1.
Cheyenne language
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It is part of the Algonquian language family. Like all Algonquian languages, it has complex agglutinative morphology and this language is considered endangered but at different levels in both states. Cheyenne is one of the Algonquian languages, which is a sub-category of the Algic languages, specifically, it is a Plains Algonquian language. However, Plains Algonquian, which also includes Arapaho and Blackfoot, is a rather than genetic subgrouping. Cheyenne is spoken on the Northern Cheyenne Indian Reservation in Montana, the Cheyenne language is considered definitely endangered in Montana and critically endangered in Oklahoma by the UNESCO. Classes in the Cheyenne language are available at Chief Dull Knife College in Lame Deer, Montana, Southwestern Oklahoma State University, while there are only three basic vowels, they can be pronounced in three ways, high pitch, low pitch, and voiceless. The high and low pitches are phonemic, while vowel devoicing is governed by environmental rules, the phoneme /h/ is realized as in the environment between /e/ and /t/. /h/ is realized as between and i. e. /nahtóna/ nȧhtona alien, /nehtóna/ nėstona your daughter, /hehke/ heške his mother, the digraph ‘ts’ represents assibilated /t/, a phonological rule of Cheyenne is that underlying /t/ becomes affricated before an /e/. Therefore, ‘ts’ is not a phoneme, but an allophone of /t/. The sound is not a phoneme, but derives from other phonemes, including /ʃ/, the Cheyenne orthography of 14 letters is neither a pure phonemic system nor a phonetic transcription, it is, in the words of linguist Wayne Leman, a pronunciation orthography. In other words, it is a spelling system designed to facilitate proper pronunciation. Some allophonic variants, such as vowels, are shown. ⟨e⟩ represents not the phoneme /e/, but is pronounced as a phonetic. Cheyenne has 14 orthographic letters composed of 13 phonemes, several of which can be devoiced, devoicing naturally occurs in the last vowel of a word or phrase. It can also occur in vowels at the penultimate and prepenultimate positions within a word, non-high and is also usually devoiced preceding h plus a stop. Phonemic /h/ is absorbed by a voiceless vowel. This rule is linked to the rule of e-Epenthesis, which states that appears in the environment of a consonant. émane ‘He is drinking. ’ When preceding a voiceless segment, -pėhévoestomo’he ‘kind’ + -htse ‘imperative suffix’ > -pėhévoestomo’ėstse tsé- ‘conjunct prefix’ + -éna’he ‘old’ + -tse ‘3rd pers
2.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
3.
North America
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North America is a continent entirely within the Northern Hemisphere and almost all within the Western Hemisphere. It can also be considered a subcontinent of the Americas. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the west and south by the Pacific Ocean, and to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea. North America covers an area of about 24,709,000 square kilometers, about 16. 5% of the land area. North America is the third largest continent by area, following Asia and Africa, and the fourth by population after Asia, Africa, and Europe. In 2013, its population was estimated at nearly 565 million people in 23 independent states, or about 7. 5% of the worlds population, North America was reached by its first human populations during the last glacial period, via crossing the Bering land bridge. The so-called Paleo-Indian period is taken to have lasted until about 10,000 years ago, the Classic stage spans roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. The Pre-Columbian era ended with the migrations and the arrival of European settlers during the Age of Discovery. Present-day cultural and ethnic patterns reflect different kind of interactions between European colonists, indigenous peoples, African slaves and their descendants, European influences are strongest in the northern parts of the continent while indigenous and African influences are relatively stronger in the south. Because of the history of colonialism, most North Americans speak English, Spanish or French, the Americas are usually accepted as having been named after the Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci by the German cartographers Martin Waldseemüller and Matthias Ringmann. Vespucci, who explored South America between 1497 and 1502, was the first European to suggest that the Americas were not the East Indies, but a different landmass previously unknown by Europeans. In 1507, Waldseemüller produced a map, in which he placed the word America on the continent of South America. He explained the rationale for the name in the accompanying book Cosmographiae Introductio, for Waldseemüller, no one should object to the naming of the land after its discoverer. He used the Latinized version of Vespuccis name, but in its feminine form America, following the examples of Europa, Asia and Africa. Later, other mapmakers extended the name America to the continent, In 1538. Some argue that the convention is to use the surname for naming discoveries except in the case of royalty, a minutely explored belief that has been advanced is that America was named for a Spanish sailor bearing the ancient Visigothic name of Amairick. Another is that the name is rooted in a Native American language, the term North America maintains various definitions in accordance with location and context. In Canadian English, North America may be used to refer to the United States, alternatively, usage sometimes includes Greenland and Mexico, as well as offshore islands
4.
Iroquois
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The Iroquois or Haudenosaunee are a historically powerful northeast Native American confederacy. The Iroquois have absorbed many other peoples into their cultures as a result of warfare, adoption of captives, the historic Erie, Susquehannock, Wyandot, and St. Lawrence Iroquoians, all independent peoples, spoke Iroquoian languages. In 2010, more than 45,000 enrolled Six Nations people lived in Canada, the most common name for the confederacy, Iroquois, is of somewhat obscure origin. The first time it appears in writing is in the account of Samuel de Champlain of his journey to Tadoussac in 1603, other spellings occurring in the earliest sources include Erocoise, Hiroquois, Hyroquoise, Irecoies, Iriquois, Iroquaes, Irroquois, and Yroquois. In the French spoken at the time, this would have been pronounced as or. In 1883, Horatio Hale wrote that the Charlevoix etymology was dubious, Hale suggested instead that the term came from Huron, and was cognate with Mohawk ierokwa they who smoke or Cayuga iakwai a bear. Hewitt responded to Hales etymology in 1888 by expressing doubt that either of those words even exist in the respective languages, a more modern etymology is that advocated by Gordon M. Day in 1968, who elaborates upon an earlier etymology given by Charles Arnaud in 1880. Arnaud had claimed that the word came from Montagnais irnokué, meaning terrible man, Day proposes a hypothetical Montagnais phrase irno kwédač, meaning a man, an Iroquois, as the origin of this term. More recently, Peter Bakker has proposed a Basque origin for Iroquois. g and he proposes instead that the word derives from hilokoa, from the Basque roots hil to kill, ko, and a. He also argues that the /l/ was rendered as /r/ since the former is not attested in the inventory of any language in the region. Thus the word according to Bakker is translatable as the killer people, a different term, Haudenosaunee, is the designation more commonly used by the Iroquois to refer to themselves. It is also preferred by scholars of Native American history who consider the name Iroquois to be derogatory in origin. An alternate designation, Ganonsyoni, is encountered as well. More transparently, the Iroquois confederacy is also referred to simply as the Six Nations. The history of the Iroquois Confederacy goes back to its formation by the Peacemaker in 1142, each nation within the Iroquoian family had a distinct language, territory and function in the League. Iroquois influence extended into present-day Canada, westward along the Great Lakes, the League is governed by a Grand Council, an assembly of fifty chiefs or sachems, each representing one of the clans of one of the nations. The original Iroquois League or Five Nations, occupied areas of present-day New York State up to the St. Lawrence River, west of the Hudson River. The League was composed of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, in or close to 1722, the Tuscarora tribe joined the League, having migrated from the Carolinas after being displaced by Anglo-European settlement
5.
Penobscot
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The Penobscot are an indigenous people in North America with members who reside in the United States and Canada. They are organized as a recognized tribe in Maine and as a First Nations band government in the Atlantic provinces. The Penobscot Nation, formerly known as the Penobscot Tribe of Maine, is the federally recognized tribe of Penobscot people in the United States. They are part of the Wabanaki Confederacy, along with the Abenaki, Passamaquoddy, Maliseet and their main settlement is now the Penobscot Indian Island Reservation, located within the state of Maine along the Penobscot River. The word Penobscot originates from a mispronunciation of their name for themselves, the word means rocky part or descending ledges, and originally referred to their territory on the portion of the Penobscot River between present-day Old Town and Bangor. The Penobscot Nation is headquartered in Indian Island, Maine, the tribal chief is Kirk Francis. Little is known about the Penobscot people pre-contact, Native peoples are thought to have inhabited Maine and surrounding areas for at least 11,000 years. They had a society, with the men hunting beaver, otters, moose, bears, caribou, fish, seafood, birds. The women gathered and processed bird eggs, berries, nuts, the people practiced some agriculture but not to the same extent as that of indigenous peoples in southern New England, where the climate was more temperate. Food was potentially scarce only toward the end of the winter, in February, for the rest of the year, the Penobscot and other Wabanaki likely had little difficulty surviving because the land and ocean waters offered much bounty, and the number of people was sustainable. The bands moved seasonally, following the patterns of game and fish, during the 15th century the Penobscot had contact with Europeans through the fur trade. It was lucrative and the Penobscot were willing to trade pelts for European goods such as axes, guns. Hunting for fur pelts reduced the game, however, and the European trade introduced alcohol to Penobscot communities for the first time and it has been argued that the people are genetically vulnerable to alcoholism, which Europeans frequently tried to exploit in dealings and trade. Penobscot people and other nations made pine beer, which had vitamin C, in addition to being an alcoholic beverage, when Europeans arrived, they brought alcohol in quantity. The Europeans carried endemic infectious diseases of Eurasia that were new to the Native Americans, and their fatality rates from the introduction of measles, smallpox and other infectious diseases was high. The population also declined due to fighting between the Wabanaki Federation and the powerful Mohawk people of the Iroquois League, which struggled to control the fur trade. This catastrophic population depletion may have contributed to Christian conversion, the people could see that the European priests did not suffer from the pandemics, the latter said that the Penobscot had died because they did not believe in Jesus Christ. At the beginning of the 17th century, Europeans began to live year-round in Wabanaki territory, at this time, there were probably about 10,000 Penobscot
6.
