1.
Embarrassment
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Embarrassment is an emotional state of intense discomfort with oneself, experienced when having a socially unacceptable act or condition witnessed by or revealed to others. Usually some amount of loss of honor or dignity is involved, but how much and it is similar to shame, except that shame may be experienced for an act known only to oneself. Also, embarrassment usually carries the connotation of being caused by an act that is socially unacceptable. Embarrassment can be personal, caused by unwanted attention to private matters or personal flaws or mishaps, in many cultures, being seen nude or inappropriately dressed is a particularly stressful form of embarrassment. Personal embarrassment is usually accompanied by some combination of blushing, sweating, nervousness, stammering, sometimes the embarrassed person tries to mask embarrassment with smiles or nervous laughter, especially in etiquette situations. Such a response is common in certain cultures, which may lead to misunderstanding. There may also be feelings of anger depending on the seriousness of the situation. There is a range of responses, with the most minor being a perception of the act as inconsequential or even humorous. The capacity to experience embarrassment can also be seen as functional for the group or culture, similarly, embarrassment exhibited by boys more likely to engage in aggressive/delinquent behaviour was less than one-third of that exhibited by non-aggressive boys. Thus proneness to embarrassment can act as a brake on behaviour that would be dysfunctional for a group or culture, Embarrassment can also be professional or official, especially after statements expressing confidence in a stated course of action, or willful disregard for evidence. Embarrassment increases greatly in instances involving official duties or workplace facilities, large amounts of money or materials, even small errors or miscalculations can lead to significantly greater official embarrassment if it is discovered that there was willful disregard for evidence or directives involved. Not all official failures result in embarrassment, even if the circumstances lead to some slight personal embarrassment for the people involved. Similarly, a scientist might be disappointed and embarrassed if one of his hypotheses was proven wrong. By contrast, exposure of falsified data supporting a claim would likely lead to professional embarrassment in the scientific community. Professional or official embarrassment is often accompanied by expressions of anger, denial of involvement. One typology of embarrassment is by Sharkey and Stafford, based on these types, Cupach and Metts classify two basic embarrassment situations, the actor responsible and the observer responsible. The word derives from the French word embarrasser, to block,5 However, it certainly is not directly derived from it, as the substitution of r for rr in Ibero-Romantic languages was not a known occurrence. The Spanish word may come from the Italian imbarazzare, from imbarazzo, joan Corominas and José Pacual, embarazar, Diccionario crítico etimológico castellano e hispánico, Vol. II, p. 555-556
2.
Deception
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Deception, beguilement, deceit, bluff, mystification, ruse, and subterfuge is the act of propagating beliefs in things that are not true, or not the whole truth. Deception can involve dissimulation, propaganda, and sleight of hand, as well as distraction, camouflage, there is also self-deception, as in bad faith. Deception is a relational transgression that often leads to feelings of betrayal. Deception violates relational rules and is considered to be a violation of expectations. Most people expect friends, relational partners, and even strangers to be truthful most of the time, if people expected most conversations to be untruthful, talking and communicating with others would require distraction and misdirection to acquire reliable information. A significant amount of deception occurs between romantic and relational partners, Deceit and dishonesty can also form grounds for civil litigation in tort, or contract law, or give rise to criminal prosecution for fraud. It also forms a part of psychological warfare in Denial. Deception includes several types of communications or omissions that serve to distort or omit the complete truth, examples of deception range from false statements to misleading claims in which relevant information is omitted, leading the receiver to infer false conclusions. Deception itself is intentionally managing verbal and/or nonverbal messages so that the receiver will believe in a way that the message sender knows is false. Intent is critical with regard to deception, intent differentiates between deception and an honest mistake. The Interpersonal Deception Theory explores the interrelation between communicative context and sender and receiver cognitions and behaviors in deceptive exchanges, some forms of deception include, Lies, making up information or giving information that is the opposite or very different from the truth. Equivocations, making an indirect, ambiguous, or contradictory statement, concealments, omitting information that is important or relevant to the given context, or engaging in behavior that helps hide relevant information. Exaggerations, overstatement or stretching the truth to a degree, understatements, minimization or downplaying aspects of the truth. Many people believe that they are good at deception, though this confidence is often misplaced, while it is difficult to deceive a partner over a long period of time, deception often occurs in day-to-day conversations between relational partners. Detecting deception is difficult because there are no completely reliable indicators of deception. Deception, however, places a significant cognitive load on the deceiver and he or she must recall previous statements so that his or her story remains consistent and believable. As a result, deceivers often leak important information both verbally and nonverbally, Deception and its detection is a complex, fluid, and cognitive process that is based on the context of the message exchange. A deceivers actions are interrelated to the message receivers actions and it is during this exchange that the deceiver will reveal verbal and nonverbal information about deceit
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Criticism
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Criticism is the practice of judging the merits and faults of something. The judger is called a critic, to engage in criticism is to criticise. One specific item of criticism is called a criticism or critique, Criticism is an evaluative or corrective exercise that can occur in any area of human life. Criticism can therefore take different forms. How exactly people go about criticizing, can vary a great deal, in specific areas of human endeavour, the form of criticism can be highly specialized and technical, it often requires professional knowledge to understand the criticism. This article provides only general information about criticism, for subject-specific information, see the Varieties of criticism page. To criticize does not necessarily imply to find fault, but the word is taken to mean the simple expression of an object against prejudice. Often criticism involves active disagreement, but it may only mean taking sides and it could just be an exploration of the different sides of an issue. Criticism is often presented as something unpleasant, but thats not true, there are also friendly criticisms, amicably discussed, and some people find great pleasure in criticism. The Pulitzer Prize for Criticism has been presented since 1970 to a writer who has demonstrated distinguished criticism. Normally criticism involves a dialogue of some kind, direct or indirect, one is still engaging with the ideas of others, even if only indirectly. One can of course also keep a criticism to oneself, rather than express or communicate it, but in general the intention is, self-criticism, even if wholly private, still mentally takes the concerns of others into account. Another meaning of criticism is the study, evaluation, and interpretation of literature, artwork, film, the goal of this type of criticism is to understand the possible meanings of cultural phenomena, and the context in which they take shape. This section is about the origin and evolution of the meanings of the expression criticism, the English word criticism is derived from the French critique, which dates back to at least the 14th century. The words critic and critical existed in the English language from the century. In turn, the French expression critique has roots in Latin, related Greek terms are krinein, krei- and krisis. The early English meaning of criticism was primarily literary criticism, that of judging and interpreting literature, samuel Johnson is often held as the prime example of criticism in the English language, and his contemporary Alexander Popes Essay on Criticism is a significant landmark. To be critical meant, positively, to have good, informed judgement about matters of culture, derivatively, a criticism also referred to a nice point or a distinction, a tiny detail, a pedantic nicety, a subtlety, or a quibble
4.
