westminster was awarded city status, which had previously held by the smaller Metropolitan Borough of Westminster. Aside from a number of parks and open spaces, the population density of the district is high. Many sites commonly associated with London are in the borough, including St. Jamess Palace, Buckingham Palace, the Houses of Parliament, much of the borough is residential, and in 2008 it was estimated to have a population of 236,000. The local authority is Westminster City Council, the current Westminster coat of arms were given to the city by an official grant on September 2,1964. Westminster had other arms before, which had an identical to the chief in the present arms. The symbols in the two thirds of the shield stand for former municipalities now merged with the city, Paddington. The original arms had a portcullis as the charge, which now forms the crest. The origins of the City of Westminster pre-date the Norman Conquest of England, in the mid-11th Century king Edward the Confessor began the construction of an abbey at Westminster, only the foundations of which survive today. For centuries Westminster and the City of London were geographically quite distinct, Westminster briefly became a city in 1540 when Henry VIII created the short-lived Diocese of Westminster. Following the dissolution of Westminster Abbey, a court of burgesses was formed in 1585 to govern the Westminster area, Jamess, Strand, Westminster, Pimlico, Belgravia, and Hyde Park. The Westminster Metropolitan Borough was itself the result of an amalgamation which took place in 1900. Sir John Hunt O. B. E was the First Town Clerk of the City of Westminster, the boundaries of the City of Westminster today, as well as those of the other London boroughs, have remained more or less unchanged since the Act of 1963. On 22 March 2017, a terrorist attack took place on Westminster Bridge, Bridge Street and Old Palace Yard, five people - three pedestrians, one police officer, and the attacker - died as a result of the incident. More than 50 people were injured, an investigation is ongoing by the Metropolitan Police. The city is divided into 20 wards, each electing three councillors, Westminster City Council is currently composed of 44 Conservative Party members and 16 Labour Party members
4.
London
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London /ˈlʌndən/ is the capital and most populous city of England and the United Kingdom. Standing on the River Thames in the south east of the island of Great Britain and it was founded by the Romans, who named it Londinium. Londons ancient core, the City of London, largely retains its 1. 12-square-mile medieval boundaries. London is a global city in the arts, commerce, education, entertainment, fashion, finance, healthcare, media, professional services, research and development, tourism. It is crowned as the worlds largest financial centre and has the fifth- or sixth-largest metropolitan area GDP in the world, London is a world cultural capital. It is the worlds most-visited city as measured by international arrivals and has the worlds largest city airport system measured by passenger traffic, London is the worlds leading investment destination, hosting more international retailers and ultra high-net-worth individuals than any other city. Londons universities form the largest concentration of education institutes in Europe. In 2012, London became the first city to have hosted the modern Summer Olympic Games three times, London has a diverse range of people and cultures, and more than 300 languages are spoken in the region. Its estimated mid-2015 municipal population was 8,673,713, the largest of any city in the European Union, Londons urban area is the second most populous in the EU, after Paris, with 9,787,426 inhabitants at the 2011 census. The citys metropolitan area is the most populous in the EU with 13,879,757 inhabitants, the city-region therefore has a similar land area and population to that of the New York metropolitan area. London was the worlds most populous city from around 1831 to 1925, Other famous landmarks include Buckingham Palace, the London Eye, Piccadilly Circus, St Pauls Cathedral, Tower Bridge, Trafalgar Square, and The Shard. The London Underground is the oldest underground railway network in the world, the etymology of London is uncertain. It is an ancient name, found in sources from the 2nd century and it is recorded c.121 as Londinium, which points to Romano-British origin, and hand-written Roman tablets recovered in the city originating from AD 65/70-80 include the word Londinio. The earliest attempted explanation, now disregarded, is attributed to Geoffrey of Monmouth in Historia Regum Britanniae and this had it that the name originated from a supposed King Lud, who had allegedly taken over the city and named it Kaerlud. From 1898, it was accepted that the name was of Celtic origin and meant place belonging to a man called *Londinos. The ultimate difficulty lies in reconciling the Latin form Londinium with the modern Welsh Llundain, which should demand a form *lōndinion, from earlier *loundiniom. The possibility cannot be ruled out that the Welsh name was borrowed back in from English at a later date, and thus cannot be used as a basis from which to reconstruct the original name. Until 1889, the name London officially applied only to the City of London, two recent discoveries indicate probable very early settlements near the Thames in the London area
5.
United Kingdom
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom or Britain, is a sovereign country in western Europe. Lying off the north-western coast of the European mainland, the United Kingdom includes the island of Great Britain, Northern Ireland is the only part of the United Kingdom that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. The Irish Sea lies between Great Britain and Ireland, with an area of 242,500 square kilometres, the United Kingdom is the 78th-largest sovereign state in the world and the 11th-largest in Europe. It is also the 21st-most populous country, with an estimated 65.1 million inhabitants, together, this makes it the fourth-most densely populated country in the European Union. The United Kingdom is a monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. The monarch is Queen Elizabeth II, who has reigned since 6 February 1952, other major urban areas in the United Kingdom include the regions of Birmingham, Leeds, Glasgow, Liverpool and Manchester. The United Kingdom consists of four countries—England, Scotland, Wales, the last three have devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in their capitals, Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast, respectively. The relationships among the countries of the UK have changed over time, Wales was annexed by the Kingdom of England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542. A treaty between England and Scotland resulted in 1707 in a unified Kingdom of Great Britain, which merged in 1801 with the Kingdom of Ireland to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Five-sixths of Ireland seceded from the UK in 1922, leaving the present formulation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain, there are fourteen British Overseas Territories. These are the remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in the 1920s, British influence can be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former colonies. The United Kingdom is a country and has the worlds fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP. The UK is considered to have an economy and is categorised as very high in the Human Development Index. It was the worlds first industrialised country and the worlds foremost power during the 19th, the UK remains a great power with considerable economic, cultural, military, scientific and political influence internationally. It is a nuclear weapons state and its military expenditure ranks fourth or fifth in the world. The UK has been a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council since its first session in 1946 and it has been a leading member state of the EU and its predecessor, the European Economic Community, since 1973. However, on 23 June 2016, a referendum on the UKs membership of the EU resulted in a decision to leave. The Acts of Union 1800 united the Kingdom of Great Britain, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have devolved self-government
6.
England and Wales
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The devolved National Assembly for Wales was created in 1999 by the Parliament of the United Kingdom under the Government of Wales Act 1998 and provides a degree of self-government in Wales. The powers of the Assembly were expanded by the Government of Wales Act 2006, which allows it to pass its own laws, there is no equivalent body for England, which is directly governed by the Parliament and the government of the United Kingdom. During the Roman occupation of Britain, the area of present-day England and Wales was administered as a single unit, at that time, most of the native inhabitants of Roman Britain spoke Brythonic languages, and were all regarded as Britons, divided into numerous tribes. After the conquest, the Romans administered this region as a single unit and this aimed to replace Welsh criminal law with English law. Welsh law continued to be used for civil cases until the annexation of Wales to England in the 16th century, the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 then consolidated the administration of all the Welsh territories and incorporated them fully into the legal system of the Kingdom of England. Prior to 1746 it was not clear whether a reference to England in legislation included Wales and this specified that in all prior and future laws, references to England would by default include Wales. The Wales and Berwick Act was repealed in 1967, although the definition of England it created is preserved for acts passed prior to its repeal. Since the Acts repeal what was referred to as England is now England and Wales, while references to England, England and Wales are treated as a single unit, for most purposes, because the two form the constitutional successor to the former Kingdom of England. The continuance of Scots law was guaranteed under the 1706 Treaty of Union that led to the Acts of Union 1707, thus, most laws applicable to England also applied to Wales. However, Parliament now passes laws applicable to Wales and not to England, examples are the Welsh Language Acts 1967 and 1993 and the Government of Wales Act 1998. Measures and Acts of the National Assembly for Wales passed since the Government of Wales Act 2006 also apply in Wales, following the Government of Wales Act, effective since May 2007, the National Assembly for Wales can legislate on matters devolved to it. Following a referendum on 3 March 2011, the Welsh Assembly gained direct law-making powers and this was the first time in almost 500 years that Wales had its own powers to legislate. Each piece of Welsh legislation is known as an Act of the Assembly, outside of the legal system the position is mixed. Some organisations combine as England and Wales, others are separate, some religious denominations organise on the basis of England and Wales, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, but also small denominations, e. g. the Evangelical Presbyterian Church. Prior to the disestablishment of the Church in Wales in 1920, the Electoral Commission maintains a register of political parties, organised according to where the party operates. The order of precedence in England and Wales is distinct from those of Northern Ireland and Scotland, the national parks of England and Wales have a distinctive legislative framework and history. Courts of England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales Cultural relationship between the Welsh and the English Geography of Wales Geography of England British Isles
7.
Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873
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The Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873 was an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1873. It would have retained those functions in relation to Scotland and Ireland for the time being. One of the reasons that the Liberal government under Gladstone wanted to abolish the judicial aspect of the House of Lords was that it was concerned for the quality of judges at this court. Therefore, some of the best lawyers in the land were prohibited from sitting as judges in the house simply because of their parentage. The reigning monarch could appoint any individual to be a peer and these judicial life peers would hold seats only for the duration of their life, their seat would not pass through their inheritance to their son. Thus, Queen Victoria and subsequent monarchs were able to appoint leading lawyers to adjudicate in the House of Lords by making them life peers. Lord Cairns, Disraelis Lord Chancellor, sought to remove the House of Lords jurisdiction for Scottish and Irish appeals as well, which would have completely removed its judicial jurisdiction. However, the Lord Chancellor could not muster the support in the Parliament for the bill as originally proposed in 1874 or when it was reintroduced in 1875
8.
Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1875
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The Judicature Acts are a series of Acts of Parliament, beginning in the 1870s, which aimed to fuse the hitherto split system of courts in England and Wales. The first two Acts were the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873 and the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1875, the enactment was bold and revolutionary. By one section, the Queens Bench, the Common Pleas, and the Exchequer, nevertheless, all actions could now for the first time be initiated in a single High Court, and could be tried in any of its divisions. The procedure of the law courts had developed along highly technical. For example, to bring an action in the law courts a litigant had to file a writ chosen from a set of standard forms. The emphasis on adherence to established forms led to substantial injustice. However, by the nineteenth century proceedings before the Court of Chancery often dragged on and on, also, the practice of the court departed from the original principle of the Lord Chancellors conscience, with rules of equity restricting the manner in which the courts of equity would intervene. The solution adopted by the Judicature Acts of 1873 and 1875 was to fuse the administration of the two, pleadings became more relaxed, with the emphasis shifting from the form of action to the cause of action. Writs for action were filled out for a litigant stating facts, the result was that, when the issues arising from the causes of action were decided in favour of one party, that party got relief. There were originally three common law divisions of the High Court corresponding with the three courts of common law. 25, all the jurisdiction of the Chief Baron and the Chief Justice of the Common Pleas was transferred. The High Court, therefore, came to consist of the Chancery division, the law division. To the Queens Bench division was attached, by an order of the Lord Chancellor dated 1 January 1884. The keystone of the created by the Judicature Acts was a strong court of appeal. The authors of the Judicature Act had before them two systems of pleading, both of which were open to criticism, there was some exaggeration in both statements. In a normal case, the plaintiff delivered his statement of claim, in which he was to set forth concisely the facts on which he relied, and the relief which he asked. The defendant then delivered his statement of defence, in which he was to say whether he admitted or denied the plaintiffs facts, the plaintiff might then reply, and the defendant rejoin, and so on until the pleaders had exhausted themselves. In the chancery division there are of course no pleadings in those matters which by the rules can be disposed of by summons in chambers instead of by ordinary suit as formerly
9.
Court of Criminal Appeal
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The Court of Criminal Appeal is the name of an existing court of Scottish law and of historic courts in England and Wales, Ireland, and Northern Ireland. The Court of Criminal Appeal was an English appellate court for criminal cases established by the Criminal Appeal Act 1907 and it superseded the Court for Crown Cases Reserved to which referral had been solely discretionary and which could only consider points of law. Throughout the nineteenth century, there had been opposition from lawyers, judges, however, disquiet over the convictions of Adolf Beck and George Edalji led to the concession of a new court that could hear matters of law, fact or mixed law and fact. Though the court was staffed with the judges who had shown such hostility, during the period 1909–1912, there was an average of 450 annual applications for leave to appeal of which an average of 170 were granted. Of that 170, conviction was quashed in 20 percent of cases, rulings of the court included limitation of the lower courts ability simultaneously to try multiple defendants, multiple indictments and disparate counts within an indictment. The ability of the prosecution to introduce further evidence after the close of the case was curtailed as were several prejudicial practices with a defendants previous criminal record. The Court also did much to refine and systematise the law of evidence, on 1 October 1966, the Court of Criminal Appeal was superseded by the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal of England and Wales. Following the Criminal Appeal Act 1926, when the Scottish High Court of Justiciary hears criminal appeals, the Criminal Appeal Act 1927 was passed the following year specifically to deal with the Case of Oscar Slater. This is known as a Full Bench, appeals are heard from the High Court of Justiciary, the Sheriff Courts and the District Courts. The High Court also hears appeals in cases referred to it by the Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission. A Court of Criminal Appeal in Northern Ireland was established on the model of the English Court by the Criminal Appeal Act 1930, the Courts of Justice Act 1924 passed after the 1922 Constitution of the Irish Free State established a Court of Criminal Appeal. Until 2014, the Court of Criminal Appeal heard cases which have been appealed from the Circuit Court, Central Criminal Court and it was made up of three judges and has a majority decision. After a 2013 amendment to the 1937 Constitution of Ireland, the Court of Criminal Appeal was superseded by a new Court of Appeal, cornish, W. Clarke, G. Law and Society in England 1750-1950. Journal of the Society of Public Teachers of Law 425
10.
Senior Courts Act 1981
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The Senior Courts Act 1981, originally named the Supreme Court Act 1981, is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 established a new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom on 1 October 2009, the former term Supreme Court did not mean the 2009 Supreme Court, but was shorthand for the Supreme Court of Judicature, which comprised the Superior Courts. Although the old superior courts are now senior courts, the courts have not become junior courts. The following directions have been given pursuant to section 75 by the Lord Chief Justice, civil Procedure, Thomson, Sweet & Maxwell
11.
Constitutional Reform Act 2005
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The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The office of Lord Chancellor was reformed to remove the ability of the holder to act as both a government minister and a judge, an arrangement that ran contrary to the idea of separation of powers. Setting up of a Supreme Court of the United Kingdom and moving the Law Lords out of the House of Lords to this new court. Other measures relating to the judiciary, including changes to the position of the Lord Chief Justice, the bill caused much controversy and the Lords made amendments to it. Other measures remained generally the same as stated above, the Lord Chancellor remains the custodian of the Great Seal. The bill was approved by both Houses on 21 March 2005, and received Royal Assent on 24 March, the act contains provisions which reform two institutions and one former office of the United Kingdom. The establishment of a Supreme Court is the subject of the act and it had consequences for the House of Lords. The sections contained in Part 3 prescribe that the Supreme Court be composed of 12 judges, the following sections set out the rules for the appointment of future members of the Court. By default, Justices of the Supreme Court are appointed for life, sections 32 to 37 are entitled Terms of Appointment and deal with issues such as tenure, salaries and allowances, resignation and retirement, and pensions. Section 40 additionally sets out that the new Court will assume the jurisdiction of the House of Lords, the following sections deal with practical matters such as procedures, staff, and resources of the new Court and the fees of the judges. The Chief Executive of the Supreme Court must prepare a report on the work. Although the Appellate Committee of the House of Lords is abolished, newly appointed members of the Court take no peerage, instead bearing the formal title Justice of the Supreme Court. Under the act such judges also have a title of Lord or Lady. The Lord Chief Justice replaces the Lord Chancellor as head of the English judiciary, the new Supreme Court sits in a separate building from the Houses of Parliament where the mentioned predecessor judicial committee formerly acted as the UKs final court of appeal. Architect Lord Foster was chosen to design the necessary alterations, the building reopened as the Supreme Court on 1 October 2009. The third part of the act is about the appointment of judges, in 1991 the Law Society had criticized the old system, emphasizing its defects and recommending the establishment of an independent body responsible for appointing judges. The Constitutional Reform Act realized the hopes of the Law Society, section 61 prescribed the creation of the Judicial Appointments Commission, responsible for the appointment of judges for English and Welsh courts. Following sections regulate the structure and the procedures of the Commission, halsburys Statutes, House of Commons Reports on Bills January 2005 Scroll halfway down the page for this bills two reports
12.