Navajo
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The Navajo are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States. After the Cherokee, they are the second-largest federally recognized tribe in the United States, the Navajo language is spoken throughout the region, with most Navajos speaking English, as well. The states with the largest Navajo populations are Arizona and New Mexico, over three-quarters of the Navajo population reside in these two states. The Navajos are speakers of a Na-Dené Southern Athabaskan language known within the language as Diné bizaad, the language comprises two geographic, mutually intelligible dialects. It is closely related to the Apache language, as the Navajos and Apaches are believed to have migrated from northwestern Canada and eastern Alaska, speakers of various other Athabaskan languages located in Canada may still comprehend the Navajo language despite the geographic and linguistic deviation of the languages. Additionally, some Navajos speak Navajo Sign Language, which is either a dialect or daughter of Plains Sign Talk, archaeological and historical evidence suggests the Athabaskan ancestors of the Navajos and Apaches entered the Southwest around 1400 CE. The Navajo oral tradition is said to retain references of this migration, until contact with Pueblos and the Spanish, the Navajos were largely hunters and gatherers. The tribe adopted crop-farming techniques from the Pueblo peoples, growing corn, beans. When the Spanish arrived, the Navajos began herding sheep and goats as a source of trade and food. Sheep also became a form of currency and status symbols among the Navajos based on the quantity of herds a family maintained. In addition, the practice of spinning and weaving wool into blankets and clothing became common, in the 18th century, the Spanish reported the Navajos maintaining large herds of livestock and cultivating large crop areas. Navahu comes from the Tewa, meaning area of cultivated lands. By the 1640s, the Spanish began using the term Navajo to refer to the Diné, during the 1670s, the Spanish wrote that the Diné lived in a region known as Dinétah, about 60 miles west of the Rio Chama valley region. In the 1780s, the Spanish sent military expeditions against the Navajos in the Mount Taylor, the Navajos came into contact with the United States Army in 1846, when General Stephen W. Kearny invaded Santa Fe with 1,600 men during the Mexican–American War. The treaty was not honored by many young Navajo raiders, who continued to steal livestock from New Mexican villages, New Mexicans, on their part, together with Utes, continued to raid Navajo country, stealing livestock and taking women and children for sale as slaves. In 1849, the governor of New Mexico, Colonel John MacRae Washington—accompanied by John S. The treaty acknowledged the jurisdiction of the United States and allowed forts, the United States, on its part, promised such donations such other liberal and humane measures, as may deem meet and proper. While en route to this treaty signing, Narbona, a prominent Navajo peace leader, was killed, during the next 10 years, the U. S. established forts on traditional Navajo territory
7.
Pinus ponderosa
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It is the most widely distributed pine species in North America. It grows in various forms from British Columbia southward and eastward through 16 western U. S. states and has been successfully introduced in temperate regions of Europe. It was first documented into modern science in 1826 in eastern Washington near present-day Spokane, on that occasion, David Douglas misidentified it as Pinus resinosa. In 1829, Douglas concluded that he had a new pine among his specimens, in 1836, it was formally named and described by Charles Lawson, a Scottish nurseryman. It is the state tree of Montana. Pinus ponderosa is a large pine tree. The bark helps to distinguish it from other species, mature to over-mature individuals have yellow to orange-red bark in broad to very broad plates with black crevices. Younger trees have blackish-brown bark, referred to as blackjacks by early loggers, ponderosa pines five subspecies, as classified by some botanists, can be identified by their characteristically bright, green needles. The Pacific subspecies has the longest—19.8 cm or 7.8 in—and most flexible needles in fascicles of three. The Columbia ponderosa pine has long—12. 0–20.5 cm or 4. 7–8.1 in—and relatively flexible needles in fascicles of three. The Rocky Mountains subspecies has shorter—9. 2–14.4 cm or 3. 6–5.7 in—and stout needles growing in scopulate fascicles of two or three. The southwestern subspecies has 11. 2–19.8 cm or 4. 4–7.8 in, needles are widest, stoutest, and fewest for the species. Sources differ on the scent of P. ponderosa, but it is more or less of turpentine, some state that it has no distinctive scent. The National Register of Big Trees lists a ponderosa pine that is 235 ft tall and 324 in in circumference, in January 2011, a Pacific ponderosa pine in the Rogue River–Siskiyou National Forest in Oregon was measured with a laser to be 268.35 ft high. The measurement was performed by Michael Taylor and Mario Vaden, a professional arborist from Oregon, the tree was climbed on October 13,2011, by Ascending The Giants and directly measured with tape-line at 268.29 ft high. This is the second tallest known pine after the sugar pine and this species is grown as an ornamental plant in parks and large gardens. The trees were burned and blown over. Pinus ponderosa is a dominant tree in the Kuchler plant association, like most western pines, the ponderosa generally is associated with mountainous topography
8.
Sphagnum
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Sphagnum is a genus of approximately 380 accepted species of mosses, commonly known as peat moss. The empty cells help retain water in drier conditions, hence, as sphagnum moss grows, it can slowly spread into drier conditions, forming larger mires, both raised bogs and blanket bogs. These peat accumulations then provide habitat for an array of peatland plants, including sedges and ericaceous shrubs, as well as orchids. Sphagnum and the formed from it do not decay readily because of the phenolic compounds embedded in the mosss cell walls. In addition, bogs, like all wetlands, develop anaerobic soil conditions, Peat moss can also acidify its surroundings by taking up cations, such as calcium and magnesium, and releasing hydrogen ions. Under the right conditions, peat can accumulate to a depth of many meters, different species of Sphagnum have different tolerance limits for flooding and pH, so any one peatland may have a number of different Sphagnum species. Individual peat moss plants consist of a stem, with tightly arranged clusters of branch fascicles usually consisting of two or three spreading branches and two to four hanging branches. The top of the plant, or capitulum, has compact clusters of young branches, along the stem are scattered leaves of various shapes, named stem leaves, the shape varies according to species. The leaves consist of two kinds of cells, small, green, living cells, and large, clear, structural, the latter have the large water-holding capacity. Sphagnum, like all other plants, has an alternation of generations, like other bryophytes. Unlike other mosses, the long-lived gametophytes do not rely upon rhizoids to assist in water uptake, Sphagnum species can be unisexual or bisexual, In North America, 80% of Sphagnum species are unisexual. Gametophytes have substantial asexual reproduction by fragmentation, producing much of the material in sphagnum peatlands. Swimming sperm fertilize eggs contained in archegonia that remain attached to the female gametophyte, the sporophyte is relatively short-lived, and consists almost entirely of a shiny green, spherical spore capsule that becomes black with spores. Sporophytes are raised on stalks to facilitate spore dispersal, but unlike other mosses, the spores germinate to produce minute protonemae, which start as filaments, can become thalloid, and can produce a few rhizoids. Soon afterwards the protonema develops buds and these differentiate into its characteristic, erect, leafy, branched gametophyte with chlorophyllose cells and this stage dominates the environment where Sphagnum grows, obliterating and burying the protonema and eventually building up into layers of dead moss called peat. Carpets of living Sphagnum may be attacked by fungi, and one fungus that is also a mushroom, Sphagnurus paluster. It is unknown whether the stage can produce such gemmae. Peat moss can be distinguished from other species by its unique branch clusters
9.
Typha
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Typha /ˈtaɪfə/ is a genus of about 30 species of monocotyledonous flowering plants in the family Typhaceae. Other taxa of plants may be known as bulrush, including some sedges in Scirpus, the genus is largely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere, where it is found in a variety of wetland habitats. Evidence of preserved starch grains on grinding stones suggests they were eaten in Europe 30,000 years ago. Typha are aquatic or semi-aquatic, rhizomatous, herbaceous perennial plants, the leaves are glabrous, linear, alternate and mostly basal on a simple, jointless stem that bears the flowering spikes. The plants are monoecious, with flowers that develop in dense racemes. The numerous male flowers form a spike at the top of the vertical stem. Each male flower is reduced to a pair of stamens and hairs, large numbers of tiny female flowers form a dense, sausage-shaped spike on the stem below the male spike. In larger species this can be up to 30 centimetres long and 1 to 4 centimetres thick, the seeds are minute,0.2 millimetres long, and attached to fine hairs. When ripe, the heads disintegrate into a cottony fluff from which the seeds disperse by wind, Typha are often among the first wetland plants to colonize areas of newly exposed wet mud, with their abundant wind dispersed seeds. Buried seeds can survive in the soil for long periods of time and they germinate best with sunlight and fluctuating temperatures, which is typical of many wetland plants that regenerate on mud flats. The plants also spread by rhizomes, forming large, interconnected stands, Typha are considered to be dominant competitors in wetlands in many areas, and they often exclude other plants with their dense canopy. In the bays of the Great Lakes, for example, they are among the most abundant wetland plants, different species of cattails are adapted to different water depths. Well-developed aerenchyma make the plants tolerant of submersion, even the dead stalks are capable of transmitting oxygen to the rooting zone. Although Typha are native plants, they can be aggressive in their competition with other native species. They have been problematic in regions in North America, from the Great Lakes to the Everglades. Native sedges are displaced and wet meadows shrink, likely as a response to altered hydrology of the wetlands, an introduced or hybrid species may be contributing to the problem. The most successful strategy appears to be mowing or burning to remove the aerenchymous stalks and it may be more important to prevent invasion by preserving water level fluctuations, including periods of drought, and to maintain infertile conditions. Typha are frequently eaten by mammals such as muskrats, that also use them to construct feeding platforms and dens
10.