Guilt (law)
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In criminal law, guilt is the state of being responsible for the commission of an offense. Legal guilt is entirely defined by the state, or more generally a “court of law”. Being “guilty” of a criminal offense means that one has committed a violation of criminal law, the determination that one has committed that violation is made by an external body and is, therefore, as definitive as the record-keeping of the body. So the most basic definition is fundamentally circular, a person is guilty of violating a law, philosophically, guilt in criminal law is a reflection of a functioning society and its ability to condemn individuals’ actions. It rests fundamentally on a presumption of free will, in which individuals choose actions and are, therefore, “An adjudication of guilt is more than a factual determination that the defendant pulled a trigger, took a bicycle, or sold heroin. It is a judgment that the individual is blameworthy. Our collective conscience does not allow punishment where it cannot impose blame and our concept of blameworthiness rests on assumptions that are older than the Republic, man is naturally endowed with these two great faculties, understanding and liberty of will. Historically, our substantive criminal law is based on a theory of punishing the viscious will and it postulates a free agent confronted with a choice between doing right and wrong, and choosing freely to do wrong. See also Cotton, Michael, A FOOLISH CONSISTENCY, KEEPING DETERMINISM OUT OF THE CRIMINAL LAW,15 B. U, L. J.1 Guilt is the obligation of a person who has violated a moral standard to bear the sanctions imposed by that moral standard. In legal terms, guilt means having been found to have violated a law, though law also raises the issue of defences, pleas, the mitigation of offences. Les Parrott draws a distinction between “objective or legal guilt, which occurs when societys laws have been broken. An unwritten law of social expectation”, and finally the way “personal guilt occurs when someone compromises ones own standards”. Guilt can sometimes be remedied by, punishment, forgiveness, making amends, or restitution. an important step in finding freedom from real guilt, Guilt can also be remedied through intellectualisation or cognition. Helping other people can help relieve guilt feelings, thus guilty people are often helpful people. helping, like receiving an external reward. This forced the accused to effectively bet on his support in the community, as Socrates did when he proposed room and he lost and drank hemlock, a poison, as advised by his accuser. Culpability Erinyes Malum in se Malum prohibitum Guilt in Think On These Things, archived from the original on January 17,2006. By Gary Gilley The Innocent Bear the Guilt for the Guilty Ones, by Gerd Altendorff translation by Jochen Reiss Learnt or innate Guilt on In Our Time at the BBC
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Whitewashing (censorship)
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To whitewash is a metaphor meaning to gloss over or cover up vices, crimes or scandals or to exonerate by means of a perfunctory investigation or through biased presentation of data. The first known use of the term is from 1591, whitewash is a cheap white paint or coating of chalked lime used to quickly give a uniform clean appearance to a wide variety of surfaces, for instance, the entire interior of a barn. Many dictatorships and authoritarian states, as well as countries, have used the method of whitewash in order to glorify the results. North Korean radio broadcasts claim to have an abundance in food supplies, japan is accused of whitewashing its history of warfare and imperialism by omitting or minimizing subjects such as the Nanking Massacre in textbooks. Critics maintain that the text has been whitewashed for white middle-class consumption, novels by George Orwell have dealt with the subject of whitewash as well. In Animal Farm, the pig Napoleon tries to whitewash history by deleting a few characters from the minds of the other animals and this was perceived as a direct reference to the USSR under Stalin. Greenwashing describes the practice of companies spinning their products and policies as environmentally friendly, bluewashing is used to describe either publicity-driven humanitarian relief efforts, or efforts to be perceived as having a small water footprint. Setting up to fail The Commissar Vanishes - site explaining the whitewashes by Stalin
6.
Common ostrich
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The ostrich or common ostrich is either one or two species of large flightless birds native to Africa, the only living member of the genus Struthio, which is in the ratite family. In 2014, the Somali ostrich was recognized as a distinct species, the common ostrich shares the order Struthioniformes with the kiwis, emus, rheas, and cassowaries. However, phylogenetic studies have shown that it is the group to all other members of Palaeognathae. It is distinctive in its appearance, with a neck and legs, and can run at up to about 70 km/h. The common ostrich is the largest living species of bird and lays the largest eggs of any living bird, the common ostrichs diet consists mainly of plant matter, though it also eats invertebrates. It lives in groups of 5 to 50 birds. When threatened, the ostrich will either hide itself by lying flat against the ground, if cornered, it can attack with a kick of its powerful legs. Mating patterns differ by region, but territorial males fight for a harem of two to seven females. The common ostrich is farmed around the world, particularly for its feathers and its skin is used for leather products and its meat is marketed commercially, with its leanness a common marketing point. Common ostriches usually weigh from 63 to 145 kilograms, or as much as two adult humans, ostriches of the East African race averaged 115 kg in males and 100 kg in females, while the nominate subspecies was found to average 111 kg in unsexed adults. Exceptional male ostriches can weigh up to 156.8 kg, at sexual maturity, male common ostriches can be from 2.1 to 2.8 m in height, while female common ostriches range from 1.7 to 2.0 m tall. New chicks are fawn in colour, with brown spots. During the first year of life, chicks grow at about 25 cm per month, at one year of age, common ostriches weigh approximately 45 kilograms. Their lifespan is up to 40–45 years, the feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white primaries and a white tail. However, the tail of one subspecies is buff, females and young males are greyish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female ostriches is nearly bare, with a layer of down. The skin of the neck and thighs is pinkish gray. The eyes are shaded from sunlight from above, However, the head and bill are relatively small for the birds huge size, with the bill measuring 12 to 14.3 cm
7.
Watergate scandal
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When the conspiracy was discovered and investigated by the U. S. Congress, the Nixon administrations resistance to its probes led to a constitutional crisis. The term Watergate, by metonymy, has come to encompass an array of clandestine and those activities included such dirty tricks as bugging the offices of political opponents and people of whom Nixon or his officials were suspicious. The scandal also resulted in the indictment of 69 people, with trials or pleas resulting in 48 being found guilty, the affair began with the arrest of five men for breaking and entering into the DNC headquarters at the Watergate complex on Saturday, June 17,1972. In July 1973, evidence mounted against the Presidents staff, including testimony provided by staff members in an investigation conducted by the Senate Watergate Committee. The investigation revealed that President Nixon had a system in his offices. After a protracted series of court battles, the U. S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that the president was obliged to release the tapes to government investigators. The tapes revealed that Nixon had attempted to cover up activities that took place after the break-in, facing virtually certain impeachment in the House of Representatives and equally certain conviction by the Senate, Nixon resigned the presidency on August 9,1974. On September 8,1974, his successor, Gerald Ford, the name Watergate and the suffix -gate have since become synonymous with political and non-political scandals in the United States. According to Dean, this marked the scene of the worst political scandal of the twentieth century. Mitchell viewed the plan as unrealistic, Liddy was nominally in charge of the operation, but has since insisted that he was duped by Dean and at least two of his subordinates. These included former CIA officers E. Howard Hunt and James McCord, in May, McCord assigned former FBI agent Alfred C. Baldwin III to carry out the wiretapping and monitor the telephone conversations afterward. McCord testified that he selected Baldwins name from a registry published by the Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI to work for the Committee to Re-elect the President, Baldwin first served as bodyguard to Martha Mitchell, the wife of John Mitchell, who was living in Washington. Baldwin accompanied Martha Mitchell to Chicago, Martha did not like Baldwin and described him as the gauchest character Ive ever met. The Committee replaced Baldwin with another security man, the room 419 was booked in the name of McCord’s company. At behest of G. Gordon Liddy and E. Howard Hunt, McCord and his team of burglars prepared for their first Watergate break-in, two phones inside the offices of the DNC headquarters were said to have been wiretapped. The FBI found no evidence that OBriens phone was bugged, however, it was determined that an effective listening device had been installed in Olivers phone. Despite the success in installing the devices, the Committee agents soon determined that they needed to be repaired. They planned a burglary in order to take care of this
8.
