1.
Wolfsangel
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The Wolfsangel is a German heraldic charge inspired by an actual historic wolf trap consisting of two metal parts and a connecting chain. The simplified design based on the iron wolf-hook was often heavily stylized to no longer resemble a baited hook hung from a tree or a wolf trap. All of these symbols are found in a number of municipal coats of arms in Germany. The crampon is also found as a mark in medieval stonework. The Wolfsangel was a symbol of the Nazi Party. In World War II the sign and its elements were used by various Nazi German storm divisions such as the Waffen-SS Division Das Reich, the symbol itself bears a visual resemblance to the Eihwaz rune, historically part of the runic alphabet. The name Wolfsangel appears in a 1714 heraldic handbook, Wappenkunst, hamecon, lat. uncus quo lupi capiuntur, ist die Form eines halben Mondes und hat inwendig in der Mitte einen Ring. In modern German-language heraldic terminology, the name Wolfsangel is de facto used for a variety of charges, including the hameçon described above. The cramp or crampon, a Z shape or double-hook symbol a Ƶ or double-hook symbol with a ring or transversal stroke at the center and it is only this symbol that also goes under the name Wolfsangel in the context of Neo-Nazism and occultism. The crampon symbol is found frequently in municipal coats of arms in Germany. The crampon with central stroke design is rare, but is still found in about a dozen contemporary municipal coats of arms. The French town of Wolfisheim, in the Alsace region of France has a Wolfsangel in its coat of arms, in a 1616 boundary treaty concluded between Hesse and Brunswick-Lüneburg, the Brunswick boundary marker was called Wulffsangel. It was used not only on landmarks, but there is evidence of its use in correspondence from the Forest Services in 1674. Later the Wolfsangel was also used as a symbol on forest uniforms, later the Wolfsangel was also worn as a single badge in brass caps on the service and on the buttons of the Hanoverian forest supervisor. In Brunswick it was prescribed for private forest and gamekeepers also as badge on the bonnet, in 1910, Hermann Löns published a classic fiction book entitled Der Wehrwolf set in a 17th-century German farming community during the Thirty Years War. The main character of the book, Harm Wulf, adopts the Wolfsangel as a badge against the forces of the ruling princes. Some printings of this book, such as the 1940 edition and it also features on Löns gravestone. Public exhibition of the symbol is illegal in Germany if a connection with one of groups is apparent
2.
Crouton
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The word crouton is derived from the French croûton, itself derived from croûte, meaning crust. Most people consider croutons to come invariably in the shape of small cubes, a croûton is a diminutive form of a croûte, much like a cigarette is a diminutive form of a cigar. Many people now use crouton for croute, so the usage has changed, historically, however, a croute was a slice of a baguette lightly brushed with oil or clarified butter and baked. In French cooking croûte is not only a noun but also has a form which describes the cooking process that transforms the bread into the crust. Thus the outside of a loaf of bread is the crust or croute, in recent times, croutons are often added to fish soups, and occasionally to certain salads. The preparation of croutons is relatively simple, typically the cubes of bread are coated in oil or butter and then baked. Some commercial preparations use machinery to sprinkle various seasonings on them, alternatively, they may be fried lightly in butter or vegetable oil, until crisp and brown, to give them a buttery flavor and crunchy texture. Some croutons are prepared with the addition of cheese, nearly any type of unsweetened bread, in a loaf or pre-sliced, with or without crust, may be used to make croutons. Dry or stale bread or leftover bread is used instead of fresh bread. Once prepared, the croutons will remain fresh far longer than unprepared bread, a dish prepared à la Grenobloise has a garnish of small croutons along with brown butter, capers, parsley, and lemon. Thrifty cooks have been finding creative ways for using up stale bread since bread was invented, the connection between stale bread and soup dates to the Medieval times, when soup was served in sops. French onion soup is topped with a crust of stale bread. Croutons, purposely spiced and gently toasted, are more refined twist on this culinary theme, croutons could have originally been inspired by biscotti and other ancient twice-baked goods
3.