Juniper
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Junipers are coniferous plants in the genus Juniperus /dʒuːˈnɪpərəs/ of the cypress family Cupressaceae. The highest-known Juniper forest occurs at an altitude of 16,000 feet in south-eastern Tibet, Junipers vary in size and shape from tall trees, 20–40 m tall, to columnar or low spreading shrubs with long trailing branches. They are evergreen with needle-like and/or scale-like leaves and they can be either monoecious or dioecious. The female seed cones are very distinctive, with fleshy, fruit-like coalescing scales which fuse together to form a structure, 4–27 mm long. In some species these berries are red-brown or orange but in most they are blue, they are often aromatic, the seed maturation time varies between species from 6–18 months after pollination. The male cones are similar to those of other Cupressaceae, with 6–20 scales, in zones 7 through 10, junipers can bloom and release pollen several times each year. A few species of juniper bloom in autumn, while most species pollinate from early winter until late spring. Many junipers have two types of leaves, seedlings and some twigs of trees have needle-like leaves 5–25 mm long. When juvenile foliage occurs on mature plants, it is most often found on shaded shoots, leaves on fast-growing whip shoots are often intermediate between juvenile and adult. In some species, all the foliage is of the juvenile needle-like type, in some of these, the needles are jointed at the base, in others, the needles merge smoothly with the stem, not jointed. The needle-leaves of junipers are hard and sharp, making the juvenile foliage very prickly to handle and this can be a valuable identification feature in seedlings, as the otherwise very similar juvenile foliage of cypresses and other related genera is soft and not prickly. Duplicana feed on the bark around injuries or canker, the number of juniper species is in dispute, with two recent studies giving very different totals, Farjon accepting 52 species, and Adams accepting 67 species. The junipers are divided into sections, though which species belong to which sections is still far from clear. The section Juniperus is a monophyletic group though. The adult leaves are needle-like, in whorls of three, and jointed at the base, Juniperus, Cones with 3 separate seeds, needles with one stomatal band. Juniperus communis - Common Juniper Juniperus communis subsp, alpina - Alpine Juniper Juniperus conferta - Shore Juniper Juniperus rigida - Temple Juniper or Needle Juniper Juniperus sect. Oxycedrus, Cones with 3 separate seeds, needles with two stomatal bands, caryocedrus, Cones with 3 seeds fused together, needles with two stomatal bands. Juniperus drupacea - Syrian Juniper Juniperus sect, the adult leaves are mostly scale-like, similar to those of Cupressus species, in opposite pairs or whorls of three, and the juvenile needle-like leaves are not jointed at the base
11.
Purshia
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The classification of Purshia within the Rosaceae has been unclear. The genus was placed in the subfamily Rosoideae, but is now placed in subfamily Dryadoideae. They are deciduous or evergreen shrubs, typically reaching 0. 3–5 m tall, the leaves are small, 1–3 cm long, deeply three- to five-lobed, with revolute margins. The flowers are 1–2 cm diameter, with five white to yellow or pink petals. The fruit is a cluster of dry, slender, leathery achenes 2–6 cm long, the roots have root nodules that host the nitrogen-fixing bacterium Frankia. The evergreen species were treated separately in the genus Cowania in the past, idaho south to California, Arizona and New Mexico. British Columbia south to California and New Mexico, USDA Plants Profile for Purshia Jepson Flora Project, Purshia — Germplasm Resources Information Network−GRIN, Purshia
12.
Diaper
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When diapers become soiled, they require changing, generally by a second person such as a parent or caregiver. Failure to change a diaper on a regular basis can result in skin problems around the area covered by the diaper. Diapers are made of cloth or synthetic disposable materials, cloth diapers are composed of layers of fabric such as cotton, hemp, bamboo, microfiber, or even plastic fibers such as PLA, and can be washed and reused multiple times. Disposable diapers contain absorbent chemicals and are thrown away after use, plastic pants can be worn over diapers to avoid leaks, but with modern cloth diapers, this is no longer necessary. Diapers are primarily worn by infants, and by children who are not yet potty trained or who experience bedwetting and they are also used by adults with incontinence or in certain circumstances where access to a toilet is unavailable. These can include those of advanced age, individuals with certain types of physical or mental disability, diaper fetishists and it is not uncommon for people to wear diapers under dry suits. The first cloth diapers consisted of a type of soft tissue sheet. This type of pattern was called diapering and eventually gave its name to the used to make diapers and then to the diaper itself. This usage stuck in the United States and Canada following the British colonization of North America, most sources believe nappy is a diminutive form of the word napkin, which itself was originally a diminutive. In the 19th century, the modern diaper began to shape and mothers in many parts of the world used cotton material. Cloth diapers in the United States were first mass-produced in 1887 by Maria Allen, in the UK, nappies were made out of terry towelling, often with an inner lining made out of soft muslin. Here is an extract from The Modern Home Doctor written by physicians in the UK in 1935, doctors believed that rubber pants were harmful because they thought the rubber acted as a poultice and damaged the skin of infants. The constant problem to be overcome was diaper rash, and the infection thereof, the concern was that lack of air circulation would worsen this condition. In the 20th century, the disposable diaper was conceived, in the 1930s, Robinsons of Chesterfield had what were labeled Destroyable Babies Napkins listed in their catalogue for the wholesale market. In 1944, Hugo Drangel of the Swedish paper company Pauliström suggested a design which would entail the placing of sheets of paper tissue inside the cloth diaper and rubber pants. However, cellulose wadding was rough against the skin and crumbled into balls when exposed to moisture, in 1946, Marion Donovan used a shower curtain from her bathroom to create the Boater, a plastic cover to be donned outside a diaper. First sold in 1949 at Saks Fifth Avenues flagship store in New York City, patents were issued in 1951 to Donovan. Donovan also designed a paper disposable diaper, but was unsuccessful in marketing it, in 1947, Scottish housewife Valerie Hunter Gordon started developing and making Paddi, a 2-part system consisting of a disposable pad worn inside an adjustable plastic garment with press-studs/snaps
13.
Ojibwe
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The Ojibwe, Ojibwa, or Chippewa are an Anishinaabeg group of indigenous peoples in North America. They live in Canada and the United States and are one of the largest Indigenous ethnic groups north of the Rio Grande, in Canada, they are the second-largest First Nations population, surpassed only by the Cree. In the United States, they have the fourth-largest population among Native American tribes, surpassed only by the Navajo, Cherokee, the Ojibwe people traditionally have spoken the Ojibwe language, a branch of the Algonquian language family. They are part of the Council of Three Fires and the Anishinaabeg, which include the Algonquin, Nipissing, Oji-Cree, Odawa, the majority of the Ojibwe people live in Canada. There are 77,940 mainline Ojibwe,76,760 Saulteaux and 8,770 Mississaugas, organized in 125 bands, as of 2010, Ojibwe in the US census population is 170,742. Ojibwe are known for their bark canoes, birch bark scrolls, mining and trade in copper. Their Midewiwin Society is well respected as the keeper of detailed and complex scrolls of events, oral history, songs, maps, memories, stories, geometry, and mathematics. The Ojibwe people set the agenda with European-Canadian leaders by signing detailed treaties before they allowed many European settlers into their western areas, in 1745, they adopted guns from the British to defeat the Dakota people in the Lake Superior area, pushing them to the south and west. The exonym for this Anishinaabeg group is Ojibwe and this name is commonly anglicized as Ojibwa or Ojibway. The name Chippewa is an alternative anglicization, although many variations exist in literature, Chippewa is more common in the United States, and Ojibway predominates in Canada, but both terms are used in each country. In many Ojibwe communities throughout Canada and the U. S. since the late 20th century, some 19th-century sources say this name described a method of ritual torture that the Ojibwe applied to enemies. Because many Ojibwe were formerly located around the outlet of Lake Superior, marie for its rapids, the early Canadian settlers referred to the Ojibwe as Saulteurs. Ojibwe who subsequently moved to the provinces of Canada have retained the name Saulteaux. This is disputed since some scholars believe that only the name migrated west, Ojibwe who were originally located along the Mississagi River and made their way to southern Ontario are known as the Mississaugas. The Ojibwe language is known as Anishinaabemowin or Ojibwemowin, and is widely spoken. Today, most of the languages fluent speakers are elders, since the early 21st century, there is a growing movement to revitalize the language, and restore its strength as a central part of Ojibwe culture. The language belongs to the Algonquian linguistic group, and is descended from Proto-Algonquian and its sister languages include Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Cree, Fox, Menominee, Potawatomi, and Shawnee among the northern Plains tribes. Anishinaabemowin is frequently referred to as a Central Algonquian language, however, Ojibwemowin is the fourth-most spoken Native language in North America after Navajo, Cree, and Inuktitut
14.
Cranberry
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Cranberries are a group of evergreen dwarf shrubs or trailing vines in the subgenus Oxycoccus of the genus Vaccinium. In Britain, cranberry may refer to the native species Vaccinium oxycoccos, while in North America, Vaccinium oxycoccos is cultivated in central and northern Europe, while Vaccinium macrocarpon is cultivated throughout the northern United States, Canada and Chile. In some methods of classification, Oxycoccus is regarded as a genus in its own right and they can be found in acidic bogs throughout the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere. Cranberries are low, creeping shrubs or vines up to 2 metres long and 5 to 20 centimetres in height, they have slender, the flowers are dark pink, with very distinct reflexed petals, leaving the style and stamens fully exposed and pointing forward. The fruit is a berry that is larger than the leaves of the plant, it is light green. It is edible, with a taste that can overwhelm its sweetness. Cranberries are a commercial crop in certain American states and Canadian provinces. Most cranberries are processed into products such as juice, sauce, jam, Cranberry sauce is a traditional accompaniment to turkey at Christmas dinner in the United Kingdom, and at Christmas and Thanksgiving dinners in the United States and Canada. There are three to four species of cranberry, classified in two sections, Subgenus Oxycoccus, sect, Oxycoccus Vaccinium oxycoccos or Oxycoccus palustris is widespread throughout the cool temperate northern hemisphere, including northern Europe, northern Asia and northern North America. It has small 5–10 mm leaves, the flowers are dark pink, with a purple central spike, produced on finely hairy stems. The fruit is a pale pink berry, with a refreshing sharp acidic flavour. Some botanists include it within V. oxycoccos, Vaccinium macrocarpon or Oxycoccus macrocarpus native to northern North America across Canada, and eastern United States, south to North Carolina at high altitudes). It differs from V. oxycoccos in the leaves being larger, 10–20 mm long, oxycoccoides Vaccinium erythrocarpum or Oxycoccus erythrocarpus native to southeastern North America at high altitudes in the southern Appalachian Mountains, and also in eastern Asia. Cranberries are related to bilberries, blueberries, and huckleberries, all in Vaccinium subgenus Vaccinium and these differ in having bell-shaped flowers, the petals not being reflexed, and woodier stems, forming taller shrubs. Some plants of the unrelated genus Viburnum are sometimes called highbush cranberries. Cranberries are susceptible to blossom, a harmful but controllable phytoplasma disease common in the eastern production areas of Massachusetts. The name cranberry derives from craneberry, first named by early European settlers in America who felt the expanding flower, stem, calyx, and petals resembled the neck, head, another name used in northeastern Canada is mossberry. The traditional English name for Vaccinium oxycoccos, fenberry, originated from plants growing in fen lands
15.