Bribery
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Bribery is the act of giving money, goods or other forms of recompense to a recipient in exchange for an alteration of their behavior that the recipient would otherwise not alter. Gifts of money or other items of value which are available to everyone on an equivalent basis. Offering a discount or a refund to all purchasers is a rebate and is not bribery. Giving the rebate to influence them to look favorably on the utilitys rate increase applications, however. The bribe is the gift bestowed to influence the recipients conduct, in economics, the bribe has been described as rent. Bribery in bureaucracy has been viewed as a reason for the higher cost of production of goods, one must be careful of differing social and cultural norms when examining bribery. Expectations of when a transaction is appropriate can differ from place to place. Tipping, for example, is considered bribery in some societies, in some Spanish-speaking countries, bribes are referred to as mordida. In Arab countries, bribes may be called baksheesh or shay, french-speaking countries often use the expressions dessous-de-table, pot-de-vin, or commission occulte. While the last two expressions contain inherently a negative connotation, the expression dessous-de-table can be understood as a commonly accepted business practice. In German, the term is Schmiergeld. The forms that bribery take are numerous, for example, a motorist might bribe a police officer not to issue a ticket for speeding, a citizen seeking paperwork or utility line connections might bribe a functionary for faster service. Bribery may also take the form of a commission, a profit made by an agent, in the course of his employment. Euphemisms abound for this Bribers and recipients of bribery are likewise numerous although bribers have one common denominator, Bribery around the world is estimated at about $1 trillion. The reason for this dissociation is to make the steps of a corrupt deal already an offence and, thus. Besides, such a dissociation makes the prosecution of bribery offences easier since it can be difficult to prove that two parties have formally agreed upon a corrupt deal. A grey area may exist when payments to smooth transactions are made, in some countries, this practice is the norm, often resulting from a developing nation not having the tax structure to pay civil servants an adequate salary. Nevertheless, most economists regard bribery as a bad thing because it encourages rent seeking behaviour, a state where bribery has become a way of life is a kleptocracy
9.
Murder
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A murder is the unlawful killing of another human without justification or valid excuse, especially the unlawful killing of another human being with malice aforethought. This state of mind may, depending upon the jurisdiction, distinguish murder from other forms of unlawful homicide, manslaughter is a killing committed in the absence of malice, brought about by reasonable provocation, or diminished capacity. Involuntary manslaughter, where it is recognized, is a killing that lacks all but the most attenuated guilty intent, in most countries, a person convicted of murder generally faces a long-term prison sentence, possibly a life sentence where permitted. In many common law jurisdictions, a convicted of murder will receive a mandatory life sentence. In jurisdictions where capital punishment exists, the penalty may be imposed for such an act, however. The modern English word murder descends from the Proto-Indo-European mrtró which meant to die, the Middle English mordre is a noun from Anglo-Saxon morðor and Old French murdre. Middle English mordre is a verb from Anglo-Saxon myrdrian and the Middle English noun, the elements of common law murder are, Unlawful killing through criminal act or omission of a human by another human with malice aforethought. Killing – At common law life ended with cardiopulmonary arrest – the total, with advances in medical technology courts have adopted irreversible cessation of all brain function as marking the end of life. Сriminal act or omission – Killing can be committed by an act or an omission. of a human – This element presents the issue of life begins. At common law, a fetus was not a human being, life began when the fetus passed through the vagina and took its first breath. By another human – In early common law, suicide was considered murder, the requirement that the person killed be someone other than the perpetrator excluded suicide from the definition of murder. With malice aforethought – Originally malice aforethought carried its everyday meaning – a deliberate, Murder necessarily required that an appreciable time pass between the formation and execution of the intent to kill. The courts broadened the scope of murder by eliminating the requirement of actual premeditation and deliberation as well as true malice, all that was required for malice aforethought to exist is that the perpetrator act with one of the four states of mind that constitutes malice. The four states of mind recognized as constituting malice are, Under state of mind, intent to kill, thus, if the defendant intentionally uses a deadly weapon or instrument against the victim, such use authorizes a permissive inference of intent to kill. In other words, intent follows the bullet, examples of deadly weapons and instruments include but are not limited to guns, knives, deadly toxins or chemicals or gases and even vehicles when intentionally used to harm one or more victims. In Australian jurisdictions, the risk must amount to a foreseen probability of death. Under state of mind, the doctrine, the felony committed must be an inherently dangerous felony, such as burglary, arson, rape. Importantly, the underlying felony cannot be a lesser included offense such as assault, as with most legal terms, the precise definition of murder varies between jurisdictions and is usually codified in some form of legislation
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Conspiracy theory
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Conspiracy theories often produce hypotheses that contradict the prevailing understanding of history or simple facts. The term is a derogatory one, people formulate conspiracy theories to explain, for example, power relations in social groups and the perceived existence of evil forces. Conspiracy theories have chiefly psychological or socio-political origins, some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering random, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events. Some philosophers have argued that belief in conspiracy theories can be rational, the Oxford English Dictionary defines conspiracy theory as the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties, spec. A belief that some covert but influential agency is responsible for an unexplained event, as a neutral term, conspiracy is derived from Latin con- and spirare. In many respects, they have a right to be angry, the phrase conspiracy theory is not neutral. It is value-laden and carries with it condemnation, ridicule, and it is a lot like the word cult, which we use to describe religions we do not like. Clare Birchall at Kings College London describes conspiracy theory as a form of knowledge or interpretation. By acquiring the knowledge, conspiracy theory is considered alongside more legitimate modes of knowing. The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is far closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory would have us believe, other popular knowledge might include alien abduction narratives, gossip, some new age philosophies, religious beliefs, and astrology. Harry G. West discusses conspiracy theories as a part of American popular culture, comparing them to hypernationalism, some theories have dealt with censorship and excoriation from the law such as the Holocaust denial. Currently, conspiracy theories are present on the Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos. Whether the Web has increased the prevalence of conspiracy theories or not is a research question. By contrast, the term Watergate conspiracy theory is used to refer to a variety of hypotheses in which those convicted in the conspiracy were in fact the victims of a deeper conspiracy. In criminal law, a conspiracy is an agreement between two or more persons to commit a crime at some time in the future, as one basic American police academy text defines it, When a crime requires a large number of people, a conspiracy is formed. Conspiracy theory examines the actions of secretive coalitions of individuals. S, sociologist Türkay Salim Nefes underlines the political nature of conspiracy theories. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the real, according to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold, First, conspiracy theories claim to explain what institutional analysis cannot. They appear to sense out of a world that is otherwise confusing
11.