Ice climbing
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Ice climbing is the activity of ascending inclined ice formations. Usually, ice climbing refers to roped and protected climbing of features such as icefalls, frozen waterfalls, for the purposes of climbing, ice can be broadly divided into two spheres, alpine ice and water ice. Alpine ice is found in an environment, usually requires an approach to reach. Water ice is found on a cliff or other outcropping beneath water flows. Alpine ice is frozen precipitation whereas water ice is a liquid flow of water. Technical grade is, however, independent of ice type and both types of ice vary greatly in consistency according to weather conditions, Ice can be soft, hard, brittle or tough. Mixed climbing is ascent involving both ice climbing and rock climbing, a climber chooses equipment according to the slope and texture of the ice. On short, low angled slopes, one can use an ice axe to chop steps, for longer and steeper slopes or glacier travel, crampons are mandatory for a safe climb. Vertical ice climbing is done with crampons and ice axes, climbers kick their legs to engage the front points of the crampons in the ice and this technique is known as front pointing. The strength of the ice is often surprising, even if the axe goes in only a centimeter or so it is enough to pull up on, if a climber is leading, they will need to place ice screws as protection on the way up. Most mountaineers would only consider the last scenario true ice climbing, some important techniques and practices common in rock climbing that are employed in ice climbing include knowledge of rope systems, tying in, belaying, leading, abseiling, and lowering. Beginners should learn these techniques before attempting to ice climb and it is highly recommended that one acquire knowledge from experts and experienced ice climbers. Single, double, and twin rope are the three main rope systems used in ice climbing, the single rope system, which is suited for straight climbing routes, is the most commonly used rock climbing system in the world. Also often used in climbing is the rope system which is a more flexible system than the single rope system. Lastly, the rope system, which uses two twin ropes in a single rope system, is used for longer multi-pitch routes. Impact force on ice is an issue, with double ropes gaining popularity over twins, tying in entails attaching the rope to the climbing harness. This technique is a must particularly when leading a climb or belaying, a commonly used tie-in knot is the Figure-of-eight follow through, but the Bowline and Thumb knot is often preferred, since it is easier to untie when frozen. This technique should be done properly to ensure safety when ice climbing
4.
Glacier
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A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
5.
Mountaineering
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The term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety, mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist, historically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks. In 1492 Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a team, using ladders. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, in 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, in 1741 Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix. By the early 19th century many of the peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812. In 1808 Marie Paradis became the first female to climb Mont Blanc and this inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, in the early years of the golden age, scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and this ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment, mountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies was first climbed by Edwin James, though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842, pico de Orizaba, the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first climbed by U. S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th, in 1897 Mount Saint Elias on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley, the tallest peak in North America was successfully climbed by Hudson Stuck, Mount Logan, the tallest peak in Canada was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months. In 1879-1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo, the summit of Aconcagua was finally reached on January 14,1897 by Swiss mountaineer Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that began in December 1896. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898 and it took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa
6.
Alps
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The mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the African and Eurasian tectonic plates collided. Extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont Blanc, Mont Blanc spans the French–Italian border, and at 4,810 m is the highest mountain in the Alps. The Alpine region area contains about a hundred peaks higher than 4000 metres, the altitude and size of the range affects the climate in Europe, in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones. Wildlife such as live in the higher peaks to elevations of 3,400 m. Evidence of human habitation in the Alps goes back to the Palaeolithic era, a mummified man, determined to be 5,000 years old, was discovered on a glacier at the Austrian–Italian border in 1991. By the 6th century BC, the Celtic La Tène culture was well established, Hannibal famously crossed the Alps with a herd of elephants, and the Romans had settlements in the region. In 1800 Napoleon crossed one of the passes with an army of 40,000. The 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists, writers, in World War II, Adolf Hitler kept a base of operation in the Bavarian Alps throughout the war. The Alpine region has a cultural identity. The Winter Olympic Games have been hosted in the Swiss, French, at present, the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors. The English word Alps derives from the Latin Alpes, maurus Servius Honoratus, an ancient commentator of Virgil, says in his commentary that all high mountains are called Alpes by Celts. The term may be common to Italo-Celtic, because the Celtic languages have terms for high mountains derived from alp and this may be consistent with the theory that in Greek Alpes is a name of non-Indo-European origin. According to the Old English Dictionary, the Latin Alpes might possibly derive from a pre-Indo-European word *alb hill, Albania, a name not native to the region known as the country of Albania, has been used as a name for a number of mountainous areas across Europe. In Roman times, Albania was a name for the eastern Caucasus, in modern languages the term alp, alm, albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers, not the peaks. An alp refers to a mountain pasture where cows are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where hay barns can be found. The Alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central Europe that ranges in a 800 km arc from east to west and is 200 km in width, the mean height of the mountain peaks is 2.5 km. The range stretches from the Mediterranean Sea north above the Po basin, extending through France from Grenoble, the range continues onward toward Vienna, Austria, and east to the Adriatic Sea and Slovenia. To the south it dips into northern Italy and to the north extends to the border of Bavaria in Germany