Birch bark
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Birch bark or birchbark is the bark of several Eurasian and North American birch trees of the genus Betula. The strong and water-resistant cardboard-like bark can be cut, bent, and sewn, which made it a valuable building, crafting. Even today birch bark remains a popular type of wood for various handicrafts and arts, Birch bark also contains substances of medicinal and chemical interest. Some of those products also have properties that help preserve bark artifacts. Removing birch bark from trees is harmful to tree health. Instead, it can be removed fairly easily from the trunk or branches of dead wood, by cutting a slit lengthwise through the bark, the best time for collection is spring or early summer, as the bark is of better quality and most easily removed. Removing the outer layer of bark from the trunk of a tree may not kill it. Removal of the layer, the phloem, kills the tree by preventing the flow of sap to the roots. To prevent it from rolling up during storage, the bark should be spread open, Birch bark can be cut with a sharp knife, and worked like cardboard. For sharp bending, the fold should be scored first with a blunt stylus, fresh bark can be worked as is, bark that has dried up should be softened by steaming, by soaking in warm water, or over a fire. Birch bark was a construction material in any part of the world where birch trees were available. Containers like wrappings, bags, baskets, boxes, or quivers were made by most societies well before pottery was invented. etc, more than one variety of birch is used. In North America, the population used birch bark for canoes, wigwams, scrolls, ritual art, maps, torches, fans, musical instruments, clothing. In Scandinavia and Finland, it was used as the substratum of sod roofs and birch-bark roofs, for making boxes, casks and buckets, fishing implements, in Russia, many birch bark manuscripts have survived from the Middle Ages. Birch bark knife handles are popular tools to be made currently, in India, birch-bark, along with dried palm leaves, replaced parchment as the primary writing medium. The oldest known Buddhist manuscripts, from Afghanistan, were written on birch bark, Birch bark also makes an outstanding tinder, as the inner layers will stay dry even through heavy rainstorms. To render birch bark useless as tinder, it must be soaked for a period of time. Birch bark manuscript Mazinibaganjigan Wiigwaasabak Wiigwaas entry in Wiktionary The Algonquin Birchbark Canoe, mcPhee, John, The Survival of the Bark Canoe, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York,1975
16.
Manitoba
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Manitoba is a province at the longitudinal centre of Canada. It is one of the three provinces and Canadas fifth-most populous province with its estimated 1.3 million people. Manitoba covers 649,950 square kilometres with a varied landscape. Aboriginal peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years, in the late 17th century, fur traders arrived in the area when it was part of Ruperts Land and owned by the Hudsons Bay Company. In 1869, negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba led to an uprising of the Métis people against the Government of Canada. The rebellions resolution led to the Parliament of Canada passing the Manitoba Act in 1870 that created the province, Manitobas capital and largest city, Winnipeg, is Canadas eighth-largest census metropolitan area. Winnipeg is the seat of government, home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba, four of the provinces five universities and all four of its professional sports teams are in Winnipeg. The name Manitoba is believed to be derived from the Cree, the name derives from Cree manitou-wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa, both meaning straits of Manitou, the Great Spirit, a place referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of Lake Manitoba. It may also be from the Assiniboine for Lake of the Prairie, the lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies. Thomas Spence chose the name to refer to a new republic he proposed for the south of the lake. Métis leader Louis Riel also chose the name, and it was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act of 1870 and it adjoins Hudson Bay to the northeast, and is the only prairie province to have a saltwater coastline. The Port of Churchill is Canadas only Arctic deep-water port and the shortest shipping route between North America and Asia, Lake Winnipeg is the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Hudson Bay is the worlds second-largest bay, Manitoba is at the heart of the giant Hudson Bay watershed, once known as Ruperts Land. It was a area of the Hudsons Bay Company, with many rivers. The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and more than 110,000 lakes, Manitobas major lakes are Lake Manitoba, Lake Winnipegosis, and Lake Winnipeg, the tenth-largest freshwater lake in the world. Some traditional Native lands and boreal forest on Lake Winnipegs east side are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site. Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin, with a volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg. This basins rivers reach far west to the mountains, far south into the United States, major watercourses include the Red, Assiniboine, Nelson, Winnipeg, Hayes, Whiteshell and Churchill rivers
17.
The Children's Museum of Indianapolis
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The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis is the worlds largest childrens museum. It is located at 3000 North Meridian Street, Indianapolis, Indiana, United States, the museum is accredited by the American Alliance of Museums. It is 472,900 square feet with five floors of exhibit halls and its collection of over 120,000 artifacts and exhibit items is divided into three domains, the American Collection, the Cultural World Collection, and the Natural World Collection. Among the exhibits are a simulated Cretaceous dinosaur habitat, a carousel, the museums focus is family learning, most exhibits are designed to be interactive, allowing children and families to actively participate. Founded in 1925 by Mary Stewart Carey with the help of Indianapolis civic leaders and organizations, the current site became home for the museum in 1946, the current building was constructed in 1976, and has had four major expansions since then. The museum hosts thousands of activities annually, including plays at the Lilly Theater, classes and workshops for children, traveling exhibits. With a 2008 budget of $28.7 million, it has 400 employees and 1,500 volunteers and its financial stability is ensured by a large endowment that was first established in the 1960s and is governed by a board of trustees. The Childrens Museum of Indianapolis was founded in 1925 by Mary Stewart Carey and she was inspired to create the museum after a 1924 visit to the Brooklyn Childrens Museum. Carey began a campaign to start a Childrens Museum in Indianapolis and enlisted the aid of local civic leaders. With their support, the museum opened in a complex that belonged to Propylaeums. A board of trustees was established to manage the museum and Carey was elected its first president, the early exhibits were created and donated by school children. Carey sought a facility and after two moves, she finally located the museum in her own mansion on Meridian Street in 1926. The same year the first curator, Arthur Carr was hired, Carr arranged Careys specimens into exhibits and managed the museum. The first permanent exhibits were marine, Japanese, pioneer, archeology, by the 1940s, a larger staff was hired and Carr became director after Careys 1938 death. The museum began offering guided tours to children, organized traveling exhibits that were moved around to area schools. Early members were given a Seahorse pin to identify them as Youth members, in 1942, Carr retired from the museum and Grace Golden became the new director. Golden sought to expand the museum and successfully solicited grants from the Indianapolis Foundation, the Lilly Endowment. She also secured several important corporate sponsorships, the new revenue allowed the museum to purchase its own building, a former mansion on North Meridian Street
18.
Kickapoo people
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The Kickapoo people are an Algonquian-speaking Native American and Indigenous Mexican tribe. Anishinaabeg say the name Kickapoo means Stands here and there, which may have referred to the migratory patterns. The name can also mean wanderer and this interpretation is contested and generally believed to be a folk etymology. The Oklahoma and Texas bands are associated with each other. The Kickapoo in Kansas came from a relocation from southern Missouri in 1832 as an exchange from their reserve there. Around 3,000 people are enrolled tribal members, another band, the Tribu Kikapú, resides in Múzquiz Municipality in the Mexican state of Coahuila. Smaller bands live in Sonora and Durango, the Kickapoo were an Algonquian-language people who likely migrated to or developed as a people in a large territory along the Wabash River in the area of modern Terre Haute, Indiana. They were confederated with the larger Wabash Confederacy, which included the Piankeshaw to their south, the Wea to their north, and the powerful Miami Tribe, to their east. A subgroup occupied the Upper Iowa River region in what was known as northeast Iowa. This group was known by the clan name Mahouea, derived from the Illinoian word for wolf. The earliest European contact with the Kickapoo tribe occurred during the La Salle Expeditions into Illinois Country in the late 17th century, the French colonists set up remote fur trading posts throughout the region, including on Wabash River. They typically would set up posts at or near Native American villages, the Kickapoo had to contend with a changing cast of Europeans, the British defeated the French in the Seven Years War and took over nominal rule of this area after 1763. They increased their own trading with the Kickapoo, the United States acquired this territory east of the Mississippi River and north of the Ohio River after it gained independence from the United Kingdom. As white settlers moved into the region from the United States eastern areas, beginning in the early 19th century and they negotiated with the United States over their territory in several treaties, including the Treaty of Vincennes, the Treaty of Grouseland, and the Treaty of Fort Wayne. They sold most of their lands to the United States and moved north to settle among the Wea, rising tensions between the regional tribes and the United States led to Tecumsehs War in 1811. The Kickapoo were one of Tecumsehs closest allies, many Kickapoo warriors participated in the Battle of Tippecanoe and the subsequent War of 1812 on the side of the British, hoping to expel the American settlers from the region. A prominent, nonviolent spiritual leader among the Kickapoo was Kennekuk, the close of the war led to a change of federal Indian policy in the Indiana Territory, and later the state of Indiana. American leaders began to advocate the removal of tribes to lands west of the Mississippi River, the Kickapoo were among the first tribes to leave Indiana under this program
19.