Appeal
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In law, an appeal is the process in which cases are reviewed, where parties request a formal change to an official decision. Appeals function both as a process for error correction as well as a process of clarifying and interpreting law, although appellate courts have existed for thousands of years, common law countries did not incorporate an affirmative right to appeal into their jurisprudence until the 19th century. Appellate courts and other systems of error correction have existed for many millennia, during the first dynasty of Babylon, Hammurabi and his governors served as the highest appellate courts of the land. Ancient Roman law employed a complex hierarchy of courts, where some appeals would be heard by the emperor. Additionally, appellate courts have existed in Japan since at least the Kamakura Shogunate, during this time, the Shogunate established hikitsuke, a high appellate court to aid the state in adjudicating lawsuits. Although some scholars argue that the right to appeal is itself a substantive liberty interest, in fact, commentators have observed that common law jurisdictions were particularly slow to incorporate a right to appeal into either its civil or criminal jurisprudence. Two years later, the right to appeals was extended to criminal cases. Some states, such as Minnesota, still do not formally recognize a right to criminal appeals, although some courts permit appeals at preliminary stages of litigation, most litigants appeal final orders and judgments from lower courts. A fundamental premise of many legal systems is that appellate courts review questions of law de novo, instead, appellate courts will generally defer to the record established by the trial court, unless some error occurred during the fact-finding process. Many jurisdictions provide a statutory or constitutional right for litigants to appeal adverse decisions, however, most jurisdictions also recognize that this right may be waived. In the United States, for example, litigants may waive the right to appeal, as long as the waiver is “considered, unlike trials, appeals are generally presented to a judge, or a panel of judges, rather than a jury. Before making any formal argument, parties will generally submit legal briefs in which the present their arguments. Appellate courts may grant permission for an amicus curiae to submit a brief in support of a particular party or position. After submitting briefs, parties often have the opportunity to present an argument to a judge or panel of judges. During oral arguments, judges often ask question to attorneys to challenge their arguments or to advance their own legal theories, after deliberating in chambers, appellate courts will issue formal opinions that resolve the legal issues presented for review. When considering cases on appeal, appellate courts generally affirm, reverse, some courts maintain a dual function, where they consider both appeals as well as matters of first instance. For example, the Supreme Court of the United States primarily hears cases on appeal, some jurisdictions maintain a system of intermediate appellate courts, which are subject to the review of higher appellate courts. The highest appellate court in a jurisdiction is referred to as a court of last resort
13.
Court of Justice of the European Union
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The Court of Justice of the European Union is the institution of the European Union that encompasses the whole judiciary. Seated in Luxembourg, Luxembourg, it consists of two courts, the Court of Justice and the General Court. From 2005 to 2016 it also consisted of the Civil Service Tribunal and it has a sui generis court system, meaning of its own kind, and a supranational institution. CJEU consists of two courts, the Court of Justice, informally known as European Court of Justice which hears applications from national courts for preliminary rulings, annulment. It consists of one judge from each EU member country, as well as 11 advocates general, the General Court, which hears applications for annulment from individuals, companies and, less commonly, national governments. It is made up of 47 judges, which will be increased to 56 in 2019, cJEUs specific mission is to ensure that the law is observed in the interpretation and application of the Treaties of the European Union. To achieve this, it, reviews the legality of actions taken by the EUs institutions, enforces compliance by states with their obligations under the Treaties. CJEU was originally established in 1952 as a court called the Court of Justice of the European Coal. The General Court was created in 1988 and the Civil Service Tribunal was created in 2004, with the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon in 2009, the court system obtained its current name, while the original court itself was renamed Court of Justice. Primacy of European Union law Beck, Gunnar, the Legal Reasoning of the Court of Justice of the EU. Gundega Mikelsone, The Binding Force of the Case Law of the Court of Justice of the European Union, official website The archival fonds of the Court of Justice of the European Union is consultable at the Historical Archives of the European Union
14.
Supreme Court of the United Kingdom
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The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom is the supreme court in all matters under English and Welsh law, Northern Ireland law and Scottish civil law. It is the court of last resort and the highest appellate court in the United Kingdom, the Supreme Court was established by Part 3 of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and started work on 1 October 2009. Its jurisdiction over devolution matters had previously exercised by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Because of the doctrine of parliamentary sovereignty, the Supreme Court is much more limited in its powers of review than the constitutional or supreme courts of some other countries. It cannot overturn any primary legislation made by Parliament, however, it can overturn secondary legislation if, for example, that legislation is found to be ultra vires to the powers in primary legislation allowing it to be made. Such a declaration can apply to primary or secondary legislation, the legislation is not overturned by the declaration, and neither Parliament nor the government is required to agree with any such declaration. The current President of the Supreme Court is Lord Neuberger of Abbotsbury, the Supreme Courts focus is on cases that raise points of law of general public importance. The Supreme Court also determines devolution issues, ordinarily, all twelve justices do not all hear every case. Typically a case is heard by a panel of five justices, the justices are also members of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council and spend some of their time in that capacity. The creation of a Supreme Court for the United Kingdom was first mooted in a paper published by the Department of Constitutional Affairs in July 2003. Space within the House of Lords was at a constant premium, the main argument against a new Supreme Court was that the previous system had worked well and kept costs down. Reformers expressed concern that this second main example of a mixture of the legislative, judicial, officials who make or execute laws have an interest in court cases that put those laws to the test. When the state invests judicial authority in those officials or even their colleagues, it puts the independence. Lord Phillips said such an outcome was a possibility, but was unlikely, the reforms were controversial and were brought forward with little consultation but were subsequently extensively debated in Parliament. During 2004, a committee of the House of Lords scrutinised the arguments for. The Government estimated the set-up cost of the Supreme Court at £56.9 million, the Supreme Court was established by Part 3 of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 and started work on 1 October 2009. Its jurisdiction over devolution matters had previously held by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. The first case heard by the Supreme Court was HM Treasury v Ahmed, at issue was the extent to which Parliament has, by the United Nations Act 1946, delegated to the executive the power to legislate
15.
Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales
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The Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales is the head of the judiciary and President of the Courts of England and Wales. The Lord Chief Justice is also the nominal President of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal and Head of Criminal Justice, but can appoint another judge to these positions under the 2005 Act. The Lord Chief Justices equivalent in Scotland is the Lord President of the Court of Session, there is also a Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland, successor to the Lord Chief Justice of Ireland of the pre-Partition era. The current Lord Chief Justice is Lord Thomas of Cwmgiedd, who took over the role on 1 October 2013, although the Court of the Kings Bench had existed since 1234, the title of chief justice was not used until 1268. In the intermediary period, one of the justices would be considered the senior judge, the suffix and Wales, now found in statutes and elsewhere, was unilaterally appended by Lord Bingham of Cornhill between 1996 and 2000. The Constitutional Reform Act 2005 made the Lord Chief Justice the President of the Courts of England and Wales, vesting the office with many of the powers formerly held by the Lord Chancellor. While the Lord Chief Justice retains the role of President of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal, the first Lord Chief Justice to act as head of the judiciary under the provisions of the CRA was Lord Phillips of Worth Matravers. The CRA also provides that the Lord Chief Justice is chosen by a specially appointed committee convened by the Judicial Appointments Commission
16.
Master of the Rolls
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The position dates from at least 1286, although it is believed that the office probably existed earlier than that. The Master of the Rolls was initially a clerk responsible for keeping the Rolls, or records, of the Court of Chancery, the Keeper was the most senior of the dozen Chancery clerks, and as such occasionally acted as keeper of the Great Seal of the Realm. The post evolved into a one as the Court of Chancery did. He retained his functions as the nominal head of the Public Record Office until the Public Records Act 1958 transferred responsibility for it to the Lord Chancellor. One residual reminder of this role is the fact that the Master of the Rolls of the day continues to serve, ex officio, the Master of the Rolls was also previously responsible for registering solicitors, the officers of the Senior Courts. One of the most prominent people to hold the position was Thomas Cromwell, on 3 October 2016, Sir Terence Etherton succeeded Lord Dyson as Master of the Rolls. Category, Masters of the Rolls Hanworth, Lord, some Notes on the Office of Master of the Rolls. The Judges of England 1272–1990, a list of judges of the superior courts
17.