Canadians
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Canadians are people identified with the country of Canada. This connection may be residential, legal, historical, or cultural, for most Canadians, several of these connections exist and are collectively the source of their being Canadian. Elements of Aboriginal, French, British and more recent immigrant customs, languages and religions have combined to form the culture of Canada, Canada has also been strongly influenced by its linguistic, geographic and economic neighbour, the United States. Canadian independence from the United Kingdom grew gradually over the course of years since the formation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867. World War I and World War II in particular gave rise to a desire among Canadians to have their country recognized as a sovereign state with a distinct citizenship. Canadas nationality law closely mirrored that of the United Kingdom, legislation since the mid 20th century represents Canadians commitment to multilateralism and socioeconomic development. As of 2010, Canadians make up 0. 5% of the total population, having relied upon immigration for population growth. Approximately 41% of current Canadians are first- or second-generation immigrants, and 20 percent of Canadian residents in the 2000s were not born in the country. Statistics Canada projects that, by 2031, nearly one-half of Canadians above the age of 15 will be foreign-born or have one foreign-born parent. Aboriginal peoples, according to the 2011 Canadian Census, numbered at 1,400,685 or 4. 3% of the countrys 33,476,688 population. The French originally settled New France, in present-day Quebec and Ontario, approximately 100 Irish-born families would settle the Saint Lawrence Valley by 1700, assimilating into the Canadien population and culture. This arrival of newcomers led to the creation of the Métis, after the War of 1812, British, Scottish and Irish immigration was encouraged throughout Ruperts Land, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. Between 1815 and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America and these new arrivals included some Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia. Descendants of Francophone and Anglophone northern Europeans who arrived in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries are often referred to as old stock Canadians. Beginning in the late 1850s, the immigration of Chinese into the Colony of Vancouver Island, the Chinese Immigration Act of 1885 eventually placed a head tax on all Chinese immigrants, in hopes of discouraging Chinese immigration after completion of the Canadian Pacific Railway. The population of Canada has consistently risen, doubling approximately every 40 years, from the mid- to late 19th century, Canada had a policy of assisting immigrants from Europe, including an estimated 100,000 unwanted Home Children from Britain. Block settlement communities were established throughout western Canada between the late 19th and early 20th centuries, some were planned and others were spontaneously created by the settlers themselves. Canada was now receiving a number of European immigrants, predominantly Italians, Germans, Scandinavians, Dutch, Poles
12.
Helen Gahagan Douglas
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Helen Gahagan Douglas was an American actress and politician. Gahagan was born in Boonton, New Jersey, of Scotch-Irish descent and she was the eldest daughter of Lillian Rose and Walter H. Gahagan, an engineer who owned a construction business in Brooklyn and a shipyard in Arverne, Queens, her mother had been a schoolteacher. Gahagan was raised at 231 Lincoln Place in the Park Slope area of Brooklyn, an upper-middle class neighborhood and she gained admittance to Barnard College, though to the dismay of her father, Gahagan left after two years without finishing her degree to pursue a career as an actress. Gahagan found great success and became a star on Broadway in the 1920s. In 1930, Gahagan returned to Broadway to star in a production of Tonight or Never, the two married in 1931, Gahagan keeping her maiden name. Gahagan Douglas went to Los Angeles in 1935, starring in the Hollywood movie, She, playing Hash-a-Motep, queen of a lost city. The movie, based on H. Rider Haggards novel of the name, is perhaps best known for popularizing a phrase from the novel. The character and costuming in She served as the inspiration for the appearance of the Evil Queen in Walt Disneys 1937 animated film, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. While in Vienna in 1938, performing Tosca at the Vienna State Opera, the experience sickened her to such a degree that she immediately flew back to Los Angeles, determined to strike out naziism. Gahagan Douglas entered politics in the late 1930s but would remain a touchstone for decades after, the song begins, Hollywoods often tried to mix / show business with politics / from Helen Gahagan / to Ronald Reagan. She soon became the head of the John Steinbeck Committee, named for the author of the Grapes of Wrath, first introduced to politics through her husband, the Douglases then joined the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League, and called for a United States boycott against goods produced in Nazi Germany. Gahagan Douglas joined the Democratic Party shortly after the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1933, the Roosevelts and Douglases would develop a close friendship, with Eleanor Roosevelt serving as a political mentor to Gahagan Douglas. Gahagan Douglas was member of the advisory committee of the Works Progress Administration. She then served as Democratic National committeewoman for California and vice chairwoman of the Democratic State central committee and she would be appointed by President Harry S. Truman as an alternate United States Delegate to the United Nations Assembly. During this time, her affair with then Congressman and then Senator Lyndon B. Johnson was an open secret on Capitol Hill. In 1950, Gahagan Douglas ran for the United States Senate, California Democratic state chairman William M. Malone had advised Douglas to wait until 1952 to run for the Senate, rather than split the party in a fight with Downey. Gahagan Douglas, however, told Malone that Downey had neglected veterans and small growers, Downey withdrew from the race in the primary campaign and supported a third candidate, Manchester Boddy, the owner and publisher of the Los Angeles Daily News. When Gahagan Douglas defeated Boddy for the nomination, Downey endorsed the Republican U. S, fellow Representative John F. Kennedy quietly donated money to Nixons campaign against Gahagan Douglas, the two sharing similar views on the threat of communism
13.
Presidency of Richard Nixon
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He was succeeded by Vice President Gerald Ford, who had become vice president nine months earlier, following Spiro Agnews resignation from office. A Republican, Nixon took office after the 1968 presidential election, in which he defeated Hubert Humphrey, four years later, in 1972, Nixon won reelection in a landslide victory over George McGovern. Overall, he won 60. 7% of the popular vote, Nixon, the 37th United States president, succeeded Lyndon B. Johnson, who had launched the Great Society, a set of domestic programs financed, in contrast, Nixon advocated a New Federalism domestic program model, one in which certain powers would devolve back to the states. Nixons primary focus while in office was on foreign affairs, Nixon pursued a detente with the Peoples Republic of China, taking advantage of the Sino-Soviet split and significantly altering the nature of the Cold War. Nixons many accomplishments as president were however, largely overshadowed by the scandals that enveloped his administration, regarding his lasting legacy, historian Stephen Ambrose wrote, Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished. What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term, Nixon was inaugurated as president on January 20,1969, sworn in by his onetime political rival, Chief Justice Earl Warren. Pat Nixon held the family Bibles open at Isaiah 2,4, which reads, They shall beat their swords into plowshares, in his inaugural address, which received almost uniformly positive reviews, Nixon remarked that the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker. Nixon made fifteen international trips during his presidency and his first was an eight-day European visit starting in Brussels on February 23,1969. He met with Britain’s Prime Minister Harold Wilson in London and Frances President Charles de Gaulle in Paris and he also stopped in Bonn, Berlin and Rome and met with Pope Paul VI in Vatican City. He also made groundbreaking trips to several Eastern European Communist nations, including, Romania, Yugoslavia, even those who hated Nixons presidency occasionally praise his work in China. The extent to which his visit had any consequences of note, however. Assisting him in this venture was his National Security Advisor and future Secretary of State, Henry Kissinger, with whom the President worked closely, bypassing Cabinet officials. A breakthrough came in early 1971, when Chairman Mao invited a team of American table tennis players to visit China, Nixon followed up by sending Kissinger to China for clandestine meetings with Chinese officials. On July 15,1971, it was announced by Beijing. The secrecy allowed both sets of time to prepare the political climate in their countries for the contact. In February 1972, Nixon and his wife traveled to China, Kissinger briefed Nixon for over 40 hours in preparation. Upon touching down, the President and First Lady emerged from Air Force One, Nixon made a point of shaking Zhous hand, something which then-Secretary of State John Foster Dulles had refused to do in 1954 when the two met in Geneva
14.
