1.
Wolfsangel
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The Wolfsangel is a German heraldic charge inspired by an actual historic wolf trap consisting of two metal parts and a connecting chain. The simplified design based on the iron wolf-hook was often heavily stylized to no longer resemble a baited hook hung from a tree or a wolf trap. All of these symbols are found in a number of municipal coats of arms in Germany. The crampon is also found as a mark in medieval stonework. The Wolfsangel was a symbol of the Nazi Party. In World War II the sign and its elements were used by various Nazi German storm divisions such as the Waffen-SS Division Das Reich, the symbol itself bears a visual resemblance to the Eihwaz rune, historically part of the runic alphabet. The name Wolfsangel appears in a 1714 heraldic handbook, Wappenkunst, hamecon, lat. uncus quo lupi capiuntur, ist die Form eines halben Mondes und hat inwendig in der Mitte einen Ring. In modern German-language heraldic terminology, the name Wolfsangel is de facto used for a variety of charges, including the hameçon described above. The cramp or crampon, a Z shape or double-hook symbol a Ƶ or double-hook symbol with a ring or transversal stroke at the center and it is only this symbol that also goes under the name Wolfsangel in the context of Neo-Nazism and occultism. The crampon symbol is found frequently in municipal coats of arms in Germany. The crampon with central stroke design is rare, but is still found in about a dozen contemporary municipal coats of arms. The French town of Wolfisheim, in the Alsace region of France has a Wolfsangel in its coat of arms, in a 1616 boundary treaty concluded between Hesse and Brunswick-Lüneburg, the Brunswick boundary marker was called Wulffsangel. It was used not only on landmarks, but there is evidence of its use in correspondence from the Forest Services in 1674. Later the Wolfsangel was also used as a symbol on forest uniforms, later the Wolfsangel was also worn as a single badge in brass caps on the service and on the buttons of the Hanoverian forest supervisor. In Brunswick it was prescribed for private forest and gamekeepers also as badge on the bonnet, in 1910, Hermann Löns published a classic fiction book entitled Der Wehrwolf set in a 17th-century German farming community during the Thirty Years War. The main character of the book, Harm Wulf, adopts the Wolfsangel as a badge against the forces of the ruling princes. Some printings of this book, such as the 1940 edition and it also features on Löns gravestone. Public exhibition of the symbol is illegal in Germany if a connection with one of groups is apparent
2.
Crouton
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The word crouton is derived from the French croûton, itself derived from croûte, meaning crust. Most people consider croutons to come invariably in the shape of small cubes, a croûton is a diminutive form of a croûte, much like a cigarette is a diminutive form of a cigar. Many people now use crouton for croute, so the usage has changed, historically, however, a croute was a slice of a baguette lightly brushed with oil or clarified butter and baked. In French cooking croûte is not only a noun but also has a form which describes the cooking process that transforms the bread into the crust. Thus the outside of a loaf of bread is the crust or croute, in recent times, croutons are often added to fish soups, and occasionally to certain salads. The preparation of croutons is relatively simple, typically the cubes of bread are coated in oil or butter and then baked. Some commercial preparations use machinery to sprinkle various seasonings on them, alternatively, they may be fried lightly in butter or vegetable oil, until crisp and brown, to give them a buttery flavor and crunchy texture. Some croutons are prepared with the addition of cheese, nearly any type of unsweetened bread, in a loaf or pre-sliced, with or without crust, may be used to make croutons. Dry or stale bread or leftover bread is used instead of fresh bread. Once prepared, the croutons will remain fresh far longer than unprepared bread, a dish prepared à la Grenobloise has a garnish of small croutons along with brown butter, capers, parsley, and lemon. Thrifty cooks have been finding creative ways for using up stale bread since bread was invented, the connection between stale bread and soup dates to the Medieval times, when soup was served in sops. French onion soup is topped with a crust of stale bread. Croutons, purposely spiced and gently toasted, are more refined twist on this culinary theme, croutons could have originally been inspired by biscotti and other ancient twice-baked goods
3.