Courts of England and Wales
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The United Kingdom does not have a single unified legal system—England and Wales have one system, Scotland another, and Northern Ireland a third. Additionally, the Military Court Service has jurisdiction over all members of the forces of the United Kingdom in relation to offences against military law. The Supreme Court is the highest appeal court in almost all cases in England, before the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 this role was held by the House of Lords. The Supreme Court is also the highest court of appeal for devolution matters, the Privy Council is the highest court of appeal for a small number of Commonwealth countries, colonies and the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man. There are a number of smaller jurisdictions, such as appeals from ecclesiastical and professional bodies. The judges who sit on the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council are also the members of the Supreme Court, the Senior Courts of England and Wales were originally created by the Judicature Acts as the Supreme Court of Judicature. It was renamed the Supreme Court of England and Wales in 1981 and it consists of the following courts, Court of Appeal High Court of Justice Crown Court The Court of Appeal deals only with appeals from other courts or tribunals. Its decisions are binding on all courts, including itself, apart from the Supreme Court, the High Court of Justice functions both as a civil court of first instance and a criminal and civil appellate court for cases from the subordinate courts. It consists of three divisions, the Queens Bench, the Chancery and the Family divisions, the divisions of the High Court are not separate courts, but have somewhat separate procedures and practices adapted to their purposes. Although particular kinds of cases will be assigned to each depending on their subject matter. However, beginning proceedings in the division may result in a costs penalty. The Crown Court is a court of both original and appellate jurisdiction which in addition handles a limited amount of civil business both at first instance and on appeal. It was established by the Courts Act 1971 and it replaced the assizes whereby High Court judges would periodically travel around the country hearing cases, and quarter sessions which were periodic county courts. The Old Bailey is the name of Londons most famous criminal court. Its official name is the Central Criminal Court, the Crown Court also hears appeals from magistrates courts. The Crown Court is a court in respect of the other work it undertakes, viz. inter alia, appeals from the magistrates’ courts. They hear minor criminal cases, as well as certain licensing appeals, youth courts are run on similar lines to adult magistrates courts but deal with offenders aged between the ages of ten and seventeen inclusive. Youth courts are presided over by a specially trained subset of experienced adult magistrates or a district judge, youth magistrates have a wider catalogue of disposals available to them for dealing with young offenders and often hear more serious cases against youths
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English law
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English law is the common law legal system governing England and Wales, comprising criminal law and civil law. English law has no formal codification, the essence of English common law is that it is made by judges sitting in courts applying statute, and legal precedent from previous cases. A decision of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, the highest civil court of the United Kingdom, is binding on every other court. Some rulings are derived from legislation, others, known as law, are based on rulings of previous courts. For example, murder is a common law rather than one established by an Act of Parliament. Common law can be amended or repealed by Parliament, murder, for example, the first schedule of the Interpretation Act 1978, defines the following terms, British Islands, England, and United Kingdom. The use of the term British Isles is virtually obsolete in statutes and, for interpretation purposes, England includes a number of specified elements, Wales and Berwick Act 1746, section 3 formally incorporated Wales and Berwick-upon-Tweed into England. But section 4 Welsh Language Act 1967 provided that references to England in future Acts of Parliament should no longer include Wales, but Dicey & Morris say It seems desirable to adhere to Diceys definition for reasons of convenience and especially of brevity. It would be cumbersome to have to add or Wales after England, the adjacent islands of the Isle of Wight and Anglesey are a part of England and Wales by custom, while Harman v Bolt 47 TLR219 expressly confirms that Lundy is a part of England. The adjacent territorial waters by virtue of the Territorial Waters Jurisdiction Act 1878, great Britain means England, Wales, Scotland, their adjacent territorial waters and the islands of Orkney and Shetland, the Hebrides and, by virtue of the Island of Rockall Act 1972, Rockall. V Canon Film Sales Ltd.1 WLR1597 and Chloride Industrial Batteries Ltd, V F. & W. Freight Ltd.1 WLR823. British Islands – but not British Isles – means the United Kingdom, the Isle of Man, compare with American convention, which includes of, as in Civil Rights Act of 1964. For example, the Pleading in English Act 1362 was referred to as 36 Edw,15, meaning 36th year of the reign of Edward III, chapter 15, though in the past this was all spelt out, together with the long title. Common law is a term with historical origins in the system of England. This may be a legacy of the Norman conquest of England, an example is the Law Merchant derived from the Pie-Powder Courts, named from a corruption of the French pieds-poudrés implying ad hoc marketplace courts. In 1276, the concept of time immemorial often applied in common law was defined as being any time before 6 July 1189, one of the major challenges in the early centuries was to produce a system that was certain in its operation and predictable in its outcomes. Too many judges were either partial or incompetent, acquiring their positions only by virtue of their rank in society, thus, a standardised procedure slowly emerged, based on a system termed stare decisis which roughly means let the decision stand. The doctrine of precedent which requires similar cases to be adjudicated in a like manner, thus, the ratio decidendi of each case will bind future cases on the same generic set of facts both horizontally and vertically in the court structure
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Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom)
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The Ministry of Justice is a ministerial department of the UK Government headed by the Secretary of State for Justice and Lord Chancellor. The department is responsible for areas of constitutional policy not transferred in 2010 to the Deputy Prime Minister, human rights law. The ministry was formed in May 2007 when some functions of the Home Secretary were combined with the Department for Constitutional Affairs, the latter had replaced the Lord Chancellors Department in 2003. Its stated priorities are to reduce re-offending and protect the public, to access to justice, to increase confidence in the justice system. Responsibility for devolution was then transferred to the position of Deputy Prime Minister. The Deputy Prime Minister and Secretary of State for Justice have joint responsibility for a commission on a British bill of rights, the vast majority of the Ministry of Justices work takes place in England and Wales. The ministry has no responsibility for devolved criminal justice policy, courts, the ministry is therefore responsible for all aspects of the criminal law, including the scope and content of criminal offences. The prison population in England and Wales has risen because politicians of both parties wanted to show they were tough on criminals and this led to overcrowding and increase in other problems like violence, self-harm and suicide. The Ministry of Justice is the department that facilitates communication between the Crown dependencies i. e. Jersey, Guernsey and the Isle of Man, and the UK Government. These are self-governing possessions of the British monarch, through her titles as Duke of Normandy in the Channel Islands and it processes legislation for Royal Assent passed by the insular legislative assemblies and consults with the Islands on extending UK legislation to them. It also ensures that relevant UK legislation is extended to the islands smoothly, the Ministry has outlined its aims for the 2011–15 Parliament in its structural reform plan, which commits the department to,1. Develop court reforms to improve the resolution of disputes, maximise efficiency and improve services and work with others to make delivery of justice more effective. Assure better law Assure that law-making is transparent and accountable, safeguarding civil liberties, Reform how the ministry delivers its services Reform the way the Ministry of Justice works. Reassess its ways of working to develop more efficient shared services, match its provision ever more closely to demand, reduce duplication, the departmental board has overall responsibility for delivery of the structural reform plan. It publishes progress against the plan on the 10 Downing Street website, official website Ministry of Justice resources for legal professionals Ministry of Justice organogram from data. gov. uk
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Secretary of State for Justice
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On 9 May 2007, the Department for Constitutional Affairs was abolished, and a Ministry of Justice was created in its place. The Ministry of Justice is also responsible for certain functions transferred from the Home Office, the then Lord Chancellor, Charlie Falconer, was appointed to the post of Secretary of State for Justice on the abolition of his position as Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs. The Home Secretary, John Reid, told Parliament that future Secretaries of State for Justice would be MPs rather than peers and he was replaced by Conservative MP Ken Clarke. In the Cabinet reshuffle of August 2012 Chris Grayling MP was promoted to Lord Chancellor and, by convention, after the 2015 UK General election, the position was given to former Government Chief Whip Michael Gove MP. Michael Gove was sacked after Theresa May became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom on 14 July 2016 and succeeded by Liz Truss
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Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service
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Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service is an executive agency of the Ministry of Justice. It was created on 1 April 2011 by the merger of Her Majestys Courts Service and it works from about 600 locations across the United Kingdom. The courts over which it has responsibility are the Court of Appeal, the High Court, the Crown Court, the courts. The Chief Executive is responsible for the operations and administration of the agency. Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service is an agency, in contrast with the Scottish Court Service which is not subject to the control of a Minister in any way. However, it is unique in being such an agency and having constitutional accountability to judges as well as the Lord Chancellor, the framework document says that the agency is accountable to the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales and the Senior President of Tribunals. This provides a unique partnership between all three in relation to the governance, financing and operation of Her Majesty’s Courts and Tribunals Service. For example, where the Board cannot reach agreement, its Chair will refer the issue in question to the Lord Chancellor, any amendment of the framework document must be agreed between all parties, and laid before Parliament. Furthermore, the Lord Chief Justice is entitled to terminate the partnership if either concludes that it is no longer compatible with his position or the independence of the judiciary. Incumbent Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service website Her Majestys Courts and Tribunals Service Guidance website Judiciary of England and Wales website Crime and justice