Pope
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The pope is the Bishop of Rome and, therefore, the leader of the worldwide Catholic Church. The current pope is Francis, who was elected on 13 March 2013, the office of the pope is the papacy. The pope is considered one of the worlds most powerful people because of his diplomatic and he is also head of state of Vatican City, a sovereign city-state entirely enclaved within the Italian capital city of Rome. The papacy is one of the most enduring institutions in the world and has had a prominent part in world history, the popes in ancient times helped in the spread of Christianity and the resolution of various doctrinal disputes. In the Middle Ages, they played a role of importance in Western Europe. Currently, in addition to the expansion of the Christian faith and doctrine, the popes are involved in ecumenism and interfaith dialogue, charitable work, Popes, who originally had no temporal powers, in some periods of history accrued wide powers similar to those of temporal rulers. In recent centuries, popes were gradually forced to give up temporal power, the word pope derives from Greek πάππας meaning father. The earliest record of the use of title was in regard to the by then deceased Patriarch of Alexandria. Some historians have argued that the notion that Peter was the first bishop of Rome, the writings of the Church Father Irenaeus who wrote around AD180 reflect a belief that Peter founded and organised the Church at Rome. Moreover, Irenaeus was not the first to write of Peters presence in the early Roman Church, Clement of Rome wrote in a letter to the Corinthians, c. 96, about the persecution of Christians in Rome as the struggles in our time and presented to the Corinthians its heroes, first, the greatest and most just columns, the good apostles Peter and Paul. St. Ignatius of Antioch wrote shortly after Clement and in his letter from the city of Smyrna to the Romans he said he would not command them as Peter and Paul did. Given this and other evidence, many agree that Peter was martyred in Rome under Nero. Protestants contend that the New Testament offers no proof that Jesus established the papacy nor even that he established Peter as the first bishop of Rome, others, using Peters own words, argue that Christ intended himself as the foundation of the church and not Peter. First-century Christian communities would have had a group of presbyter-bishops functioning as leaders of their local churches, gradually, episcopacies were established in metropolitan areas. Antioch may have developed such a structure before Rome, some writers claim that the emergence of a single bishop in Rome probably did not occur until the middle of the 2nd century. In their view, Linus, Cletus and Clement were possibly prominent presbyter-bishops, documents of the 1st century and early 2nd century indicate that the Holy See had some kind of pre-eminence and prominence in the Church as a whole, though the detail of what this meant is unclear. It seems that at first the terms episcopos and presbyter were used interchangeably, the consensus among scholars has been that, at the turn of the 1st and 2nd centuries, local congregations were led by bishops and presbyters whose offices were overlapping or indistinguishable
15.
George Cruikshank
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George Cruikshank was a British caricaturist and book illustrator, praised as the modern Hogarth during his life. His book illustrations for his friend Charles Dickens, and many other authors and his father, Isaac Cruikshank, was one of the leading caricaturists of the late 1790s and Cruikshank started his career as his fathers apprentice and assistant. His older brother, Isaac Robert, also followed in the business as a caricaturist. Cruikshanks early work was caricature, but in 1823, at the age of 31 and he illustrated the first,1823 English translation of Grimms Fairy Tales, published in two volumes as German Popular Stories. On 16 October 1827, he married Mary Ann Walker, two years after her death, on 7 March 1851, he married Eliza Widdison. The two lived at 263 Hampstead Road, North London, upon his death, it was discovered that Cruikshank had fathered 11 illegitimate children with a mistress named Adelaide Attree, his former servant, who lived close to where he lived with his wife. Adelaide was ostensibly married and had taken the married surname Archibold, Cruikshanks early career was renowned for his social caricatures of English life for popular publications. He achieved early success collaborating with William Hone in his political satire The Political House That Jack Built, in the same year he produced the remarkable anti-abolitionist New Union Club. It satirised a dinner party organised by abolitionists with black guests and his first major work was Pierce Egans Life in London. This was followed by The Comic Almanack and Omnibus and he gained notoriety with his political prints that attacked the royal family and leading politicians. In 1820 he received a bribe of £100 for a pledge not to caricature His Majesty in any immoral situation. His work included a personification of England named John Bull who was developed from about 1790 in conjunction with other British satirical artists such as James Gillray, Cruikshank replaced one of his major influences, James Gillray, as Englands most popular satirist. For a generation he delineated Tories, Whigs and Radicals impartially, satirical material came to him from every public event – wars abroad, the enemies of Britain, the frolic, among other qualities, such as the weird and terrible, in which he excelled. For Charles Dickens, Cruikshank illustrated Sketches by Boz, The Mudfog Papers, Cruikshank even acted in Dickenss amateur theatrical company. On 30 December 1871 Cruikshank published a letter in The Times which claimed credit for much of the plot of Oliver Twist, the letter launched a fierce controversy around who created the work. Cruikshank was not the first Dickens illustrator to make such a claim, the friendship between Cruikshank and Dickens soured further when Cruikshank became a fanatical teetotaler in opposition to Dickenss views of moderation. Nightcap and nightdress belonged to a past age and reminded you of Cruickshanks illustrations to the novels of Charles Dickens, in the late 1840s, Cruikshanks focus shifted from book illustration to an obsession with temperance and anti-smoking. Formerly a heavy drinker, he now supported, lectured to, and supplied illustrations for the National Temperance Society, for his efforts he was made vice president of the National Temperance League in 1856
16.
Church of England
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The Church of England is the state church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the most senior cleric, although the monarch is the supreme governor, the Church of England is also the mother church of the international Anglican Communion. It dates its establishment as a church to the 6th-century Gregorian mission to Kent led by Augustine of Canterbury. The English church renounced papal authority when Henry VIII sought to secure an annulment from Catherine of Aragon in the 1530s, the English Reformation accelerated under Edward VIs regents before a brief restoration of papal authority under Queen Mary I and King Philip. This is expressed in its emphasis on the teachings of the early Church Fathers, as formalised in the Apostles, Nicene, in the earlier phase of the English Reformation there were both Catholic martyrs and radical Protestant martyrs. The later phases saw the Penal Laws punish Roman Catholic and nonconforming Protestants, in the 17th century, political and religious disputes raised the Puritan and Presbyterian faction to control of the church, but this ended with the Restoration. Papal recognition of George III in 1766 led to religious tolerance. Since the English Reformation, the Church of England has used a liturgy in English, the church contains several doctrinal strands, the main three known as Anglo-Catholic, Evangelical and Broad Church. Tensions between theological conservatives and progressives find expression in debates over the ordination of women and homosexuality, the church includes both liberal and conservative clergy and members. The governing structure of the church is based on dioceses, each presided over by a bishop, within each diocese are local parishes. The General Synod of the Church of England is the body for the church and comprises bishops, other clergy. Its measures must be approved by both Houses of Parliament, according to tradition, Christianity arrived in Britain in the 1st or 2nd century, during which time southern Britain became part of the Roman Empire. The earliest historical evidence of Christianity among the native Britons is found in the writings of such early Christian Fathers as Tertullian, three Romano-British bishops, including Restitutus, are known to have been present at the Council of Arles in 314. Others attended the Council of Sardica in 347 and that of Ariminum in 360, Britain was the home of Pelagius, who opposed Augustine of Hippos doctrine of original sin. Consequently, in 597, Pope Gregory I sent the prior of the Abbey of St Andrews from Rome to evangelise the Angles and this event is known as the Gregorian mission and is the date the Church of England generally marks as the beginning of its formal history. A later archbishop, the Greek Theodore of Tarsus, also contributed to the organisation of Christianity in England, the Church of England has been in continuous existence since the days of St Augustine, with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its episcopal head. Despite the various disruptions of the Reformation and the English Civil War, while some Celtic Christian practices were changed at the Synod of Whitby, the Christian Church in the British Isles was under papal authority from earliest times. The Synod of Whitby established the Roman date for Easter and the Roman style of monastic tonsure in Britain and this meeting of the ecclesiastics with Roman customs with local bishops was summoned in 664 at Saint Hildas double monastery of Streonshalh, later called Whitby Abbey
17.