Ice climbing
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Ice climbing is the activity of ascending inclined ice formations. Usually, ice climbing refers to roped and protected climbing of features such as icefalls, frozen waterfalls, for the purposes of climbing, ice can be broadly divided into two spheres, alpine ice and water ice. Alpine ice is found in an environment, usually requires an approach to reach. Water ice is found on a cliff or other outcropping beneath water flows. Alpine ice is frozen precipitation whereas water ice is a liquid flow of water. Technical grade is, however, independent of ice type and both types of ice vary greatly in consistency according to weather conditions, Ice can be soft, hard, brittle or tough. Mixed climbing is ascent involving both ice climbing and rock climbing, a climber chooses equipment according to the slope and texture of the ice. On short, low angled slopes, one can use an ice axe to chop steps, for longer and steeper slopes or glacier travel, crampons are mandatory for a safe climb. Vertical ice climbing is done with crampons and ice axes, climbers kick their legs to engage the front points of the crampons in the ice and this technique is known as front pointing. The strength of the ice is often surprising, even if the axe goes in only a centimeter or so it is enough to pull up on, if a climber is leading, they will need to place ice screws as protection on the way up. Most mountaineers would only consider the last scenario true ice climbing, some important techniques and practices common in rock climbing that are employed in ice climbing include knowledge of rope systems, tying in, belaying, leading, abseiling, and lowering. Beginners should learn these techniques before attempting to ice climb and it is highly recommended that one acquire knowledge from experts and experienced ice climbers. Single, double, and twin rope are the three main rope systems used in ice climbing, the single rope system, which is suited for straight climbing routes, is the most commonly used rock climbing system in the world. Also often used in climbing is the rope system which is a more flexible system than the single rope system. Lastly, the rope system, which uses two twin ropes in a single rope system, is used for longer multi-pitch routes. Impact force on ice is an issue, with double ropes gaining popularity over twins, tying in entails attaching the rope to the climbing harness. This technique is a must particularly when leading a climb or belaying, a commonly used tie-in knot is the Figure-of-eight follow through, but the Bowline and Thumb knot is often preferred, since it is easier to untie when frozen. This technique should be done properly to ensure safety when ice climbing
4.
Glacier
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A glacier is a persistent body of dense ice that is constantly moving under its own weight, it forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. Glaciers slowly deform and flow due to stresses induced by their weight, creating crevasses, seracs and they also abrade rock and debris from their substrate to create landforms such as cirques and moraines. Glaciers form only on land and are distinct from the much thinner sea ice, between 35°N and 35°S, glaciers occur only in the Himalayas, Andes, Rocky Mountains, a few high mountains in East Africa, Mexico, New Guinea and on Zard Kuh in Iran. Glaciers cover about 10 percent of Earths land surface, continental glaciers cover nearly 13,000,000 km2 or about 98 percent of Antarcticas 13,200,000 km2, with an average thickness of 2,100 m. Greenland and Patagonia also have huge expanses of continental glaciers, Glacial ice is the largest reservoir of fresh water on Earth. Within high altitude and Antarctic environments, the temperature difference is often not sufficient to release meltwater. A large piece of compressed ice, or a glacier, appears blue as large quantities of water appear blue and this is because water molecules absorb other colors more efficiently than blue. The other reason for the color of glaciers is the lack of air bubbles. Air bubbles, which give a color to ice, are squeezed out by pressure increasing the density of the created ice. The word Glaceon is a loanword from French and goes back, via Franco-Provençal, to the Vulgar Latin glaciārium, derived from the Late Latin glacia, the processes and features caused by or related to glaciers are referred to as glacial. The process of establishment, growth and flow is called glaciation. The corresponding area of study is called glaciology, Glaciers are important components of the global cryosphere. Glaciers are categorized by their morphology, thermal characteristics, and behavior, cirque glaciers form on the crests and slopes of mountains. A glacier that fills a valley is called a valley glacier, a large body of glacial ice astride a mountain, mountain range, or volcano is termed an ice cap or ice field. Ice caps have a less than 50,000 km2 by definition. Glacial bodies larger than 50,000 km2 are called ice sheets or continental glaciers, several kilometers deep, they obscure the underlying topography. Only nunataks protrude from their surfaces, the only extant ice sheets are the two that cover most of Antarctica and Greenland. They contain vast quantities of water, enough that if both melted, global sea levels would rise by over 70 m
5.