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Judges' Council
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The Judges Council is a body in England and Wales that, representing the judiciary, advises the Lord Chief Justice on judicial matters. It has its roots in the original Council of the Judges of the Supreme Court. This was criticised on the grounds that the judges might do so ineffectively or slowly, the 1873 bills eventual clauses contained, thanks to the influence of Lord Chief Justice Cockburn, provisions for the creation of a Council of the Judges of the Supreme Court. This Council would oversee the new system, reviewing its workings yearly. The Council first met on 6 June 1874, providing recommendations for the circuit courts, in 1892 the Council considered further reform of the court system to deal with growing backlogs in the Chancery Division and the cost of appeals to the House of Lords. After this the council met irregularly, only twice between 1900 and 1907, there was a ten-year gap between meetings in 1940 and 1950 respectively, and little was done. Denis Dobson, Permanent Secretary to the Lord Chancellors Office, suggested this was because other bodies now existed to do what the Council had been created to achieve, in 1986 Lord Donaldson and Professor I. R. Scott campaigned for a new, non-statutory, Judges Council, arguing that the judiciary had no representative body, at the same time, Sir Nicholas Browne-Wilkinson published a paper that the executives financial and managerial control over the judiciary was having a negative effect on judicial independence. On 11 January 1988 the proposal for a new Judges Council was discussed at the meeting of the High Court of Justice. The new Council was described in Parliament as, An independent body without a formal constitution and it has no statutory basis, exercises no executive functions and controls no public expenditure. It meets to discuss issues of concern to the judiciary and to represents to the views of the senior judiciary to the Lord Chancellor and other individuals. It is wholly independent of Government and is only to those whose views it represents. Its membership is a matter for the Council itself and those whose views it represents, the Councils initial remit was to promote co-operation between the judiciary and executive, maintain judicial independence and make court procedure more efficient. To this end, it was composed of the Lord Chief Justice, the Master of the Rolls, the Council adopted a written constitution in 2002, and has considerably widened its membership to include representatives from other parts of the judiciary. Each level of the judiciary is represented in the Judges Council, the composition, as of January 2017, is, The Lord Chief Justice of England & Wales – The Rt. The Lord Thomas Master of the Rolls and Head of Civil Justice – The Rt, Sir Terence Etherton President of the Queen’s Bench Division – The Rt. Sir Brian Leveson President of the Family Division and Head of Family Justice – The Rt, Sir James Munby The Chancellor of the High Court – The Rt. Sir Geoffrey Vos The Vice President of the Court of Appeal Criminal Division – The Rt, lady Justice Hallett DBE The Chairman of the Judicial College - The Rt
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Judicial Committee of the Privy Council
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The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is one of the highest judicial bodies in the United Kingdom. The Judicial Committee consists of judges appointed as Privy Councillors, predominantly Justices of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. It is often referred to as the Privy Council, as in most cases appeals are made to Her Majesty in Council. The panel of judges hearing a case is known as the Board. The report of the Board is always accepted by the Queen in Council as judgment, in Commonwealth republics retaining the JCPC as their final court of appeal, appeals are made directly to the Judicial Committee itself. In the case of Brunei, appeals are made to the Sultan of Brunei, formerly the Judicial Committee gave a unanimous report, but since the Judicial Committee Order 1966 dissenting opinions have been allowed. The Judicial Committees permanent home is in London, in the United Kingdom, in this renovated building, Court 3 is used for Privy Council sittings. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council has jurisdiction in the domestic matters. Appeals from the courts in non-doctrinal faculty cases. Appeals from the High Court of Chivalry, Appeals from the Court of Admiralty of the Cinque Ports. Appeals from the Disciplinary Committee of the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons, disputes under the House of Commons Disqualification Act 1975. Additionally, the government may refer any issue to the committee for consideration, in other courts in the United Kingdom, judgments of the Judicial Committee are only of persuasive authority and are not binding as a matter of law. The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council is the Court of Final Appeal for the Church of England. It hears appeals from the Arches Court of Canterbury and the Chancery Court of York, except on matters of doctrine, ritual or ceremony, which go to the Court for Ecclesiastical Causes Reserved. By the Church Discipline Act 1840 and the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 all archbishops and bishops of the Church of England became eligible to be members of the Judicial Committee. Prior to the coming into force of the Constitutional Reform Act 2005, on 1 October 2009 this jurisdiction was transferred to the new Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The New Zealand associated states of Cook Islands and Niue, the Crown Dependencies of Jersey, Guernsey, including Guernseys own dependencies of Alderney and Sark, and appeals from the Staff of Government Division on the Isle of Man. The United Kingdoms Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia, in Cyprus, Appeal is directly to the Judicial Committee from three independent Commonwealth republics, Mauritius and Trinidad and Tobago, and also, if the case involves constitutional rights, Kiribati
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Court of Appeal (England and Wales)
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Within the English legal system, the Court of Appeal is second only to the Supreme Court. Established in 1875, the Court of Appeal today comprises 39 Lord Justices of Appeal, the Court has two divisions, Criminal and Civil, led by the Lord Chief Justice and Master of the Rolls respectively. Criminal appeals are heard in its Criminal Division, and civil appeals in the Civil Division, the Criminal Division also hears appeals from the Crown Court, while the Civil Division hears appeals from the County Courts and High Court of Justice. Leave to appeal is required either the lower court or the Court of Appeal itself. The appeal system before 1875 was chaotic and this was the subject of a review by the Judicature Commission, established in 1867 to consider the creation of a Supreme Court which was published in 1869. The recommendation was that there should be a system of appeal from all of the High Court divisions. This was instituted by the Judicature Acts, with the Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876 giving an almost limitless right of appeal to the Lords. The new legal structure provided a single Court of Appeal, which heard appeals from all the various Divisions of the new unified High Court of Justice, after the opening of the Royal Courts of Justice in 1882 the Court of Appeal transferred there, where it remains. The appeals from the County Courts were seen similarly, involving an appeal to the High Court of Justice, the process of leapfrogging, which they had recommended, was eventually brought into force with the Administration of Justice Act 1969. A separate Court of Criminal Appeal had been established in 1908, in 1966 this was merged with its older namesake, establishing the present-day structure of a single Court of Appeal with two Divisions. In the early 1960s there was an exchange between judges and academics in the United Kingdom and United States comparing the process of used in both nations. After a trial in the Court of Appeal, despite the success of this, the court which Lord Denning presided over from 1962 to 1982 was under no pressure and had no inclination to modernise, with liaisons and management handled by clerks with little knowledge. This changed in 1981 with the appointment of a Registrar, John Adams, an academic and lawyer, in July 1996, Lord Woolf published Access to Justice, a report on the accessibility of the courts to the public. Woolf identified civil litigation as being characterised by excessive cost, delay and complexity, and managed to replace the diverse rules with a single set of Civil Procedure Rules. Bowman noted a growing workload and delays, with 14 months between setting down and disposing of a case in 70 percent of cases, the rest taking even longer than that – some had five years. Bowmans recommendations were enacted through statutory provisions, such as Part IV of the Access to Justice Act 1999. In Tanfern Ltd v Cameron-MacDonald 1 WLR1311, Brooke LJ laid down the procedural methods of the Court of Appeal post-Woolf and Bowman. With a few exceptions, such as cases where the liberty of the subject is an issue, permission is required to appeal, the Civil Division deals with all non-criminal cases, and has been part of the Court since its establishment in 1875
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High Court of Justice
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Her Majestys High Court of Justice in England is, together with the Court of Appeal and the Crown Court, one of the Senior Courts of England and Wales. Its name is abbreviated as EWHC for legal citation purposes and it has three main divisions, the Queens Bench Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division. The jurisdictions overlap in some cases, and cases started in one division may be transferred by order to another where appropriate. Most High Court proceedings are heard by a judge, but certain kinds of proceedings, especially in the Queens Bench Division, are assigned to a Divisional Court. Exceptionally the court may sit with a jury, but in practice only in defamation cases or cases against the police. Litigants are normally represented by counsel, but may be represented by solicitors qualified to hold a right of audience, in principle the High Court is bound by its own previous decisions, but there are conflicting authorities as to what extent. In criminal matters appeals from the Queens Bench Divisional Court are made directly to the Supreme Court, the High Court is based at the Royal Courts of Justice on the Strand in the City of Westminster, London. It has district registries across England and Wales and almost all High Court proceedings may be issued, the High Court is headed by the Lord Chief Justice. The High Court is organised into three divisions, the Queens Bench Division, the Chancery Division, and the Family Division, a list of hearings in the High Courts divisions is published daily. The Queens Bench Division – or Kings Bench Division when the monarch is male – has two roles and it hears a wide range of common law cases and also has special responsibility as a supervisory court. Until 2005, the head of the QBD was the Lord Chief Justice, Sir Igor Judge was the first person to hold this office, appointed in October 2005. A single judge first decides whether the matter is fit to bring to the court, in addition, the Queens Bench Divisional Court hears appeals on points of law from the Magistrates Court and from the Crown Court. These are known as appeals by way of case stated, since the questions of law are considered solely on the basis of the facts found, other specialised courts of the Queens Bench Division include the Technology and Construction Court, Commercial Court, and the Admiralty Court. The specialised judges and procedures of these courts are tailored to their type of business, appeals from the High Court in civil matters are made to the Court of Appeal, in criminal matters appeal from the Divisional Court is made only to the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom. The Chancery Division deals with law, trusts law, probate law, insolvency. It has specialist courts which deal with patents and registered designs, all tax appeals are assigned to the Chancery Division. The head of the Chancery Division was known as the Vice-Chancellor until October 2005, the first Chancellor was Sir Andrew Morritt, who retired in 2013 to be succeeded by Sir Terence Etherton. In 2016, Sir Geoffrey Vos succeeded Sir Terence as Chancellor on the appointment as Master of the Rolls