My Lai Massacre
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The Mỹ Lai Massacre was the Vietnam War mass killing of between 347 and 504 unarmed civilians in South Vietnam on March 16,1968. It was committed by U. S. Army soldiers from Company C, 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry Regiment, 11th Brigade, victims included men, women, children, and infants. Some of the women were gang-raped and their bodies mutilated, twenty-six soldiers were charged with criminal offenses, but only Lieutenant William Calley Jr. a platoon leader in C Company, was convicted. Found guilty of killing 22 villagers, he was given a life sentence. The massacre, which was called the most shocking episode of the Vietnam War. These hamlets were marked on the U. S. Army topographic maps as My Lai, the U. S. Army slang name for the hamlets and sub-hamlets in that area was Pinkville, and the carnage was initially referred to as the Pinkville Massacre. Later, when the U. S. Army started its investigation, currently, the event is referred to as the My Lai Massacre in the United States and called the Sơn Mỹ Massacre in Vietnam. The incident prompted global outrage when it became public knowledge in November 1969, the My Lai massacre increased to some extent domestic opposition to the U. S. involvement in the Vietnam War when the scope of killing and cover-up attempts were exposed. Only after thirty years were recognized and decorated, one posthumously. Along with the No Gun Ri massacre in Korea eighteen years earlier, Charlie Company, 1st Battalion, 20th Infantry Regiment, 11th Brigade, 23rd Infantry Division, arrived in South Vietnam in December 1967. Though their first three months in Vietnam passed without any enemy contact, by mid-March the company had suffered 28 casualties involving mines or booby-traps. U. S. military intelligence assumed that the 48th NLF Battalion, having retreated and dispersed, was taking refuge in the village of Sơn Mỹ, a number of specific hamlets within that village—designated My Lai through My Lai — were suspected of harboring the 48th. In February and March 1968, the U. S, Task Force Barker, a battalion-sized ad hoc unit of 11th Brigade, was to be employed for the job. It was formed in January 1968, composed of three companies of the 11th Brigade, including Company C from the 20th Infantry, led by Lieutenant Colonel Frank A. Barker. Sơn Mỹ village was included in the area of operations of TF Barker codenamed Muscatine AO, in February 1968, TF Barker had already tried to secure Sơn Mỹ, with limited success. After that, the area began to be called Pinkville by TF Barker troops. The men of Charlie Company were angry, frightened and struggling for survival in March 1968, since their arrival 3 months prior, they had suffered over 40 casualties. Just two days before the massacre the company had lost a sergeant to a land mine
18.
Pentagon Papers
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The papers were released by Daniel Ellsberg, who had worked on the study, they were first brought to the attention of the public on the front page of The New York Times in 1971. More specifically, the revealed that the U. S. In June 2011, the entirety of the Pentagon Papers was declassified, Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara created the Vietnam Study Task Force on June 17,1967, for the purpose of writing an encyclopedic history of the Vietnam War. McNamara claimed that he wanted to leave a record for historians. McNamara neglected to inform either President Lyndon Johnson or Secretary of State Dean Rusk about the study, one report claimed that McNamara planned to give the work to his friend Robert F. Kennedy, who sought the Democratic presidential nomination in 1968. McNamara later denied this, although he admitted that he should have informed Johnson, instead of using existing Defense Department historians, McNamara assigned his close aide and Assistant Secretary of Defense John T. McNaughton to collect the papers. McNaughton died in an air accident one month work began in June 1967. Thirty-six analysts—half of them active-duty military officers, the rest academics, the study comprised 3,000 pages of historical analysis and 4,000 pages of original government documents in 47 volumes, and was classified as Top Secret – Sensitive. The task force published 15 copies, the think tank RAND Corp received two of the copies from Gelb, Morton Halperin, and Paul Warnke, with access granted if at least two of the three approved. On November 3,1965, McNamara sent a memorandum to President Johnson, under President Dwight D. Eisenhower, the U. S. Under President John F. Kennedy, the U. S. government transformed its policy towards Vietnam from a gamble to a broad commitment. Johnson, the U. S. government began waging covert military operations against Communist North Vietnam in defense of South Vietnam, in addition,32,000 men from South Vietnams Civil Guard were trained by the United States at a cost of US$12.7 million. It was hoped that Diems regime, after receiving a significant amount of U. S. assistance, as written by Lansdale in a 1961 memorandum, We must support Ngo Dinh Diem until another strong executive can replace him legally. According to the Pentagon Papers, the U. S. government played a key role in the 1963 South Vietnamese coup, according to The New York Times, this U. S. representative was later identified to be CIA agent Lucien Conein. The Director of Central Intelligence, John A, category 3 – Limited air strikes on North Vietnamese targets by unmarked planes flown exclusively by non-US aircrews. However, McCone did not believe these military actions alone could lead to an escalation of the situation because the fear of escalation would probably restrain the Communists, Daniel Ellsberg knew the leaders of the task force well. He had worked as an aide to McNaughton from 1964 to 1965, had worked on the study for several months in 1967, now opposing the war, Ellsberg and his friend Anthony Russo photocopied the study in October 1969 intending to disclose it. Ellsberg approached Nixons National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger, Senators William Fulbright and George McGovern, and others, in February 1971, Ellsberg discussed the study with The New York Times reporter Neil Sheehan, and gave 43 of the volumes to him in March
19.
William M. Tweed
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Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852 and the New York County board of supervisors in 1858, the year he became the head of the Tammany Hall political machine. According to Tweed biographer Kenneth D. Ackerman, Its hard not to admire the skill behind Tweeds system. The Tweed ring at its height was a marvel, strong and solid, strategically deployed to control key power points, the courts, the legislature, the treasury. Its frauds had a grandeur of scale and an elegance of structure, money-laundering, profit sharing, unable to make bail, he escaped from jail once, but was returned to custody. He died in the Ludlow Street Jail, Tweed was born April 3,1823, at 1 Cherry Street, on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Son of a third-generation Scottish-Irish chair-maker, Tweed grew up on Cherry Street, at the age of 11, he left school to learn his fathers trade, and then became an apprentice to a saddler. He also studied to be a bookkeeper and worked as a brushmaker for a company he had invested in, on September 29,1844, he married Mary Jane C. Skaden and lived with her family on Madison Street for two years, Tweed became a member of the Odd Fellows and the Masons, and joined a volunteer fire company, Engine No.12. In 1848, at the invitation of state assemblyman John J. Reilly, he and some friends organized the Americus Fire Company No. 6, also known as the Big Six, as a fire company, which took as its symbol a snarling red Bengal tiger. At the time, volunteer fire companies competed vigorously with each other, the competition could be so fierce that buildings would sometimes burn down while the fire companies fought each other. Tweed became known for his violence, and was soon elected the Big Six foreman. He lost that election to the Whig candidate Morgan Morgans, but ran again the year and won. Tweed was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1852, in an attempt by Republican reformers in Albany, the state capital, to control the Democratic-dominated New York City government, the power of the New York County Board of Supervisors was beefed up. By 1853, Tweed was running the ward for Tammany. Although he was not trained as a lawyer, Tweeds friend, Judge George G. Barnard, certified him as an attorney, and Tweed opened a law office on Duane Street. Several months later, in April, he became Grand Sachem and he also started to form what became known as the Tweed Ring, by having his friends elected to office, George G. Barnard was elected Recorder of New York City, Peter B. Sweeny was elected New York County District Attorney, and Richard B. Connolly was elected City Comptroller and he invested his now considerable illegal income in real estate, so that by the late 1860s he ranked among the biggest landowners in New York City
20.