Ice field
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An ice field is an area less than 50,000 km2 of ice often found in the colder climates and higher altitudes of the world where there is sufficient precipitation. It is an area of interconnected valley glaciers from which the higher peaks rise as nunataks. Ice fields are larger than alpine glaciers, smaller than ice sheets, the topography of ice fields is determined by the shape of the surrounding land forms, while ice caps have their own forms overriding underlying shapes. Ice fields are formed by an accumulation of snow which, through years of compression and freezing. Glaciers often form on the edges of ice fields, serving as gravity-propelled drains off the ice field which is in turn replenished by snowfall, while an ice cap is not constrained by topography, an ice field is. An ice field is also distinguishable from an ice cap because it not have a dome-like form. There are several ice fields in the Himalayas and Altay Mountains, one unexpected ice field is located in Yolyn Am, a mountain valley located in the northern end of the Gobi Desert. There are no ice fields in Australia, new Zealand has Garden of Eden ice field Garden of Allah ice field Olivine Ice Plateau Reference, The only large ice fields in mainland Europe are in Norway. There are several dozen small ice fields in the Alps and tiny remnants of permanent ice in Sweden, the Apennines, the Pyrenees and the Balkans. Beyond the mainland of continental Europe, there are substantial ice fields in Iceland, Svalbard and Franz-Josef Land and smaller surviving ice fields on Jan Mayen and Novaya Zemlya. One of the more celebrated North American ice fields is the Columbia Icefield located in the Rocky Mountains between Jasper and Banff, Alberta. A large number of particularly expansive ice fields lie in the Coast Mountains, Alaska Range, and Chugach Mountains of Alaska, British Columbia, the 6,500 km² Stikine Icecap and the 2,500 km² Juneau Icefield both straddle the British Columbian-Alaskan border. There are also large ice fields located in the Kenai Peninsula-Chugach Mountains area, such as the Sargent Icefield, throughout the Alaska Range there also large icefields which are mostly unnamed. In South America, there are two ice fields, Campo de Hielo Norte, in Chile, and Campo de Hielo Sur, shared by Chile. There is also an ice field on the western portion of Tierra del Fuego proper. List of glaciers and icefields Ice sheet Glacier Nunatak
6.
Goodyear welt
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A Goodyear welt is a strip of leather, rubber, or plastic that runs along the perimeter of a shoe outsole. The machinery used for the process was invented in 1869 by Charles Goodyear, time-consuming by modern standards, Goodyear welted construction is still considered one of the finest methods of shoe construction. Goodyear welt construction involves stitching a welt to the upper and a strip of canvas which cemented to the insole of a shoe as an attach-point for the sole. The space enclosed by the welt is then filled with cork or some other material. Shoes with other types of construction may also have welts, the Goodyear welt process is a machine based alternative to the traditional hand welted method for the manufacture of mens shoes, allowing it to be resoled repeatedly. The upper part of the shoe is shaped over the last and fastened on by sewing a leather, as well as using a welt, stitching holds the material firmly together. The welt forms a cavity which is filled with a cork material. The final part of the shoe is the sole, which is attached to the welt by some combination of stitching, the result is highly valued for being relatively waterproof by minimizing water penetration into the insole and the relative ease of resoling as long as the upper remains viable. Welted shoes are expensive to manufacture than those mass produced by automated machinery with molded soles. Salaman, The Dictionary of Leather-Working Tools c, 1700-1950, Allen & Unwin, London 1986. Pp.182 J. H. Thornton, Northampton College of Technology, Textbook of Footwear Manufacture, 28-32, National Trade Press, UK1953 F. Y. Golding, edited by, Boots and Shoes, Vol. VI, pp.178 The New Era Publishing, London 1936 Thomson, the Path to Mechanized Shoe Production in the United States. Video, How Goodyear Welted Shoes are made USA ca
7.