Aztec
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The Aztec people were certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who dominated large parts of Mesoamerica from the 14th to 16th centuries. The Nahuatl words aztecatl and aztecah mean people from Aztlan, a place for the Nahuatl-speaking culture of the time. Often the term Aztec refers exclusively to the Mexica people of Tenochtitlan, situated on an island in Lake Texcoco, who referred to themselves as Mēxihcah Tenochcah or Cōlhuah Mexihcah. From the 13th century, the Valley of Mexico was the heart of Aztec civilization, here the capital of the Aztec Triple Alliance, the Triple Alliance formed a tributary empire expanding its political hegemony far beyond the Valley of Mexico, conquering other city states throughout Mesoamerica. At its pinnacle, Aztec culture had rich and complex mythological and religious traditions, as well as achieving remarkable architectural and artistic accomplishments. Subsequently, the Spanish founded the new settlement of Mexico City on the site of the ruined Aztec capital, the term extends to further ethnic groups associated with the Aztec empire such as the Acolhua and Tepanec and others that were incorporated into the empire. In older usage the term was used about modern Nahuatl speaking ethnic groups. In recent usage these ethnic groups are referred to as the Nahua peoples. Linguistically the term Aztecan is still used about the branch of the Uto-Aztecan languages that includes the Nahuatl language and its closest relatives Pochutec, to the Aztecs themselves the word aztec was not an endonym for any particular ethnic group. Rather it was a term used to refer to several ethnic groups, not all of them Nahuatl speaking. In the Nahuatl language aztecatl means person from Aztlan and this usage has been the subject of debate in more recent years, but the term Aztec is still more common. For the same reason the notion of Aztec civilization is best understood as a horizon of a general Mesoamerican civilization. Particular to the Aztecs of Tenochtitlan was the Mexica patron God Huitzilopochtli, twin pyramids, the Aztec Empire was a tribute empire based in Tenochtitlan that extended its power throughout Mesoamerica in the late postclassic period. Soon Texcoco and Tlacopan became junior partners in the alliance, which was de facto led by the Mexica of Tenochtitlan, the empire extended its power by a combination of trade and military conquest. The political clout of the empire reached far south into Mesoamerica conquering cities as far south as Chiapas and Guatemala, the Nahua peoples began to migrate into Mesoamerica from northern Mexico in the 6th century. They populated central Mexico, dislocating speakers of Oto-Manguean languages as they spread their influence south. As the former nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples mixed with the civilizations of Mesoamerica, adopting religious and cultural practices. During the Postclassic period they rose to power at such sites as Tula, in the 12th century the Nahua power center was in Azcapotzalco, from where the Tepanecs dominated the valley of Mexico
20.
Seri people
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The Seris are an indigenous group of the Mexican state of Sonora. The majority reside on the Seri communal property, in the towns of Punta Chueca, Tiburón Island and San Esteban Island were part of their traditional territory, but some Seris also lived in various places on the mainland. They were historically seminomadic hunter-gatherers who maintained a relationship with both the sea and the land. It is one of the groups of Mexico that has most strongly maintained its language and culture during the years after contact with Spanish. The Seri people are not related culturally or linguistically to other groups that have lived in the area, such as the Opata, Yaqui, Oodham, the Seri language is distinct from all others in the region and is considered a language isolate. Beside the Apache and Yaqui, the Seri are best known as fierce warriors for their resistance against subjugation by the Spanish. The name Seri is an exonym of uncertain origin and their name for themselves is Comcaac, singular, Cmiique, phonetically ). The Seri were formerly divided into six bands, Tahejöc comcaac or Tahéjöc comcáac, also known as the Seris or Tiburones, who inhabited the coasts of Tiburón Island, and the coast of Mexico opposite it, north of the Xiica xnaai iicp coii. Xnaamotat or Xnaa motat, also known as Upanguaymas or Guaymas, Xiica hast ano coii or Xica hast ano coii, hast ano ctam, hast ano cmaam ), who inhabited San Esteban Island and the southern coast of Tiburón Island. Three of the bands were further subdivided, relations between bands were not always friendly, and internal fights sometimes occurred. Some Bands were also living on Baja California peninsula, they were called Hant Ihiini comcaac and it has been said that these groups spoke three distinct but mutually intelligible dialects. The second dialect was spoken by the Xnaamotat Band, but it is currently extinct, the third dialect is also extinct and was spoken by the Xiica hast ano coii Band, it was described as sounding musical, as if speakers were singing instead of speaking. Speakers sometimes make remarks regarding certain expressions being characteristic of particular Bands and these communication differences were thought to have kept the groups from having much social interaction with each other. The autoethnonym of the Seri people, Comcaac, was first recorded by United States Boundary Commissioner John Russell Bartlett, the word was included in the list of approximately 180 words that Bartlett archived in the Bureau of American Ethnology. He recorded the word as komkak, which reflected the pronunciation of the word at that time, other word lists, obtained by other people during the last half of the nineteenth century, confirm that pronunciation. The singular form, Cmiique, was first recorded by French explorer and he recorded the word as kmike, which must have reflected the pronunciation of the word at that time. The phonetic rule by which the consonant /m/ is pronounced as a velar approximant in this context may not have come about until sometime in the mid twentieth century. A1940 documentary film, part of John Nesbitts Passing Parade series, recorded scenes from the life of the Seri on Tiburón Island and it uses film from the Harold Austin expedition, claiming that this was the first motion picture footage of the tribe
21.
Maya peoples
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The Maya people are a group of Indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica. They inhabit southern Mexico, Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, the pre-Columbian Maya population was approximately eight million. There were a seven million Maya living in this area at the start of the 21st century. Guatemala, southern Mexico and the Yucatán Peninsula, Belize, El Salvador, one of the largest groups of modern Maya can be found in Mexicos Yucatán State and the neighboring states of Campeche, Quintana Roo and in Belize. These peoples commonly identify themselves simply as Maya with no further ethnic subdivision and they speak the language which anthropologists term Yucatec Maya, but is identified by speakers and Yucatecos simply as Maya. Among Maya speakers, Spanish is commonly spoken as a second or first language, linguists refer to the Maya language as Yucatec or Yucatec Maya to distinguish it from other Mayan languages. This norm has often been misinterpreted to mean that the people are also called Yucatec Maya, that refers only to the language. Maya is one language in the Mayan language family, thus, to refer to Maya as Mayans would be similar to referring to Spanish people as Romantics because they speak a language belonging to the Romance language family. Confusion of the term Maya/Mayan as an ethnic label occurs because Maya women who use traditional dress identify by the ethnic term mestiza, the Yucatáns indigenous population was first exposed to Europeans after a party of Spanish shipwreck survivors came ashore in 1511. One of the sailors, Gonzalo Guerrero, is reported to have taken up with a woman and started a family. Later Spanish expeditions to the region were led by Córdoba in 1517, Grijalva in 1518, from 1528 to 1540, several attempts by Francisco Montejo to conquer the Yucatán failed. His son, Francisco de Montejo the Younger, fared almost as badly when he first took over, while holding out at Chichen Itza. Chichen Itza was conquered by 1570, in 1542, the western Yucatán Peninsula also surrendered to him. Historically, the population in the half of the peninsula was less affected by. In the 21st century in the Yucatán Peninsula, between 750,000 and 1,200,000 people speak Mayan, however, three times more than that are of Maya origins, hold ancient Maya surnames, and do not speak Mayan languages as their first language. Matthew Restall, in his book The Maya Conquistador, mentions a series of letters sent to the King of Spain in the 16th and 17th centuries. The noble Maya families at that time signed documents to the Spanish Royal Family, surnames mentioned in letters are Pech, Camal, Xiu, Ucan, Canul, Cocom. A large 19th-century revolt by the native Maya people of Yucatán, for a period the Maya state of Chan Santa Cruz was recognized as an independent nation by the British Empire, particularly in terms of trading with British Honduras
22.
Belize
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Belize, formerly British Honduras, is an independent country on the eastern coast of Central America. Belize is bordered on the north by Mexico, on the south and west by Guatemala and its mainland is about 290 km long and 110 km wide. Belize has an area of 22,800 square kilometres and a population of 368,310 and it has the lowest population density in Central America. The countrys population growth rate of 1. 87% per year is the second highest in the region, Belizes abundance of terrestrial and marine species and its diversity of ecosystems gives it a key place in the globally significant Mesoamerican Biological Corridor. Belize has a society, composed of many cultures and languages that reflect its rich history. English is the language of Belize, with Belizean Kriol being the unofficial language. Over half the population is multilingual, with Spanish being the second most common spoken language, Belize is considered a Central American and Caribbean nation with strong ties to both the Latin American and Caribbean regions. Belize is a Commonwealth realm, with Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, Belize is known for its September Celebrations, its extensive coral reefs, and punta music. The origin of the name Belize remains unclear, the earliest known record of the name appears in the journal of the Dominican priest Fray José Delgado, dating to 1677. Delgado recorded the names of three rivers that he crossed while travelling north along the Caribbean coast, Rio Soyte, Rio Xibum. The names of these waterways, which correspond to the Sittee River, Sibun River and it is likely that Delgados Balis was actually the Mayan word belix, meaning muddy-watered. Others have suggested that the name derives from a Spanish pronunciation of the name of the Scottish buccaneer Peter Wallace, there is no proof that Wallace settled in this area and some scholars have characterized this claim as a myth. Writers and historians have suggested other possible etymologies, including postulated French. Many aspects of this culture persist in the area despite nearly 500 years of European domination, prior to about 2500 BC, some hunting and foraging bands settled in small farming villages, they later domesticated crops such as corn, beans, squash, and chili peppers. A profusion of languages and subcultures developed within the Maya core culture, between about 2500 BC and 250 AD, the basic institutions of Maya civilisation emerged. The peak of this occurred during the classic period, which began about 250 AD. The Maya civilisation spread across what is now Belize around 1500 BC, the recorded history of the middle and southern regions is dominated by Caracol, an urban political centre that may have supported over 140,000 people. North of the Maya Mountains, the most important political centre was Lamanai, in the late Classic Era of Maya civilisation, as many as 1 million people may have lived in the area that is now Belize
23.