Tammany Hall
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The Tammany Society emerged as the center for Democratic-Republican Party politics in the city in the early 19th century. After 1854, the Society expanded its control even further by earning the loyalty of the citys rapidly expanding immigrant community. By 1872 Tammany had an Irish Catholic boss, and in 1928 a Tammany hero, New York Governor Al Smith, however, Tammany Hall also served as an engine for graft and political corruption, perhaps most infamously under William M. Boss Tweed in the mid-19th century. By the 1880s, Tammany was building local clubs that appealed to activists from the ethnic middle-class. Charles Murphy was the effective but quiet boss of Tammany from 1902–1924. Big Tim Sullivan was the Tammany leader in the Bowery, in the early twentieth century Murphy and Sullivan promoted Tammany as a reformed agency dedicated to the interests of the working class. The new image deflected attacks and built up a following among the emerging ethnic middle-class, in the process Robert F. Wagner became a powerful United States Senator, and Al Smith served multiple terms as governor and was the Democratic presidential candidate in 1928. Tammany Halls influence waned from 1930 to 1945 when it engaged in a battle with Franklin D. Roosevelt, the states governor. In 1932, Mayor Jimmy Walker was forced from office when his bribery was exposed, Roosevelt stripped Tammany of federal patronage. Republican Fiorello La Guardia was elected mayor on a Fusion ticket, by the mid-1960s Tammany Hall ceased to exist. The society was developed as a club for pure Americans. The name Tammany comes from Tamanend, a Native American leader of the Lenape, the society adopted many Native American words and also their customs, going so far as to call its hall a wigwam. The first Grand Sachem, as the leader was titled, was William Mooney, by 1798, the societys activities had grown increasingly political. High ranking Democratic-Republican Aaron Burr saw Tammany Hall as an opportunity to counter Alexander Hamiltons Society of the Cincinnati, eventually Tammany emerged as the center of Democratic-Republican Party politics in the city. Burr used Tammany Hall influence in the election of 1800, in which he was elected Vice President of the United States, many historians believe that without Tammany, President John Adams might have won New York States electoral votes and won reelection. Early cases of corruption involving Tammany Hall came to light during the groups feud with local politician Dewitt Clinton. The feud began in 1802 after Clinton accused Aaron Burr of being a traitor to the Democratic-Republican Party, Clintons uncle, George Clinton was jealous of Burrs achievements and positions. However George was too old to compete with young Aaron Burr, in 1803, Clinton left the United States Senate and became Mayor of New York City
21.
Gaslighting
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Gaslighting is a form of manipulation that seeks to sow seeds of doubt in a targeted individual or members of a group, hoping to make targets question their own memory, perception, and sanity. Using persistent denial, misdirection, contradiction, and lying, it attempts to destabilize the target, instances may range from the denial by an abuser that previous abusive incidents ever occurred up to the staging of bizarre events by the abuser with the intention of disorienting the victim. The term owes its origin to Gas Light, a 1938 play and 1944 film and it has been used in clinical and research literature. The original title stems from the dimming of the gas lights in the house that happened when the husband was using the gas lights in the attic while searching for hidden treasure. The wife accurately notices the lights and discusses the phenomenon. The term gaslighting has been used colloquially since the 1960s, to describe efforts to manipulate someones sense of reality, sociopaths and narcissists frequently use gaslighting tactics. Sociopaths consistently transgress social mores, break laws, and exploit others, but typically also are convincing liars, sometimes charming ones, thus, some who have been victimized by sociopaths may doubt their own perceptions. Some physically abusive spouses may gaslight their partners by flatly denying that they have been violent, Gaslighting may occur in parent–child relationships, with either parent, child, or both, lying to each other and attempting to undermine perceptions. Gaslighting describes a dynamic observed in cases of marital infidelity. The gaslighting behaviors of the spouse provide a recipe for the nervous breakdown for some women suicide in some of the worst situations. The situation was a theme in the BBCs The Archers radio soap opera through the story of Helen Archer and Rob Titchenor in 2015-6. Psychotherapy and psychiatry have been described as forms of gaslighting wherein the therapist or psychiatrist is characterized by the patient to be of a more sound, furthermore, gaslighting has been observed between patients and staff in inpatient psychiatric facilities. Of painful and potentially painful mental conflicts, dorpat describes this as an example of projective identification. With respect to women in particular, Hilde Lindemann argued emphatically that in such cases, establishment of counterstories may help the victim reacquire ordinary levels of free agency. Gaslighting has been used by Russian politicians, british film-maker Adam Curtis suggested in 2014 that nonlinear or asymmetric war was a form of gaslighting intended to force political control. Surkov used his influence to finance various political coalitions so none of the Russian citizens could know if an organization was created by the government or a grassroots movement, in fact, I would never dream of saying X. had brought new notability to the term. Some Clinical Consequences of Introjection, Gaslighting, dialogues of Doubt, The Psychology of Self-Doubt and Emotional Gaslighting in Adult Women and Men. Gaslighting, How to Drive Your Enemies Crazy, the Gaslight Effect, How to Spot and Survive the Hidden Manipulation Others Use to Control Your Life
22.
Strategic lawsuit against public participation
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Such lawsuits have been made illegal in many jurisdictions on the grounds that they impede freedom of speech. The typical SLAPP plaintiff does not normally expect to win the lawsuit, the plaintiffs goals are accomplished if the defendant succumbs to fear, intimidation, mounting legal costs or simple exhaustion and abandons the criticism. In some cases, repeated frivolous litigation against a defendant may raise the cost of directors and officers liability insurance for that party, a SLAPP may also intimidate others from participating in the debate. A SLAPP is often preceded by a legal threat, there is a difficulty in that plaintiffs do not present themselves to the Court admitting that their intent is to censor, intimidate or silence their critics. Thus, anti-SLAPP laws target tactics used by SLAPP plaintiffs, nonetheless, anti-SLAPP are generally considered to have a favorable effect, and many lawyers have fought to enact stronger laws protecting against SLAPPs. The most common used to be a suit for defamation. The common law of libel dates to the early 17th century and is reverse onus, meaning, once someone alleges a statement is libelous, the burden was on the defendant to prove that it is not. In England and Wales, the Defamation Act 2013 removed most of the uses of defamation as a SLAPP by requiring the proof of special damage. Various abusive uses of this law including political libel have ceased to exist in most places, a common feature of SLAPPs is forum shopping, wherein plaintiffs find courts that are more favourable towards the claims to be brought than the court in which the defendant live. Several jurisdictions have passed laws, designed to quickly remove cases out of court. In many cases, the plaintiff is required to pay a penalty for bringing the case. The acronym was coined in the 1980s by University of Denver professors Penelope Canan, the concepts originators later dropped the notion that government contact had to be about a public issue to be protected by the Right to Petition the Government, as provided in the First Amendment. It has since been defined less broadly by some states, and it is still definitional, SLAPPs refer to civil lawsuits filed against those who have communicated to government officialdom. The Right to Petition, granted by Edgar the Peaceful, King of England in the 10th century, as currently conceived, the right claims that democracy cannot properly function in the presence of barriers between the governed and the governing. New York Supreme Court Judge J. Nicholas Colabella, in reference to SLAPPs, Short of a gun to the head, gordon v. Morrone,590 N. Y. S. 2d 649,656. A number of jurisdictions have made such suits illegal, provided that the standards of journalistic responsibility have been met by the critic. A party starting or maintaining a proceeding against a defendant for a purpose may be ordered to pay a financial penalty to the Territory. Both types of suits are almost unusual to Canada, so there is little academic concern nor examination of whether political subject matter or remote forums are an indicator of SLAPP
23.