Oscar Eckenstein
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Oscar Johannes Ludwig Eckenstein was an English rock climber and mountaineer, and a pioneer in the sport of bouldering. Inventor of the modern crampon, he was an innovator in climbing technique and mountaineering equipment, eckensteins father was a Jewish socialist from Bonn who had fled Germany following the failed revolution of 1848. His sisters were Lina Eckenstein, the polymath feminist, and Amelia who was to marry Dr Cyrax and he was a railway engineer, and worked for the International Railway Congress Association founded in Brussels in 1885. He was an early and active member of the National Liberal Club, interested in the life of explorer Richard Burton, he collected an extensive collection of documents about his life, which he donated to the Royal Asiatic Society before his death. In 1918 O. E. married Margery Edwards, an early advocate of bouldering, on the Eckenstein Boulder at Llanberis Pass he taught Archer Thomson the art of balance climbing, according to Winthrop Young. Eckenstein was one of the few people who climbed with mystic. In his autobiography Confessions, Crowley praises Eckenstein in several passages, mentioning his gymnastic strength, Crowley dedicated the book to six men, including OSCAR ECKENSTEIN – who trained me to follow the trail. Eckenstein was a member of an expedition led by Sir Martin Conway to the Baltoro Muztagh region in 1892. The expedition was sponsored by the Royal Society, the Royal Geographical Society and the British Association, Conway and Eckenstein had a deep personality conflict, and Eckenstein withdrew from the expedition after six months. In Kashmir, he conducted bouldering contests for the natives – possibly the first such formal competitions ever, Eckenstein collected his letters and diary notes from this expedition into a book published under the title The Karakorams and Kashmir. Eckenstein was the leader of the first serious attempt to climb K2 in 1902, the attempt was on the Northeast Ridge, and Aleister Crowley was also a member of the expedition. Upon arrival in India, Eckenstein was detained by British authorities for three weeks on suspicion of being a spy, and not allowed to enter Kashmir, in the early 1900s, modern transportation did not exist, It took fourteen days just to reach the foot of the mountain. An Austrian climber named Pfannl became sick with pulmonary edema at the high point, the climb was abandoned, and Pfannl was evacuated to lower elevations and survived. In the late 19th century, the ice axe shaft measured 120–130 cm in length. Eckenstein started the trend toward shorter ice axes with a lighter model measuring 85–86 cm, initially, this innovation was criticised by well-known climbers of the era, including his nemesis Martin Conway, a prominent member of the Alpine Club. Eckenstein is also credited with designing the modern crampon as well as analysing both knots and nail patterns for climbing boots. He was an advocate of guideless climbing in a period when conventional thinking in the Alpine Club called for gentlemen climbers to be led to the top of peaks by paid professional guides and he assisted Geoffrey Winthrop Young with his classic mountaineering manual, Mountain Craft. John Percy Farrar and J. Norman Collie also contributed to this book, when the book was published in 1920, Farrar wrote to Winthrop Young, The book is magnificent
8.
Ski touring
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Ski touring is a form of backcountry skiing where both uphill and downhill travel are possible without needing to remove skis. Typically touring is done off-piste and outside of ski resorts, ski touring cuts across both Nordic and Alpine forms and embraces such sub-disciplines as Telemark and randonnée. A defining characteristic is the skiers heel being free to allow a gliding motion while traversing and ascending terrain which may range from perfectly flat to extremely steep. Ski touring has been adopted by skiers seeking new snow, by alpinists, Touring requires independent navigation skills and may involve route finding through potential avalanche terrain. Ski touring has parallels with hiking and wilderness backpacking, ski mountaineering is a form of ski touring which variously combines the sports of Telemark, Alpine, and backcountry skiing with that of mountaineering. The history of ski touring is unwritten and his deliveries began in 1855 and continued for at least 20 years. Thompsons route of 90 miles took 3 days in and 48 hours back out with a pack that eventually exceeded 100 pounds of mail. Cecil Slingsby, one of the earliest European practitioners, who crossed the 1,550 m high Keiser Pass, Norway, in particular it requires the knowledge to assess and test snow conditions to minimise the risk of avalanche. As the slope angles increase, the climbing ski-tourer will make switchbacks, using kick turns to change direction, skin tracks can be seen as zig-zags heading up a snowy mountain. Ski-tourers try to maintain the up-tracks in avalanche-safe zones as they head up the mountain, setting a proper and safe skin track requires a great deal of skill and avalanche knowledge as the tourer spends most of their time climbing. Traveling quickly up potential avalanche terrain is important for safety as well, thus physical fitness is a crucial element of safe mountain travel. Nordic ski touring is skiing with bindings that leave the heels free all the time, thus, Nordic skiers do not have to change back and forth between uphill and downhill modes, which can be advantageous in rolling terrain. Backcountry Nordic, heavier than a traditional Nordic setup, but not as big, Telemark, at the heavier end of the Nordic skiing equipment spectrum, for steep backcountry terrain or ski-area use. Alpine Touring or randonnée equipment is designed for ski touring in steep terrain. Climbing skins are used when either fish scale pattern friction aids embossed on the bottom of skis or sticky ski wax fail to provide sufficient grip for skiing uphill. Ski crampons (also called Harscheisen, couteau, or rampant may be attached when conditions are particularly icy or the grade too steep for skins, ski touring can take place anywhere that has suitable snow and terrain. Some examples include Iceland, Activities center on the Troll Peninsula in northern Iceland, Norway, touring in Norway has a long tradition. Skiing was originally a means of winter transportation
9.