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High Court judge (England and Wales)
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High Court judges are referred to as puisne judges. High Court Judges wear red and black robes, upon appointment all High Court judges are knighted, or in the case of female judges made Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire. So, for example, Nigel Bridge became Sir Nigel Bridge, in court, a High Court judge is referred to as My Lord or Your Lordship if male, or as My Lady or Your Ladyship if female. High Court judges use the title in office of Mr Justice for men or, normally, when, however, Dame Alison Russell was appointed in 2014, she took the title Ms Justice Russell. The style of The Honourable is also used during office, for example, Sir Joseph Bloggs would be referred to as The Hon Mr Justice Bloggs Kt. and Dame Jane Bloggs DBE as The Hon Mrs Justice Bloggs DBE, for as long as they continue to hold office. When there is already or has recently been a judge with the same surname as a new appointee. Many judges have done this, such as Mr Justice Christopher Clarke, when referring to a High Court judge in a legal context, the judge is identified by use of the surname, followed by the letter J. For example, Mr Justice Bloggs or Mrs Justice Bloggs would be referred to as Bloggs J, where several judges are listed the double letters JJ are used, for example, Bloggs, Smith and Jones JJ. High Court judges, as with the other Senior Judiciary are appointed by The Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister, under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005 a new Judicial Appointments Commission has removed the appointment of judges from the political arena. High Court judges, as with other judges, are now appointed on the basis of open competition, High Court judges, as with all judges in England and Wales, hold office during good behaviour, this is laid down in the Bill of Rights 1689. A High Court judge can only be removed by the Queen upon an Address of both Houses of Parliament, formerly, High Court judges could only be appointed from among barristers of at least 10 years standing. Before the qualifications changed, a typical appointee had in the region of twenty to thirty years experience as a lawyer. Only four solicitors had been appointed as puisne judges – Michael Sachs in 1993, Lawrence Collins in 2000, Henry Hodge in 2004, Collins was elevated further to the Court of Appeal in 2007 and became a law lord in 2009. A few distinguished academics have made it on to the High Court bench, including Mrs Justice Hale and, more recently. List of High Court Judges of England and Wales Judicial titles in England and Wales Judiciary of England and Wales
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County court
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Since 2014, England and Wales have had what is officially described as a single civil court named the County Court, with unlimited financial jurisdiction. However it should be understood there are County Court buildings and courtrooms throughout England and Wales. It is a civil court in the sense of a single centrally organised and administered court system. County court districts did not have the boundaries as counties. Today the court sits in many County Court centres, currently corresponding to the old county courts. County Court matters can be lodged at a court in person, cases are normally heard at the court having jurisdiction over the area where the claimant lives. Most matters are decided by a judge or circuit judge sitting alone. Civil matters in England do not have juries, judges in the County Court are either former barristers or former solicitors, whereas in the High Court they are more likely to have formerly been a barrister. Civil claims with an amount in controversy under £10,000 are dealt with in the County Court under the small claims track. Claims between £5,000 and £25,000 that are capable of being tried within one day are allocated to the fast track and claims over £25,000 to the multi track. These tracks are labels for the use of the court system - the actual cases will be heard in the County Court or the High Court depending on their value, for personal injury, defamation, and some landlord-tenant dispute cases the thresholds for each track have different values. Appeals are to a judge, the High Court of Justice or to the Court of Appeal. In debt cases, the aim of a claimant taking County Court action against a defendant is to secure a County Court judgment and this is a legal order to pay the full amount of the debt. County Court judgments are recorded in the Register of Judgments, Orders and Fines and this information is used in consumer credit scores, making it difficult or more expensive for the defendant to obtain credit. In order to avoid the record being kept for years in the register, if the debt was not fully paid within the statutory period, the entry will remain for six full years. County court is the given to the intermediate court in some Australian states. They hear indictable criminal offences except for treason, murder, in some states the same level of court is called a district court. Below them are the magistrates courts, above them are the state supreme courts
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County Court Business Centre
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The County Court Business Centre is a centre of the County Court of England and Wales created to deal with claims by the use of various electronic media. Unlike other County Court centres the CCBC does not physically hear cases, if any case might require a hearing it is transferred to another centre. The increasing ubiquity of computers and Internet access led to discussion of allowing greater use of information technology to run court proceedings. In January 1990 the Claim Production Centre was created, with the power to issue and this is currently enshrined within Rule 7.10 of the Civil Procedure Rules 1998. All claims issued through the CPC were originally issued in the name of a county court in the way as claims issued in the traditional manner. In March 1992 the CCBC was created to remove the burden of routine matters in simple CPC cases from the county court. The current definition of such matters is contained in Practice Direction 7C, currently both the CPC and CCBC are located in Northampton. Use of the CCBC is available only to members, Membership is free and is available to anyone who successfully demonstrates they can meet the IT requirements of the CCBC. Continued use of the CCBC is subject to the Rules of Membership, cases can be issued through the CCBC in two different ways. Money Claim Online was created in February 2002 and it provides users who wish to issue a limited number of claims to commence and manage County Court proceedings using a website, and to pay court fees online using a credit card. Fees for all of these cases can be paid in a lump sum, previously files could be submitted on floppy disk or magnetic tape. For this reason long-standing users of the CCBC may still refer to the file as the tape. In 2012 a secure email transfer system was implemented as an interim measure until the new SDT system was completed, once this was done the secure email transfer option was removed. CCBC users may poll the SDT API to request updates on the status of their cases, as well as issuing claim forms, the CCBC also handles requests for judgments and warrants of execution in the same manner. Claim forms issued by the CCBC are served upon the defendant in the manner as other courts. However, the pack also includes a password to allow the defendant to file their response via a website. Where the defendant contests some, or all, of the claim, Rule 7 allows for limits to be placed on the types of claim that may be issued via the CCBC. In addition the CCBC cannot be used to issue claims under Part 8 of the CPR, Northampton Bulk Centre Money Claim Online Civil Procedure Rules 1998 online
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Judiciary of England and Wales
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There are various levels of judiciary in England and Wales — different types of courts have different styles of judges. At 31 March 2006 there were 1,825 judges in post in England and Wales, some judges with United Kingdom-wide jurisdiction also sit in England and Wales, particularly Justices of the United Kingdom Supreme Court and members of the tribunals judiciary. By statute, judges are guaranteed continuing judicial independence, the following is a list of the various types of judges who sit in the Courts of England and Wales, Since 3 April 2006, the Lord Chief Justice has been the overall head of the judiciary. Previously he was second to the Lord Chancellor, but that office lost its functions under the Constitutional Reform Act 2005. The Lord Chief Justice is also the head of the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal and he was also President of the Queens Bench Division of the High Court, but on becoming head of the judiciary that responsibility was transferred to a new office. Although the Lord Chancellor is no longer a judge, he still exercises disciplinary authority over the judges and he also has a role in appointing judges. In law reports, the Lord Chief Justice is referred to as Smith LCJ or Lord Smith CJ, and the Lord Chancellor as Smith C. In court, the Lord Chief Justice wears a black gown with gold lace along with a short wig during criminal cases. Ceremonially, the Lord Chief Justice wears the red robe with white trim along with a gold chain, the Master of the Rolls is head of the Civil Division of the Court of Appeal. The other Heads are in charge of the three divisions of the High Court, the Chancellor of the High Court is President of the Chancery Division of the High Court. Until 2006 this role was held by the Lord Chancellor. The Vice-Chancellor was renamed Chancellor of the High Court when the Lord Chancellors judicial role was abolished, the Heads of Division are referred to in law reports as Smith MR, Smith P, Smith P, and Smith C respectively. Vice-Chancellors from pre-2006 Chancery cases were referred to as Smith VC, in court, the Heads of Division wear a black damask gown with gold lace along with a short wig during criminal cases and the black civil gown with gold tabs during civil cases. Ceremonially, the Heads of Division wear red gowns with white trim along with full wigs except for the Master of the Rolls who wears the black gown with gold lace. Judges of the Court of Appeal are known as Lords Justices, before swearing in they may be addressed as The Honourable Lord Justice Smith, and after swearing in as the Right Honourable Lord Justice Smith. Female Lord Justices are known as Lady Justices, addressed as My Lord or My Lady. In law reports, referred to as Smith LJ, and, for more than one judge, Smith, formerly, Lords Justices of Appeal could only be drawn from barristers of at least 10 years standing. The Lord Justices wear black gowns and court coats and short wigs during criminal cases