Scapegoating
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Scapegoating is the practice of singling out any party for unmerited negative treatment or blame as a scapegoat. Scapegoating may be conducted by individuals against individuals, individuals against groups, groups against individuals, a scapegoat may be an adult, child, sibling, employee, peer, ethnic, political or religious group, or country. A whipping boy, identified patient or fall guy are forms of scapegoat, Scapegoating is a tactic often employed to characterize an entire group of individuals according to the unethical or immoral conduct of a small number of individuals belonging to that group. Scapegoating relates to guilt by association and stereotyping, however, scapegoating may also be applied to organizations, such as governments, corporations, or various political groups. Unwanted thoughts and feelings can be projected onto another who becomes a scapegoat for ones own problems. This concept can be extended to projection by groups, in this case the chosen individual, or group, becomes the scapegoat for the groups problems. Political agitation in all countries is full of such projections, just as much as the gossip of little groups. Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung considered indeed that there must be people who behave in the wrong way. The scapegoat theory of intergroup conflict provides an explanation for the correlation between times of economic despair and increases in prejudice and violence toward outgroups. Studies of anti-black violence in the southern US between 1882 and 1930 show a correlation between poor economic conditions and outbreaks of violence against blacks, Scapegoating as a group necessitates that ingroup members settle on one specific target to blame for their problems. Scapegoating is also likely to appear when a group has experienced difficult. Scapegoating can also cause oppressed groups to lash out at other oppressed groups, even when injustices are committed against a minority group by the majority group, minorities sometimes lash out against a different minority group in lieu of confronting the more powerful majority. In management, Scapegoating is a practice in management where a lower staff employee is blamed for the mistakes of senior executives. This is often due to lack of accountability in upper management, literary critic and philosopher Kenneth Burke first coined and described the expression scapegoat mechanism in his books Permanence and Change, and A Grammar of Motives. These works influenced some philosophical anthropologists, such as Ernest Becker, Girard developed the concept much more extensively as an interpretation of human culture. In Girards view, it is humankind, not God, who has need for forms of atoning violence. Humans are driven by desire for that which another has or wants and this causes a triangulation of desire and results in conflict between the desiring parties. This mimetic contagion increases to a point where society is at risk and this is the point where one person is singled out as the cause of the trouble and is expelled or killed by the group
24.
Dreyfus affair
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The Dreyfus Affair was a political scandal that divided the Third French Republic from 1894 until its resolution in 1906. The affair is often seen as a modern and universal symbol of injustice, the major role played by the press and public opinion proved influential in the lasting social conflict. The scandal began in December 1894, with the conviction of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. After high-ranking military officials suppressed the new evidence, a military court unanimously acquitted Esterházy after a trial lasting two days. The Army then accused Dreyfus with additional charges based on falsified documents, activists put pressure on the government to reopen the case. In 1899, Dreyfus was returned to France for another trial, the new trial resulted in another conviction and a 10-year sentence, but Dreyfus was given a pardon and set free. Eventually all the accusations against Dreyfus were demonstrated to be baseless, in 1906 Dreyfus was exonerated and reinstated as a major in the French Army. He served during the whole of World War I, ending his service with the rank of lieutenant-colonel, the affair from 1894 to 1906 divided France deeply and lastingly into two opposing camps, the pro-Army, mostly Catholic anti-Dreyfusards and the anticlerical, pro-republican Dreyfusards. It embittered French politics and encouraged radicalization, the museum created an online platform in 2006 dedicated to the Dreyfus Affair, giving the public access to these documents. After a closed trial, he was guilty of treason. He was deported to Devils Island, at that time, the opinion of the French political class was unanimously unfavourable towards Dreyfus. Certain of the injustice of the sentence, the family of the Captain, through his brother Mathieu, meanwhile Colonel Georges Picquart, head of counter-espionage, found evidence in March 1896 indicating that the real traitor was Major Ferdinand Walsin Esterházy. The General Staff, however, refused to reconsider its judgment, in July 1897 his family contacted the President of the Senate Auguste Scheurer-Kestner to draw attention to the tenuousness of the evidence against Dreyfus. Scheurer-Kestner reported three months later that he was convinced of the innocence of Dreyfus and also persuaded Georges Clemenceau, in the same month, Mathieu Dreyfus complained to the Ministry of War against Walsin-Esterházy. A Dreyfusard declaration that rallied many intellectuals to Dreyfus cause, France became increasingly divided over the case, and the issue continued to be hotly debated until the end of the century. Antisemitic riots erupted in more than twenty French cities, There were several deaths in Algiers. The Republic was shaken, which prompted a sense that the Dreyfus Affair had to be resolved to restore calm, despite increasingly robust evidence to the contrary, Dreyfus was convicted again and sentenced to ten years of hard labour, though the sentence was commuted due to extenuating circumstances. Exhausted by his deportation for four years, Dreyfus accepted the presidential pardon granted by President Émile Loubet
25.
Luzhniki disaster
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Sixty-six FC Spartak Moscow fans, mostly adolescents, died in the stampede, which made it Russias worst sporting disaster. The number of fatalities in this crush was not officially revealed until seven years later, until then, this figure varied in press reports from 3 to 340 fatalities. The circumstances of this disaster are similar to those of the second Ibrox disaster, on 20 October 1982, the weather in Moscow was snowy and extraordinarily cold for the middle of October, −10 °C. There were 82,000 match tickets available, but because of the weather conditions only 16,500 tickets were sold. According to some reports the number of tickets sold was 16,643. The Grand Arena of Central Lenin Stadium did not have a roof over the seating at the time, each stand had seating for 23,000 spectators. Most of the went to the East Stand, which was closer to the Metro station. There were approximately 100 Dutch supporters, the vast majority of fans in attendance were fans of Spartak Moscow, the match started at 7,00 pm. In the 16th minute Spartak took the lead through an Edgar Gess strike, the rest of the game was largely uneventful. Minutes before the end of the game, several hundred fans began to leave the stadium in an attempt to get to the Metro station ahead of the crowds, there were two covered stairways in Luzhniki under each stand, leading down to the exits. All of the exits at both stands were open, however, most of the fans from the East Stand rushed to Stairway 1, closer to the Metro station. According to the witnesses who were interviewed during the investigation, one of the fell at the lower steps of Stairway 1. According to some reports, it was a woman, who had lost her shoe on the stairs and stopped, trying to retrieve it. A couple of people stopped, trying to help the fan in need. People began to stumble over the bodies of those who were crushed in a domino effect, the stampede coincided with the second goal for Spartak, which was scored by Sergei Shvetsov only twenty seconds before the final whistle. The injured were taken by ambulances to the NV Sklifosovsky Scientific Research Institute of First Aid in Moscow, the next day Yuri Andropov visited the institute and met with several doctors and relatives of the injured. The bodies of the dead were taken to the Moscow morgues for autopsy, later the bodies were returned to the victims relatives for burial. A total of 66 people died in this stampede, according to the post-mortem examinations, all of the deceased victims died of compressive asphyxia
The dictionary definition of cover-up at Wiktionary
Media related to Concealment at Wikimedia Commons