Mountaineering
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The term mountaineering describes the sport of mountain climbing, including ski mountaineering. Hiking in the mountains can also be a form of mountaineering when it involves scrambling, or short stretches of the more basic grades of rock climbing. All require experience, athletic ability, and technical knowledge to maintain safety, mountaineering is often called Alpinism, especially in European languages, which implies climbing with difficulty such high and often snow and ice-covered mountains as the Alps. A mountaineer with such great skill is called an Alpinist, historically, many cultures have harbored superstitions about mountains, which they often regarded as sacred due to their proximity with heaven, such as Mount Olympus for the Ancient Greeks. In 1492 Antoine de Ville, lord of Domjulien and Beaupré, was the first to ascend the Mont Aiguille, in France, with a team, using ladders. It appears to be the first recorded climb of any technical difficulty, in 1573 Francesco De Marchi and Francesco Di Domenico ascended Corno Grande, the highest peak in the Apennine Mountains. During the Enlightenment, as a product of the new spirit of curiosity for the natural world, in 1741 Richard Pococke and William Windham made a historic visit to Chamonix. By the early 19th century many of the peaks were reached, including the Grossglockner in 1800, the Ortler in 1804, the Jungfrau in 1811, the Finsteraarhorn in 1812. In 1808 Marie Paradis became the first female to climb Mont Blanc and this inaugurated what became known as the Golden age of alpinism, with the first mountaineering club - the Alpine Club - being founded in 1857. Well-known guides of the era include Christian Almer, Jakob Anderegg, Melchior Anderegg, J. J. Bennen, Michel Croz, in the early years of the golden age, scientific pursuits were intermixed with the sport, such as by the physicist John Tyndall. In the later years, it shifted to a more competitive orientation as pure sportsmen came to dominate the London-based Alpine Club and this ascent is generally regarded as marking the end of the mountaineering golden age. By this point the sport of mountaineering had largely reached its modern form, with a body of professional guides, equipment, mountaineering in the Americas became popular in the 1800s. In North America, Pikes Peak in the Colorado Rockies was first climbed by Edwin James, though lower than Pikes Peak, the heavily glaciated Fremont Peak in Wyoming was thought to be the tallest mountain in the Rockies when it was first climbed by John C. Frémont and two others in 1842, pico de Orizaba, the tallest peak in Mexico and third tallest in North America, was first climbed by U. S. military personnel which included William F. Raynolds and a half dozen other climbers in 1848. Heavily glaciated and more technical climbs in North American were not achieved until the late 19th, in 1897 Mount Saint Elias on the Alaska-Yukon border was summitted by the Duke of the Abruzzi and party. But it was not until 1913 that Mount Mckinley, the tallest peak in North America was successfully climbed by Hudson Stuck, Mount Logan, the tallest peak in Canada was first summitted by a half dozen climbers in 1925 in an expedition that took more than two months. In 1879-1880 the exploration of the highest Andes in South America began when English mountaineer Edward Whymper climbed Chimborazo, the summit of Aconcagua was finally reached on January 14,1897 by Swiss mountaineer Matthias Zurbriggen during an expedition led by Edward FitzGerald that began in December 1896. The Andes of Bolivia were first explored by Sir William Martin Conway in 1898 and it took until the late 19th century for European explorers to penetrate Africa