Patagonia
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Patagonia is a sparsely populated region located at the southern end of South America, shared by Argentina and Chile. The region comprises the section of the Andes mountains as well as the deserts, steppes. Patagonia has two coasts, a western one towards the Pacific Ocean and an eastern one towards the Atlantic Ocean, the Colorado and Barrancas rivers, which run from the Andes to the Atlantic, are commonly considered the northern limit of Argentine Patagonia. The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes included as part of Patagonia, most geographers and historians locate the northern limit of Chilean Patagonia at Reloncaví Estuary. The name Patagonia comes from the word used by Magellan in 1520 to describe the native people that his expedition thought to be giants. It is now believed that the people he called the Patagons were Tehuelches, the hypothesis was accepted and published in the New Review of Spanish Philology in the 2011 article. In the hollows of the plains are ponds or lakes of fresh and brackish water, towards the Andes, the shingle gives place to porphyry, granite, and basalt lavas, animal life becomes more abundant and vegetation more luxuriant. It is characteristic of the flora of the western coast, and consist principally of southern beech and conifers. Among the depressions by which the plateau is intersected transversely, the ones are the Gualichu, south of the Río Negro, the Maquinchao and Valcheta, the Senguerr. There, erosion which is caused principally by the sudden melting, best in evidence where in contact with folded Cretaceous rocks which are uplifted by the Cenozoic granite. It generally separates the plateau from the first lofty hills, the ridges generally called the pre-Cordillera, to the west of these, a similar longitudinal depression extends all along the foot of the snowy Andean Cordillera. This latter depression contains the richest and most fertile land of Patagonia, Lake basins along the Cordillera were also excavated by ice-streams, including Lake Argentino and Lake Fagnano, as well as coastal bays such as Bahía Inútil. There have been discrepancies among geologists on the origin of the Patagonian landmass, víctor Ramos has proposed that the Patagonian landmass originated as an allochtonous terrane that separated from Antarctica and docked in South America 250 to 270 Ma in the Permian era. A2014 study by Robert John Pankhurst and coworkers reject any idea of a far-travelled Patagonia claiming it is likely of parautochtonous origin, the Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits have revealed a most interesting vertebrate fauna. The Patagonian Myolania belongs to the Upper Chalk, having been associated with remains of Dinosauria. In the Cenozoic marine formation, a number of cetaceans has been discovered. At a state level, Patagonia lies inside two countries, Chile and Argentina, both countries have organised their Patagonian territories into non-equivalent administrative subdivisions, Provinces and departments in Argentina, and regions, provinces and communes in Chile. Being a unitary state Chiles first level administrative divisions—the regions—enjoy far less autonomy than Argentine provinces, Argentine provinces have elected governors and parliaments, while Chilean regions have government-appointed intendants
24.
Hopi
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The Hopi are a Native American tribe, who primarily live on the Hopi Reservation in northeastern Arizona. According to the 2010 census, there were 19,327 Hopi in the United States, the Hopi language is one of 30 in the Uto-Aztecan language family. The majority of Hopi people are enrolled in the Hopi Tribe of Arizona, the Hopi Reservation covers a land area of 2,531.773 sq mi. When first encountered by the Spanish in the 16th century, the Hopi, the Hopi are descended from the Ancient Pueblo Peoples who constructed large apartment-house complexes in northeastern Arizona, northwestern New Mexico, and southwestern Colorado. They lived along the Mogollon Rim, especially from the 12th–14th century, the name Hopi is a shortened form of their autonym, Hopituh Shi-nu-mu. The Hopi Dictionary gives the meaning of the word Hopi as, behaving one, one who is mannered, civilized, peaceable, polite. In the past, Hopi sometimes used the term Hopi and its cognates to refer to the Pueblo peoples in general, in contrast to other, Hopi is a concept deeply rooted in the cultures religion, spirituality, and its view of morality and ethics. The Hopi observe their traditional ceremonies for the benefit of the entire world, traditionally, Hopi are organized into matrilineal clans. When a man marries, the children from the relationship are members of his wifes clan and these clan organizations extend across all villages. Children are named by the women of the fathers clan, on the twentieth day of a babys life, the women of the paternal clan gather, each woman bringing a name and a gift for the child. In some cases where many relatives would attend, a child could be given over forty names, the childs parents generally decide the name to be used from these names. Current practice is to use a non-Hopi or English name or the parents chosen Hopi name. A person may change the name upon initiation into one of the religious societies, such as the Kachina society. The Hopi have always viewed their land as sacred, agriculture is a very important part of their culture, and their villages are spread out across the northern part of Arizona. The Hopi and the Navajo did not have a conception of land being bounded and divided and they lived on the land that their ancestors did. On December 16,1882 President Arthur passed an order creating a reservation for the Hopi. It was much smaller than the Navajo reservation, which was the largest in the country, on October 24,1936 the Hopi people ratified a Constitution. That Constitution created a government where all powers are vested in a Tribal Council
25.
Baby sling
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A baby sling is a piece of cloth that supports an infant or other small child from a carers body. The use of a sling is called babywearing. These are baby carriers that use dynamic tension, a length of cloth, one end of the cloth is sewn to two rings. The cloth wraps around the body from shoulder to opposite hip and back up to the shoulder. The baby sits or lies in the resulting pocket, once a sling is threaded, it can be taken off and put back on without rethreading. A threaded sling forms a loop of cloth, the wearer can put one arm and the head through the loop of cloth to put the sling back on. Ring slings may be padded or unpadded at the shoulder, have padded or unpadded edges or rails, some hybrid ring slings have curved seats sewn into the body, similar to the seam in a pouch. Ring slings are most closely related in use to the Mexican rebozo, variation is also found in how the rings attach to the cloth, commonly referred to as shoulder style. Basic shoulder styles include gathered, pleated, hot dog or center fold, pouch-style, ring slings are highly adaptable and most care givers can wear a one size fits most size. As long as the tail is about 8 long a ring sling is still considered safe, tail length is decided by personal preference with most preferring the tail to hit about hip or mid thigh. Sometimes called tube, pocket or ringless slings, these are formed by a wide piece of fabric sewn into a tubular shape. Simple, or fitted pouches do not have rings or other hardware, adjustable pouches may adjust with zippers, snaps, buckles, clips, rings, drawstrings, velcro, and other methods. Most pouches have a curve sewn in to shape the cloth to the parents body, the wearer slips the pouch over the head and one shoulder, sash-style, creating a pocket or seat to hold the baby in. Many pediatricians and baby-wearing experts do not recommend pouch slings because babies can suffocate when held incorrectly, suffocation risk is greatest in newborns and infants under six months, and usually occurs because the babys chin is collapsed against his or her chest, constricting the airway. Pouch slings also often restrict the parents view of their child, when using a pouch sling, wearers should be sure to keep the babys face elevated and clearly visible. Wraps are lengths of fabric, which are wrapped around both the baby and the wearer and then tied, there are different carrying positions possible with a wrap, depending on the length of the fabric. A baby or toddler can be carried on the wearers front, there are two main types of wrap - stretchy and woven. Stretchy wraps are made of knits such as jersey or interlock
26.
Baby transport
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Various methods of transporting children have been used in different cultures and times. These methods include prams, infant car seats, portable bassinets, strollers, slings, backpacks, baskets, the large, heavy prams, which had become popular during the Victorian era, were replaced by lighter designs during the latter half of the 1900s. William Kent developed an early stroller in 1733, in 1733, the Duke of Devonshire asked Kent to build a means of transport that would carry his children. Kent obliged by constructing a shell shaped basket on wheels that the children could sit in and this was richly decorated and meant to be pulled by a goat or small pony. These included adding a brake to carriages, a model which folded, designs for parasols, by 1840, the baby carriage became extremely popular. Queen Victoria bought three carriages from Hitchings Baby Store, the carriages of those days were built of wood or wicker and held together by expensive brass joints. These sometimes became heavily ornamented works of art, models were also named after royalty, Princess and Duchess being popular names, as well as Balmoral and Windsor. In June 1889, William H. Richardson patented his idea of the first reversible stroller, the bassinet was designed so it could face out or in towards the parent. He also made changes to the carriage. Until then the axis did not allow each wheel to move separately, Richardson’s design allowed this, as the 1920s began, prams were now available to all families and were becoming safer, with larger wheels, brakes, deeper prams, and lower, sturdier frames. In 1965, Owen Maclaren, an engineer, worked on complaints his daughter made about travelling from England to America with her heavy pram. Using his knowledge of aeroplanes, Maclaren designed a stroller with an aluminium frame and he then went on to found Maclaren, which manufactured and sold his new design. The design took off and soon “strollers” were easier to transport, in the 1970s, however, the trend was more towards a more basic version, not fully sprung, and with a detachable body known as a carrycot. Now, prams are very used, being large and expensive when compared with buggies. One of the longer lived and better known brands in the UK is Silver Cross, first manufactured in Hunslet, Leeds, in 1877 and they continue to sell the traditional Silver Cross coach prams which are manufactured at a factory in Bingley in Yorkshire. Since the 1980s, the industry has developed with new features, safer construction. Larger and heavier prams, or perambulators had been used since their introduction in the Victorian era, prams were also used for infants, the term carrycot became more common in the UK after the introduction of lighter units with detachable baby carriers in the 1970s. As they developed through the suspension was added, making the ride smoother for both the baby and the person pushing it
27.
