1.
Skolts
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The Skolt Sámi or Skolts are a Sami ethnic group. The Skolts are considered to be the people of the borderland area between present-day Finland, Russia and Norway, i. e. on the Kola Peninsula. They belong to the group of Sámi on account of their language and traditions. As a result of the Treaty of Tartu, the Skolt homeland was split in two, the part, Petsamo, became part of Finland and the eastern part became part of the Soviet Union. Many Finnish immigrants moved to traditional Skolt homeland, in 1926, one-quarter of Petsamos population were Skolts, and in 1930 the proportion dropped to one-sixth. After the Winter War, Finland lost its portion of the Rybachiy Peninsula to the Soviet Union and after the Continuation War, it lost Petsamo, current estimates put the number of ethnic Skolt Sámi at around 1250, of which approximately 400 can speak Skolt Sámi. Most of them live in Finland today, in Finland, Russia and Norway they number about 700,400 and possibly more than 150. Saint Tryphon of Pechenga converted the Skolts to Christianity in the 16th century and even today, Skolt Sámi Skolt Sámi on Siidas website Skolt Sámi Culture Across borders
2.
Cheyenne language
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It is part of the Algonquian language family. Like all Algonquian languages, it has complex agglutinative morphology and this language is considered endangered but at different levels in both states. Cheyenne is one of the Algonquian languages, which is a sub-category of the Algic languages, specifically, it is a Plains Algonquian language. However, Plains Algonquian, which also includes Arapaho and Blackfoot, is a rather than genetic subgrouping. Cheyenne is spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana, the Cheyenne language is considered definitely endangered in Montana and critically endangered in Oklahoma by the UNESCO. Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at Chief Dull Knife College in Lame Deer, Montana, Southwestern Oklahoma State University, while there are only three basic vowels, they can be pronounced in three ways, high pitch, low pitch, and voiceless. The high and low pitches are phonemic, while vowel devoicing is governed by environmental rules, the phoneme /h/ is realized as in the environment between /e/ and /t/. /h/ is realized as between and i. e. /nahtóna/ nȧhtona alien, /nehtóna/ nėstona your daughter, /hehke/ heške his mother, the digraph ‘ts’ represents assibilated /t/, a phonological rule of Cheyenne is that underlying /t/ becomes affricated before an /e/. Therefore, ‘ts’ is not a phoneme, but an allophone of /t/. The sound is not a phoneme, but derives from other phonemes, including /ʃ/, the Cheyenne orthography of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a phonetic transcription, it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a pronunciation orthography. In other words, it is a spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as vowels, are shown. ⟨e⟩ represents not the phoneme /e/, but is pronounced as a phonetic. Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters composed of 13 phonemes, several of which can be devoiced, devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase. It can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word, non-high and is also usually devoiced preceding h plus a stop. Phonemic /h/ is absorbed by a voiceless vowel. This rule is linked to the rule of e-Epenthesis, which states that appears in the environment of a consonant. émane ‘He is drinking. ’ When preceding a voiceless segment, -pėhévoestomo’he ‘kind’ + -htse ‘imperative suffix’ > -pėhévoestomo’ėstse tsé- ‘conjunct prefix’ + -éna’he ‘old’ + -tse ‘3rd pers
3.