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High Court of Chivalry
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Her Majestys High Court of Chivalry is a civil court in all matters under English and Welsh law relating to the jurisdiction of heraldry. The court has been in existence since the century, however. The sole judge is now the hereditary Earl Marshal of England, in Scotland, these types of cases are heard in the Court of the Lord Lyon, which is a standing civil and criminal court, with its own Procurator Fiscal under the Scottish legal system. The court was known as the Curia Militaris, the Court of the Constable. During this time the court heard well over a thousand cases, the case itself was that the Palace theatre had been displaying the arms of the Manchester Corporation both inside and on its seal and this usage implied that it was linked with the citys council. The Corporation had requested that the theatre stop using it, the court ruled in favour of the Corporation. Since 1832, appeals from the High Court of Chivalry are to be directly by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Sittings by these Commissioners became known as the High Court of Delegates by the time of the 1832 Act. Since then the office of Lord High Constable of England has only been appointed to perform ceremonial duties during a Coronation and there has only been the Earl Marshal acting as the sole judge
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Crown Court
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The Crown Court of England and Wales is, together with the High Court of Justice and the Court of Appeal, one of the constituent parts of the Senior Courts of England and Wales. It is the court of first instance in criminal cases, however, for some purposes the Crown Court is hierarchically subordinate to the High Court. The Crown Court sits in around 92 locations in England and Wales, the administration of the Crown Court is conducted through HM Courts and Tribunals Service. Previously conducted across six circuits, HM Courts and Tribunals Service is now divided into seven regions, Midlands, North East, North West, South East, South West, London and Wales. The Wales region was identified separately, having regard to the legislative powers of the Welsh Assembly Government. When the Crown Court sits in the City of London it is known as the Central Criminal Court, the average time from receipt by the Crown Court to completion was 177 days by the start of 2016. Rather than speaking of a location at which the Crown Court sits, it is practice to refer to any venue as a Crown Court. In 2015 the Crown Court heard 11,348 appeals against conviction, at the conclusion of the hearing the Crown Court has the power to confirm, reverse or vary any part of the decision under appeal. The average waiting time for appeals was 8.8 weeks in 2015, in 2015 the Crown Court dealt with 30,802 cases for sentencing from the magistrates courts. Committals may also arise from breaches of the terms of a Community Rehabilitation Order or a sentence of imprisonment. The court performance target is that cases committed for sentence should be heard within 10 weeks, when the Crown Court is dealing with a matter connected with a trial on indictment, appeal lies to the criminal division of the Court of Appeal and thence to the Supreme Court. In all other cases, appeal from the Crown Court lies by way of case stated to a Divisional Court of the High Court, the judges who normally sit in the Crown Court are High Court judges, Circuit judges and Recorders. Circuit judges also sit in the County Court, Recorders are barristers or solicitors in private practice, who sit part-time as judges. The most serious cases are allocated to High Court judges and Senior Circuit judges, the remainder are dealt with by Circuit judges and Recorders, although Recorders will normally handle less serious work than Circuit judges. The allocation is conducted according to directions given by the Lord Chief Justice of England, the Crown Court was established on 1 January 1972 by the Courts Act 1971, acting on the recommendations of the commission. The quarter sessions were local courts assembled four times a year to dispose of cases which were not serious enough to go before a High Court judge. The Crown Court and a county court may sit in the same building, since the establishment of Her Majestys Courts Service in April 2005 there is an increased sharing of facilities between the Crown Court, county courts and magistrates courts. At the front of the court, on a platform, is a large bench
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Circuit judge (England and Wales)
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There are currently over 600 circuit judges throughout England and Wales. The office of judge was created by the Courts Act 1971 and replaced the former offices of Chairman of Quarter Sessions. Circuit judges are styled His or Her Honour Judge X and are referred to as His or Her Honour and they are sometimes referred to as purple judges on account of their purple colour dress robes. Part-time circuit judges are known as Recorders but are also addressed as Your Honour, Circuit judges rank below High Court judges but above District judges. They may be appointed to sit as deputy High Court judges, some are also eligible to sit in the Criminal Division of the Court of Appeal, though they are the more senior circuit judges. Until April 1,2005 there were six circuits in England and Wales, namely the Midland, Northern, North Eastern, South Eastern and Western circuits. On that date, following the creation of Her Majestys Courts Service, formerly, circuit judges could only be drawn from barristers and solicitors of at least 10 years standing. When hearing criminal cases, circuit judges wear a robe with lilac trim, bands, a short horsehair wig. For civil cases the tippet is lilac and neither bands nor wigs are worn, when sitting at the Old Bailey, and for some types of High court work, circuit judges wear a black silk gown over a court coat or a waistcoat. On ceremonial occasions they wear violet robes with a lilac trim, in Rumpole and the Reign of Terror by John Mortimer, Horace Rumpole dismisses the idea of being a circuit judge, Circus judge is what I call them. Judicial Roles - Circuit Judge, judiciary. gov. uk
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Recorder (judge)
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Its jurisdiction did not extend to civil suits. It was merged into the Wayne County Circuit Court, the general court in Wayne County. It traces its roots to the Mayors Court in Detroit, formed in 1824 and this municipal court probably owed its name to the fact that from 1827 until 1857, the official name of the City of Detroit was The Mayor, Recorder and Alderman of Detroit. In its 173-year history, it is probable that the Ossian Sweet family murder trials—defended by Clarence Darrow, the trials are memorialized in two official Michigan Historical Markers, Frank Murphy Dr. Ossian Sweet / Home Additionally, there is a Michigan Legal Milestones. Plaque (erected by the State Bar of Michigan in the first floor of the Frank Murphy Hall of Justice in Detroit, Kevin Boyles chronicle, Arc of Justice, A Saga of Race, Civil Rights, and Murder in the Jazz Age was adapted into a play. Mr. Boyle was honored by the Detroit City Council for The Sweet Trials, *The Sweet Trials, Malice Aforethought is a play written by Arthur Beer, based on the trials of Ossian and Henry Sweet, and derived from Kevin Boyles Arc of Justice. The merger of the Recorders court and Wayne County Circuit Court was not without controversy and it was made pursuant to a 1997 state law which also consolidated the states probate courts into a family court, a far less controversial change. A lawsuit brought by Richard Kuhn opposed the merger, but did not prevail, prior to the merger, judges of Recorders Court were elected from Detroit, so unsurprisingly, most of them were African-American. Then Detroit Recorders Court was abolished — or rather, it was merged with Wayne County Circuit Court, the Recorders Court judges became Circuit Court judges, and have to run for re-election in Wayne County as a whole, which is predominantly white. At the time of its merger, and now as reconfigured as a part of the Wayne County Circuit Court, gershwin A. ISBN 0-8050-7933-5, ISBN 978-0-8050-7933-3
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Magistrates' court (England and Wales)
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In England and Wales, a magistrates court is a lower court, where almost all criminal proceedings start. Some civil matters are also decided here, notably family proceedings and they have been streamlined to deliver justice swiftly. In 2015 there were roughly 330 magistrates courts in England and Wales, the jurisdiction of magistrates courts and rules governing them are set out in the Magistrates Courts Act 1980. Summary offences are crimes, that can be punished under the magistrates courts limited sentencing powers – community sentences, fines. Either-way offences will ultimately fall into one of the previous categories depending on how serious the crime in question is. Cases are heard by a bench of three lay judges, or by a district judge, there is no jury at a magistrates court. Criminal cases are usually, although not exclusively, investigated by the police, defendants may hire a solicitor or barrister to represent them, often paid for by legal aid. There are magistrates courts in other common-law jurisdictions, in criminal matters, magistrates’ courts in England and Wales have been organized to deal with minor offences in a speedy manner. All criminal cases start here and over 95 percent of them will end here too – only the most serious ones go to Crown Court, summary offences are the least serious criminal offences. They include driving offences, vandalism, criminal damage of small extent, low level violent offences and being drunk and disorderly. This kind of small criminality will be dealt with in summary proceedings at a court. Both verdict and sentence are solely in the hands of judges and magistrates, the sentencing powers of magistrates courts are therefore limited. For one summary offence, they can inflict imprisonment of up to six months, when dealing with two or more separate either-way offences, the maximum total custodial sentence is 12 months. The maximum fine available is usually £5,000, though for certain specified offences maximum fines permitted to magistrates may be higher, there is no maximum aggregate fine. Some driving offences are punished by licence points and/or disqualification from driving for a period of time. There are four types of available to the magistrates - a discharge, a financial penalty, a community order. The majority of sentences will be non-custodial sentences, for either way offences, if the magistrates feel that their powers of sentencing are insufficient, they can send the case up to a judge at the Crown Court, who can impose more severe sentences. Often the point is to achieve justice and reformation of the offenders
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Magistrate (England and Wales)