Swaddling
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Swaddling is an age-old practice of wrapping infants in blankets or similar cloths so that movement of the limbs is tightly restricted. Swaddling bands were used to further restrict the infant. Swaddling fell out of favor in the 17th century, Some authors are of the opinion that swaddling is becoming popular again, although medical and psychological opinion on the effects of swaddling is divided. However, one recent study indicated that increased the risk of SIDS. Additionally emerging evidence is showing that certain swaddling techniques may increase the risk of developmental dysplasia of the hip, several authors presume that swaddling was invented in the paleolithic period. In Europe the earliest depictions of swaddled babies are votive offerings and grave goods from Crete, votive statuettes have been found in the tombs of Ancient Greek and Roman women who died in childbirth, displaying babies in swaddling clothes. In shrines dedicated to Amphiaraus, models representing babies wrapped in swaddling clothes have been excavated, apparently, these were frequently given as thank-offerings by anxious mothers when their infants had recovered from sickness. And she brought forth her firstborn son, and wrapped him in swaddling clothes and laid him in a manger, swaddling clothes described in the Bible consisted of a cloth tied together by bandage-like strips. After an infant was born, the cord was cut and tied, and then the baby was washed, rubbed with salt and oil. These strips kept the child warm and also ensured that the childs limbs would grow straight. Ezekiel 16,4 describes Israel as unswaddled, a metaphor for abandonment, during Tudor times, swaddling involved wrapping the new baby in linen bands from head to foot to ensure the baby would grow up without physical deformity. A stay band would be attached to the forehead and the shoulders to secure the head, babies would be swaddled like this until about 8 or 9 months. The Swiss surgeon Felix Würtz was the first who criticized aspects of swaddling openly, I also saw right and straight children created by God and born into this world by humans, who became nevertheless bent and lame men, who never got straight and healthy thighs. In addition, I have for instance let a child lay again down and tied up, so that I see, there I then really saw, where it was gone wrong. By misunderstanding however they wanted to him straight, but in fact they bind him bent and tighten the bandages hard. In the seventeenth century the scientific opinion towards swaddling began to change, there was an association of neglect with swaddling, especially in regard to wetnurses who would leave babies in their care swaddled for long periods without washing or comforting them. More than a years after Würtz, physicians and philosophers from England began to openly criticize swaddling. The British philosopher John Locke rejected swaddling in his 1693 publication Some Thoughts Concerning Education and this thought was very controversial during the time, but slowly gained ground, first in England and later elsewhere in Western Europe
28.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Frances Densmore
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Frances Theresa Densmore was an American anthropologist and ethnographer born in Red Wing, Minnesota. Densmore is known for her studies of Native American music and culture, as a child Densmore developed an appreciation of music by listening to the nearby Dakota Indians. She studied music at Oberlin College for three years and she helped preserve their culture in a time when government policy was to encourage Native Americans to adopt Western customs. Densmore began recording music officially for the Smithsonian Institutions Bureau of American Ethnology in 1907, in her fifty-plus years of studying and preserving American Indian music, she collected thousands of recordings. Many of the recordings she made on behalf of the BAE now are held in the Library of Congress, while her original recordings often were on wax cylinders, many of them have been reproduced using other media and are included in other archives. The recordings may be accessed by researchers as well as tribal delegations, Densmore frequently was published in the journal American Anthropologist, contributing consistently throughout her career. She wrote The Indians and Their Music in 1926, between 1910 and 1957, she published fourteen book-length bulletins for the Smithsonian, each describing the musical practices and repertories of a different Native-American group. These were reprinted as a series by DaCapo Press in 1972 and she also was a part of A Ventriloquy of Anthros in the American Indian Quarterly along with James Owen Dorsey and Eugene Buechel. Frances Densmore page from Minnesota Public Radio Frances Densmore Minnesota Historical Society
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Minnesota Historical Society
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The Minnesota Historical Society is a nonprofit educational and cultural institution dedicated to preserving the history of the U. S. state of Minnesota. It was founded by the legislature in 1849, almost a decade before statehood. The Society is named in the Minnesota Constitution and it is headquartered in the Minnesota History Center in downtown St. Paul. Although its focus is on Minnesota history it is not constrained by it and its work on the North American fur trade has been recognized in Canada as well. The Minnesota Historical Society operates 31 historic sites and museums,26 of which are open to the public, MNHS manages 14 sites directly and 10 in partnerships where the society maintains the resources and provides funding. Five sites are being held for preservation but are closed to public access, seven of the sites are National Historic Landmarks and 16 others are on the National Register of Historic Places. Seven sites lie within Minnesota state parks, and three are elements of the Mississippi National River and Recreation Area, journals and other documents of the Minnesota Historical Society. Minnesota Historical Society / Internet Archive
31.
PubMed Identifier
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PubMed is a free search engine accessing primarily the MEDLINE database of references and abstracts on life sciences and biomedical topics. The United States National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health maintains the database as part of the Entrez system of information retrieval, from 1971 to 1997, MEDLINE online access to the MEDLARS Online computerized database primarily had been through institutional facilities, such as university libraries. PubMed, first released in January 1996, ushered in the era of private, free, home-, the PubMed system was offered free to the public in June 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated, in a ceremony, by Vice President Al Gore. Information about the journals indexed in MEDLINE, and available through PubMed, is found in the NLM Catalog. As of 5 January 2017, PubMed has more than 26.8 million records going back to 1966, selectively to the year 1865, and very selectively to 1809, about 500,000 new records are added each year. As of the date,13.1 million of PubMeds records are listed with their abstracts. In 2016, NLM changed the system so that publishers will be able to directly correct typos. Simple searches on PubMed can be carried out by entering key aspects of a subject into PubMeds search window, when a journal article is indexed, numerous article parameters are extracted and stored as structured information. Such parameters are, Article Type, Secondary identifiers, Language, publication type parameter enables many special features. As these clinical girish can generate small sets of robust studies with considerable precision, since July 2005, the MEDLINE article indexing process extracts important identifiers from the article abstract and puts those in a field called Secondary Identifier. The secondary identifier field is to store numbers to various databases of molecular sequence data, gene expression or chemical compounds. For clinical trials, PubMed extracts trial IDs for the two largest trial registries, ClinicalTrials. gov and the International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Register, a reference which is judged particularly relevant can be marked and related articles can be identified. If relevant, several studies can be selected and related articles to all of them can be generated using the Find related data option, the related articles are then listed in order of relatedness. To create these lists of related articles, PubMed compares words from the title and abstract of each citation, as well as the MeSH headings assigned, using a powerful word-weighted algorithm. The related articles function has been judged to be so precise that some researchers suggest it can be used instead of a full search, a strong feature of PubMed is its ability to automatically link to MeSH terms and subheadings. Examples would be, bad breath links to halitosis, heart attack to myocardial infarction, where appropriate, these MeSH terms are automatically expanded, that is, include more specific terms. Terms like nursing are automatically linked to Nursing or Nursing and this important feature makes PubMed searches automatically more sensitive and avoids false-negative hits by compensating for the diversity of medical terminology. The My NCBI area can be accessed from any computer with web-access, an earlier version of My NCBI was called PubMed Cubby
32.
Paleo-Indians
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The prefix paleo- comes from the Greek adjective palaios, meaning old or ancient. The term Paleo-Indians applies specifically to the period in the Western Hemisphere and is distinct from the term Paleolithic. Evidence suggests big-animal hunters crossed the Bering Strait from Eurasia into North America over a land and ice bridge, small isolated groups of hunter-gatherers migrated alongside herds of large herbivores far into Alaska. From c. 16,500 – c. 13,500 BCE, ice-free corridors developed along the Pacific coast and this allowed animals, followed by humans, to migrate south into the interior. The people went on foot or used primitive boats along the coastline, the precise dates and routes of the peopling of the New World are subject to ongoing debate. Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the evidence of the earliest human activity in the Americas. Crafted lithic flaked tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods, scientific evidence links Indigenous Americans to Asian peoples, specifically eastern Siberian populations. There is evidence for at least two separate migrations, between 8000–7000 BCE the climate stabilized, leading to a rise in population and lithic technology advances, resulting in more sedentary lifestyle. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets, another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age. Archaeologists contend that Paleo-Indians migration out of Beringia, ranges from c. 40,000 – c. 16,500 years ago and this time range is a source of debate and promises to continue as such for years to come. However, alternative theories about the origins of Paleoindians exist, including migration from Europe, the Paleo-Indian would eventually flourish all over the Americas. These peoples were spread over a geographical area, thus there were regional variations in lifestyles. However, all the groups shared a common style of stone tool production, making knapping styles. Food would have been plentiful during the few months of the year. Lakes and rivers were teeming with many species of fish, birds, nuts, berries and edible roots could be found in the forests and marshes. The fall would have been a time because foodstuffs would have to be stored
33.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
34.
Archaeology of the Americas
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The archaeology of the Americas is the study of the archaeology of North America, Central America, South America and the Caribbean. This includes the study of pre-historic/Pre-Columbian and historic indigenous American peoples and this differs from old world prehistory where the terms Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Chalcolithic, and Bronze Age are generally used. Lithic stage Defined by the prevalence of big-game hunting. In most places, this can be dated to before 8000 BCE, examples include the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition groups. The Archaic stage Defined by the increasingly intensive gathering of resources with the decline of the big-game hunting lifestyle. Typically, Archaic cultures can be dated from 8000 to 1000 BCE, examples include the Archaic Southwest, the Arctic small tool tradition, the Poverty Point culture, and the Chan-Chan culture in southern Chile. The Formative stage Defined as village agriculture based, most of these can be dated from 1000 BCE to 500 CE. Examples include the Dorset culture, Zapotec civilization, Mimbres culture, Olmec, Woodland, the Classic stage Defined as early civilizations, and typically dating from 500 to 1200 CE. Willey and Phillips considered only cultures from Mesoamerica and Peru to have achieved this level of complexity, examples include the early Maya and the Toltec. The Post-Classic stage Defined as later prehispanic civilizations and typically dated from 1200 CE until the advent of European colonisation, the late Maya and the Aztec cultures were Post-Classic. In some cases, notably, that of Kennewick Man, these laws have been subject to judicial scrutiny. The study does not address the question of separate migrations for these groups, Amerindian groups in the Bering Strait region exhibit perhaps the strongest DNA or mitochondrial DNA relations to Siberian peoples. The genetic diversity of Amerindian indigenous groups increase with distance from the entry point into the Americas. Certain genetic diversity patterns from West to East suggest at least some coastal migration events, geneticists have variously estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from 42,000 to 21,000 years ago
35.