Northern Sami
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Northern or North Sami, sometimes also simply referred to as Sami, is the most widely spoken of all Sami languages. The area where Northern Sami is spoken covers the parts of Norway, Sweden. The number of Northern Sami speakers is estimated to be somewhere between 15,000 and 25,000, about 2,000 of these live in Finland and between 5,000 and 6,000 in Sweden. Among the first printed Sami texts is Svenske och Lappeske ABC Book, written in Swedish and it was published in two editions in 1638 and 1640 and includes 30 pages of prayers and confessions of Protestant faith. It has been described as the first book with a regular Sami language form, Northern Sami was first described by Knud Leem in 1748 and in dictionaries in 1752 and 1768. The majority of his work has disappeared, en omarbejdelse af Prof. Knud Leems Lappiske grammatica in 1832. Rask opted for a phonemic orthographic system, following in the tradition of Rask meant that diacritics were used with some consonants, which caused data-processing problems before Unicode was introduced. Both Stockfleth and J. A. Friis went on to publish grammar books and it can be said that Northern Sami was better described than Norwegian was before Ivar Aasen published his grammar on Norwegian. Northern Sami was and is used in three countries, each of which used its own orthography for years, Friis orthography was used when work on translating the Bible into Northern Sami commenced, in the first Sami newspaper called Saǥai Muittalægje, and in the Finnemisjonens own newspaper Nuorttanaste. The groundwork for Northern Sami lexicography was laid by Konrad Nielsen who used an orthography of his own creation in his dictionary Lappisk ordbok, starting in 1948, the orthographies used in Norway and Sweden were combined into a single Bergsland-Ruong orthography. It was not greatly used in Norway, in addition, the authorities there instituted a policy that prohibited Sami from being used in practice. In Sweden, classes were taught in Sami in the Sami schools, in 1979, an official orthography for Northern Sami was adopted for use in Norway, Sweden and Finland. In Norway, Northern Sami is currently a language of two counties and six municipalities. The consonant inventory of Northern Sami is large, consisting of three different series of plosives/affricates and two series of nasals, in addition, length is contrastive for almost all consonants. /v/ is realised as a fricative in the syllable onset. Although is a fricative, it behaves phonologically like an approximant, all consonants can be geminated, except for /h/. This distinction is phonemically contrastive and widely productive as a grammatical feature, geminated glottalized nasals are realised with the glottalization in between the two consonants. In geminated preaspirated consonants, it is the preaspiration that lengthens rather than the occlusion, except for glottalized or preaspirated consonants, /h/, /j/ or /ʎ/, all consonants also possess a third overlong length
4.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
5.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
6.
Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
7.
Penobscot
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The Penobscot are an indigenous people in North America with members who reside in the United States and Canada. They are organized as a recognized tribe in Maine and as a First Nations band government in the Atlantic provinces. The Penobscot Nation, formerly known as the Penobscot Tribe of Maine, is the federally recognized tribe of Penobscot people in the United States. They are part of the Wabanaki Confederacy, along with the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and their main settlement is now the Penobscot Indian Island Reservation, located within the state of Maine along the Penobscot River. The word Penobscot originates from a mispronunciation of their name for themselves, the word means rocky part or descending ledges, and originally referred to their territory on the portion of the Penobscot River between present-day Old Town and Bangor. The Penobscot Nation is headquartered in Indian Island, Maine, the tribal chief is Kirk Francis. Little is known about the Penobscot people pre-contact, Native peoples are thought to have inhabited Maine and surrounding areas for at least 11,000 years. They had a society, with the men hunting beaver, otters, moose, bears, caribou, fish, seafood, birds. The women gathered and processed bird eggs, berries, nuts, the people practiced some agriculture but not to the same extent as that of indigenous peoples in southern New England, where the climate was more temperate. Food was potentially scarce only toward the end of the winter, in February, for the rest of the year, the Penobscot and other Wabanaki likely had little difficulty surviving because the land and ocean waters offered much bounty, and the number of people was sustainable. The bands moved seasonally, following the patterns of game and fish, during the 15th century the Penobscot had contact with Europeans through the fur trade. It was lucrative and the Penobscot were willing to trade pelts for European goods such as axes, guns. Hunting for fur pelts reduced the game, however, and the European trade introduced alcohol to Penobscot communities for the first time and it has been argued that the people are genetically vulnerable to alcoholism, which Europeans frequently tried to exploit in dealings and trade. Penobscot people and other nations made pine beer, which had vitamin C, in addition to being an alcoholic beverage, when Europeans arrived, they brought alcohol in quantity. The Europeans carried endemic infectious diseases of Eurasia that were new to the Native Americans, and their fatality rates from the introduction of measles, smallpox and other infectious diseases was high. The population also declined due to fighting between the Wabanaki Federation and the powerful Mohawk people of the Iroquois League, which struggled to control the fur trade. This catastrophic population depletion may have contributed to Christian conversion, the people could see that the European priests did not suffer from the pandemics, the latter said that the Penobscot had died because they did not believe in Jesus Christ. At the beginning of the 17th century, Europeans began to live year-round in Wabanaki territory, at this time, there were probably about 10,000 Penobscot
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