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They are called justices of the peace or magistrates. These magistrates were termed lay magistrates to distinguish them from professional magistrates known as stipendiary magistrates, district judges sit alone to hear cases and are permanently employed by the Ministry of Justice. Magistrates are not paid, apart from an allowance for loss of earnings, mileage, a practising solicitor or barrister may sit part-time as a deputy district judge. Retired district judges may sit as deputies. District judges are addressed in court as sir or madam. In law reports, they are referred to as DJ Smith, Magistrates generally sit in threes in order to give judgement on a variety of cases in magistrates courts, youth courts and family proceedings courts. The lead magistrate, known as the chairman, is addressed in court as sir or madam or your worship. In law reports, they are referred to as John Smith JP, Magistrates deal with less serious criminal cases, such as minor theft, criminal damage, assaults, public disorder and motoring offences. All magistrates sit in adult criminal courts as benches of three, mixed in gender, age and ethnicity whenever possible to bring a broad experience of life to the bench. All three members of the bench have equal decision-making powers but only the chairman speaks in court, a qualified legal adviser, also known as the court clerk, sits with the bench in the court room and is available to them at all times during the court sitting. The term bench is also used collectively to describe a group of magistrates assigned to a local justice area. Today, in England and Wales, the word is used to describe a justice of the peace, the office of justice of the peace has its origins in the 12th century when Richard I appointed keepers of the peace in 1195. The title justice of the peace derives from 1361, in the reign of Edward III, an Act of 1327 had referred to good and lawful men to be appointed in every county in the land to guard the Peace. Justices of the peace still retain the power confirmed to them by the Justices of the Peace Act 1361 to bind over unruly persons to be of good behaviour. The bind over is not a punishment, but a preventive measure, over the following centuries, justices acquired many administrative duties, such as the administration of the Poor Laws, highways and bridges, and weights and measures. It was relatively common for these magistrates to write out, on the spot, the 19th century saw elected local authorities taking over many of these duties. There is one remnant of these duties, the jurisdiction over the licensing of pubs and clubs. Towards the end of the 18th century, the absence of a police force
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Attorney General for England and Wales
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Her Majestys Attorney General for England and Wales, usually known simply as the Attorney General, is one of the Law Officers of the Crown. Along with the subordinate Solicitor General for England and Wales, the Attorney General serves as the legal adviser of the Crown and its government in England. The current Attorney General is Jeremy Wright, MP, the position of Attorney General existed since at least 1243, when records show a professional attorney was hired to represent the Kings interests in court. The position first took on a role in 1461 when the holder of the office was summoned to the House of Lords to advise the government there on legal matters. In 1673 the Attorney General officially became the Crowns adviser and representative in legal matters, the beginning of the twentieth century saw a shift away from litigation and more towards legal advice. The job of the Attorney General is a one. Duties include superintending the Crown Prosecution Service, the Serious Fraud Office, since the passing of the Law Officers Act 1997 duties can be delegated to the Solicitor General, and any actions are treated as if they came from the Attorney General. During the early days of the office the holder was largely concerned with representing the Crown in litigation, the office first took on a political element in 1461, when the holder was summoned by writ to the House of Lords to advise the government on legal matters. This was also the first time that the office was referred to as the office of the Attorney General, during the constitutional struggle centred on the Royal Declaration of Indulgence in 1672 and 1673 the Attorney General officially became the Crowns representative in legal matters. In 1890 the ability of an Attorney General to continue practising privately was formally taken away, despite this change, until the passing of the Homicide Act 1957 the Attorney General was bound to prosecute any and all poisoning cases. The Attorney General is a minister who leads the Attorney Generals Office. As a government minister, the Attorney General is directly answerable to Parliament, as well as the government as a whole, he also advises individual departments. By convention, he represents the government in case in front of the International Court of Justice. The Attorney General also superintends the Crown Prosecution Service and appoints its head, an example of a consent case is the Campbell Case, which led to the fall of the first Labour government in 1924. The Attorney General also superintends the Government Legal Department, the Serious Fraud Office, and he or she is also officially the leader of the Bar of England and Wales, although this is merely custom and has no duties or rights attached to it. The Attorney Generals duties have long been considered strenuous, with Sir Patrick Hastings saying that to be a law officer is to be in hell, list of Attorneys General for England and Wales Solicitor General for England and Wales Attorney Generals Office. The governance of Britain, a consultation on the role of the Attorney General, predecessors of the Federal Attorney General, The Attorney General in England and the American Colonies. The American Journal of Legal History, media related to Attorneys General for England and Wales at Wikimedia Commons Texts on Wikisource, Attorney-General
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Crown Prosecution Service
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The Crown Prosecution Service is the principal public prosecuting agency for conducting criminal prosecutions in England and Wales. It is headed by the Director of Public Prosecutions, from 1829 onwards, as the police forces were formed, they began to take on the burden of bringing prosecutions against suspected criminals. Police forces continued to be responsible for the bulk of cases, sometimes referring difficult ones to the Director, the Royal Commissions recommendation was not implemented by all police forces however, and so in 1978 another Royal Commission was set up, this time headed by Sir Cyril Philips. It reported in 1981, recommending that a single unified Crown Prosecution Service with responsibility for all public prosecutions in England, in 1997, Sir Iain Glidewell was commissioned by the government to investigate reform of the CPS. The inquiry reported in June 1998, finding that 12% of charges brought by police were discontinued by the CPS, and that there were failures to communicate between the police and CPS. The CPS undertook more than 800,000 prosecutions in 2012–13, the conviction rate was 86 per cent in the magistrates courts and 80 percent in the Crown Courts. The CPS has implemented such as the Core Quality Standards with the intention of maintaining and raising standards. Self-employed barristers are also paid to represent the prosecution in court in more complicated cases, the number of employees prior to the spending review was approximately 9,000. Headquartered in London and York, the CPS manages the organisation, the Director of Public Prosecutions is assisted by the CPS Chief Executive in running the organisation. Most of its casework is dealt with by the thirteen CPS Areas, CPS Direct provides charging advice/authorisation by phone and electronically to police forces at all hours. Most charging decisions by the CPS are now made by CPS Direct, welfare, Rural and Health Division – Benefit fraud, regulation of medicinal products and offences investigated by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. The Attorney General oversees the work of the CPS, meeting regularly with the DPP, the Attorney answer for the CPS’s performance and conduct in Parliament. However, the Attorney has no role in the running of the organisation or in deciding whether a suspect should be prosecuted. The CPS is an independent prosecuting authority and government ministers have no influence over its decision making, the only exceptions to this rule are when a case involves matters of national security or the Attorney must personally consent to a prosecution. Due to the Attorney’s limited role in the CPS’s casework, the use of nolle prosequi is now rare, questionable incidents, such as the dropping of the case against John Bodkin Adams for what was believed to be purely political reasons, have not been repeated in modern times. Her Majesty’s Crown Prosecution Service Inspectorate is responsible for inspecting the work of the CPS, the current Chief Inspector of the CPS is Kevin McGinty. The CPS will often provide confidential advice to investigators on the viability of a prosecution in complex or unusual cases and this includes clarifying the intent needed to commit an offence or addressing shortcomings in the available evidence. Unlike in many jurisdictions, the CPS has no power to order investigations or direct investigators to take action
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Law Society of England and Wales
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The Law Society of England and Wales is the professional association that represents and governs the lawyers profession for the jurisdiction of England and Wales. It provides services and support to practising and training lawyers as well as serving as a board for law reform. Members of the Society are often consulted when important issues are being debated in Parliament or by the executive, the Society was formed in 1825. The Hall of The Law Society is in Chancery Lane, London, but it also has offices in Cardiff to deal with the Wales jurisdiction and Assembly, a president is elected annually to serve for one year. The current president is Robert Bourns, barristers in England and Wales have a similar professional body, the General Council of the Bar, commonly known as the Bar Council. London was dropped from the title in 1825 to reflect the fact that the Law Institution had national aspirations, the Society was founded on 2 June 1825, when a committee of management was appointed. A new Charter in 1845 defined the Society as an independent, private body servicing the affairs of the profession like other professional, literary, by further Royal Charter in 1903 the name of the Society was changed to simply The Law Society. The Society first admitted women members in 1922, although merged, the AWS will operate separately from the Law Society. In 1834, the Society first initiated proceedings against dishonest practitioners, by 1907, the Society possessed a statutory disciplinary committee, and was empowered to investigate solicitors accounts and to issue annual practising certificates. In 1983, the Society established the Office for the Supervision of Solicitors to deal with complaints about solicitors, Complaints regarding the conduct of solicitors are now dealt with by the Solicitors Regulation Authority. However complaints regarding poor service are the remit of the Legal Ombudsman, the Solicitors Act 1860 enabled the Society to create a three-tier examination system. In 1903, the Society established its own Law Society School of Law, by 1922 The Law Society required a compulsory academic year for all clerks. Following the recommendations of the Clementi Review The Law Society split its representative, the regulatory body for solicitors is the Solicitors Regulation Authority. It is a Board of The Law Society although it regulates and enforces regulation completely independently of the Law Society, Law Society Gazette Solicitors Regulation Authority Legal Complaints Service Law Society of Scotland Law Society of Northern Ireland Lexcel Official website