Native American religion
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Native American religions are the spiritual practices of the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Traditional Native American ceremonial ways can vary widely, and are based on the histories and beliefs of individual tribes, clans. Early European explorers describe individual Native American tribes and even small bands as each having their own religious practices, theology may be monotheistic, polytheistic, henotheistic, animistic, or some combination thereof. Traditional beliefs are passed down in the forms of oral histories, stories, allegories and principles. From the 1600s European Catholic and Protestant denominations sent missionaries to convert the tribes to Christianity and this forcible conversion and suppression of Indigenous languages and cultures continued through the 1970s. This government persecution and prosecution continued until 1978 with the passage of the American Indian Religious Freedom Act, some non-Native anthropologists estimate membership in traditional Native American religions in the 21st century to be about 9000 people. Many adherents of traditional spiritual ways also attend Christian services, at least some of the time, since the 80 years of those prior legal persecutions ended with AIRFA, some sacred sites in the United States are now protected areas under law. European Christian missionaries were active and established missions and religious schools among Native peoples. According to Jacob Neusner, Native American Christianity is often fundamentalist in theology, conservative in their practice, for example, St. David Pendleton Oakerhater, who was canonized as an Episcopal saint but was a Sun Dancer, as well. According to James Treat, Native American Christians have constructed and maintained their, Religious identities with a variety of considerations in mind. Many native Christians accomplish this identification without abandoning or rejecting native religious traditions. ”In response, in part Smith said, “In our zeal to tell you of the good news of Jesus Christ, we were closed to the value of your spirituality. We ask you to us and to walk together with us in the Spirit of Christ, so our peoples may be blessed. Two years after Smith’s Apology, the All Native Circle Conference was formed in 1988 as a conference of the United Church of Canada. It is “based on different Aboriginal cultural ways of life and languages. ”It understands and honours “the cultural values, mission and ministry of Native Peoples. ”The Earth Lodge Religion was founded in northern California and southern Oregon tribes such as the Wintun. It spread to such as the Achomawi, Shasta, and Siletz. It was also known as the Warm House Dance among the Pomo and it predicted occurrences similar to those predicted by the Ghost Dance, such as the return of ancestors or the worlds end. The Earth Lodge Religion impacted the later practice, the Dream Dance, belonging to the Klamath. Ghost Dance is a general term that encompasses different religious revitalization movements in the Western United States
36.
Mesoamerica
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It is one of six areas in the world where ancient civilization arose independently, and the second in the Americas along with Norte Chico in present-day northern coastal Peru. As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures, while Mesoamerican civilization did know of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these technologies became culturally important. Among the earliest complex civilizations was the Olmec culture, which inhabited the Gulf coast of Mexico and extended inland, frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in Chiapas, Guatemala and Oaxaca laid the basis for the Mesoamerican cultural area. All this was facilitated by considerable regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica and this Formative period saw the spread of distinct religious and symbolic traditions, as well as artistic and architectural complexes. In the subsequent Preclassic period, complex urban polities began to develop among the Maya, with the rise of such as El Mirador, Calakmul and Tikal. Mesoamerica is one of three regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around AD600, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as Xochicalco and Cholula, ensued. During the early period, Central Mexico was dominated by the Toltec culture, Oaxaca by the Mixtec. Towards the end of the period, the Aztecs of Central Mexico built a tributary empire covering most of central Mesoamerica. The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the Spanish conquest in the 16th century, over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico, Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area, and the term is now fully integrated in the standard terminology of pre-Columbian anthropological studies. Conversely, the sister terms Aridoamerica and Oasisamerica, which refer to northern Mexico, 10° and 22° northern latitude, Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. A main distinction groups these different niches into two categories, the lowlands and the altiplanos, or highlands. In the low-lying regions, sub-tropical and tropical climates are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Pacific and Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea. The highlands show much more diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold mountainous climates. The rainfall varies from the dry Oaxaca and north Yucatan to the humid southern Pacific, several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid, the Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups, the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands, the southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern Guatemala, southern Campeche and Quintana Roo in Mexico, and Belize
37.
European colonization of the Americas
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European colonization of the Americas began as early as the 10th–11th century, when West Norse sailors explored and briefly settled limited areas on the shores of present-day Canada. These Norsemen were Vikings who had discovered and settled Greenland, then sailed up the Arctic region of North America alongside Greenland, according to Icelandic Sagas, violent conflicts with the indigenous population ultimately made the Norse abandon those settlements. Running aground on the part of Hispaniola on December 5,1492, which the Taino people had inhabited since the 7th century. European conquest, large-scale exploration, colonization and industrial development soon followed, Columbus first two voyages reached the Bahamas and various Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba. In 1497, sailing from Bristol on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North American coast, other powers such as France also founded colonies in the Americas, in eastern North America, a number of Caribbean islands, and small coastal parts of South America. Portugal colonized Brazil, tried colonizing the coasts of present-day Canada, the Age of Exploration was the beginning of territorial expansion for several European countries. Eventually, the entire Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments, leading to profound changes to its landscape, population. In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas, Norse journeys to Greenland and Canada are supported by historical and archaeological evidence. It was named a World Heritage site by UNESCO in 1978, Early explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the Portuguese immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire, over this same timeframe, Portugal claimed lands in North America and colonized much of eastern South America, naming it Santa Cruz and Brazil. Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas, England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th century, but these failed. England and France succeeded in establishing permanent colonies in the following century, in the 18th century, Denmark–Norway revived its former colonies in Greenland, while the Russian Empire gained a foothold in Alaska. Denmark-Norway would later make claims in the Caribbean, starting in the 1600s. As more nations gained an interest in the colonization of the Americas, colonists often faced the threat of attacks from neighboring colonies, as well as from indigenous tribes and pirates. He was followed by other such as John Cabot, who was sponsored by England. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil and claimed it for Portugal, amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from 1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents. Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, in 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama and led the first European expedition to see the Pacific Ocean from the west coast of the New World. In an action with enduring historical import, Balboa claimed the Pacific Ocean and it was 1517 before another expedition, from Cuba, visited Central America, landing on the coast of Yucatán in search of slaves
38.
Columbian Exchange
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Invasive species of flora and fauna and communicable diseases were a byproduct of the Exchange. Traders returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, the term was first used in 1972 by American historian Alfred W. Crosby in his environmental history book The Columbian Exchange. It was rapidly adopted by historians and journalists and has become widely known. In 1972 Alfred W. Crosby, an American historian at the University of Texas at Austin and this book covers the environmental impact of Columbus landing in the new world. The term has become popular among historians and journalists, such as Charles C, mann, whose book 1493 expands and updates Crosbys original research. Before AD1500, potatoes were not grown outside of South America, by the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that the proximate cause of the Great Famine was a potato disease. Potatoes eventually became an important staple of the diet in much of Europe, many European rulers, including Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia, encouraged the cultivation of the potato. Maize and manioc, introduced by the Portuguese from South America in the 16th century, have replaced sorghum, 16th-century Spanish colonizers introduced new staple crops to Asia from the Americas, including maize and sweet potatoes, and thereby contributed to population growth in Asia. Tomatoes, which came to Europe from the New World via Spain, were prized in Italy mainly for their ornamental value. From the 19th century tomato sauces became typical of Neapolitan cooking and, ultimately, coffee from Africa and the Middle East and sugar cane from the Spanish West Indies became the main export commodity crops of extensive Latin American plantations. Introduced to India by the Portuguese, chili and potatoes from South America have become an part of Indian cuisine. It took three centuries after their introduction in Europe for tomatoes to become widely accepted, of all the New World plants introduced to Italy, only the potato took as long as the tomato to gain acceptance. In large part this was due to 16th-century physicians believing that this native Mexican fruit was poisonous, in 1544, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, a Tuscan physician and botanist, suggested that tomatoes might be edible, but no record exists of anyone consuming them at this time. At this time, the label pomi doro was also used to refer to figs, melons, in the early years, tomatoes were mainly grown as ornamentals in Italy. For example, the Florentine aristocrat Giovanvettorio Soderini wrote how they were to be only for their beauty and were grown only in gardens or flower beds. Tomatoes were grown in elite town and country gardens in the fifty years or so following their arrival in Europe and were occasionally depicted in works of art. However, in 1592 the head gardener at the garden of Aranjuez near Madrid, under the patronage of Philip II of Spain wrote. Besides this account, tomatoes remained exotic plants grown for ornamental purposes, the combination of pasta with tomato sauce was developed only in the late nineteenth century
39.
Indigenous peoples in Canada
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Aboriginal peoples in Canada, are the indigenous peoples within the boundaries of present-day Canada. They comprise the First Nations, Inuit and Métis, although Indian is a term still commonly used in legal documents, the descriptors Indian and Eskimo have somewhat fallen into disuse in Canada and are pejorative. Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are some of the earliest known sites of habitation in Canada. The Paleo-Indian Clovis, Plano and Pre-Dorset cultures pre-date current indigenous peoples of the Americas, projectile point tools, spears, pottery, bangles, chisels and scrapers mark archaeological sites, thus distinguishing cultural periods, traditions and lithic reduction styles. The characteristics of Canadian Aboriginal culture included permanent settlements, agriculture, civic and ceremonial architecture, complex societal hierarchies, the Métis culture of mixed blood originated in the mid-17th century when First Nation and Inuit people married Europeans. The Inuit had more limited interaction with European settlers during early period. Various laws, treaties, and legislation have been enacted between European immigrants and First Nations across Canada, Aboriginal Right to Self-Government provides opportunity to manage historical, cultural, political, health care and economic control aspects within first peoples communities. National Aboriginal Day recognizes the cultures and contributions of Aboriginal peoples to the history of Canada, First Nations, Inuit and Métis peoples of all backgrounds have become prominent figures and have served as role models in the Aboriginal community and help to shape the Canadian cultural identity. The terms First Peoples and First Nations are both used to refer to peoples of Canada. The terms First Peoples or Aboriginal peoples in Canada are normally broader terms than First Nations, as they include Inuit, Métis, First Nations has come into general use for the indigenous peoples of North America in Canada, and their descendants, who are neither Inuit nor Métis. On reserves, First Nations is being supplanted by members of various nations referring to themselves by their group or ethnical identity, in conversation this would be I am Haida, or we are Kwantlens, in recognition of their First Nations ethnicities. In this Act, Aboriginal peoples of Canada includes the Indian, Inuit, Indian remains in place as the legal term used in the Canadian Constitution. Its usage outside such situations can be considered offensive, Aboriginal peoples is more commonly used to describe all indigenous peoples of Canada. It also refers to self-identification of Aboriginal people who live within Canada claiming rights of sovereignty or Aboriginal title to lands, the term Eskimo has pejorative connotations in Canada and Greenland. Indigenous peoples in those areas have replaced the term Eskimo with Inuit, the Yupik of Alaska and Siberia do not consider themselves Inuit, and ethnographers agree they are a distinct people. They prefer the terminology Yupik, Yupiit, or Eskimo, the Yupik languages are linguistically distinct from the Inuit languages. Linguistic groups of Arctic people have no universal replacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people across the area inhabited by the Inuit. Besides these ethnic descriptors, Aboriginal peoples are divided into legal categories based on their relationship with the Crown
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