1.
Creative Commons
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Creative Commons is an American non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon legally and to share. The organization has released several copyright-licenses known as Creative Commons licenses free of charge to the public and these licenses allow creators to communicate which rights they reserve, and which rights they waive for the benefit of recipients or other creators. An easy-to-understand one-page explanation of rights, with associated visual symbols, Creative Commons licenses do not replace copyright, but are based upon it. The result is an agile, low-overhead and low-cost copyright-management regime, Wikipedia uses one of these licenses. The organization was founded in 2001 by Lawrence Lessig, Hal Abelson, the first article in a general interest publication about Creative Commons, written by Hal Plotkin, was published in February 2002. The first set of licenses was released in December 2002. In 2003 the Open Content Project, a 1998 precursor project by David A. Wiley, announced the Creative Commons as successor project, matthew Haughey and Aaron Swartz also played a role in the early stages of the project. As of January 2016 there were an estimated 1.1 billion works licensed under the various Creative Commons licenses, as of March 2015, Flickr alone hosts over 306 million Creative Commons licensed photos. Creative Commons is governed by a board of directors and their licenses have been embraced by many as a way for creators to take control of how they choose to share their copyrighted works. Beyond that, Creative Commons has provided institutional, practical and legal support for individuals and groups wishing to experiment, Creative Commons attempts to counter what Lawrence Lessig, founder of Creative Commons, considers to be a dominant and increasingly restrictive permission culture. Lessig describes this as a culture in which creators get to create only with the permission of the powerful, as of 2017, they are Paul Keller, Jonathan Nightingale, Chris Thorne. As of 2015, there are more than 100 affiliates working in over 75 jurisdictions to support, Creative Commons Korea is the affiliated network of Creative Commons in South Korea. In March 2005, CC Korea was initiated by Jongsoo Yoon, the major Korean portal sites, including Daum and Naver, have been participating in the use of Creative Commons licences. In January 2009, the Creative Commons Korea Association was consequently founded as an incorporated association. Since then, CC Korea has been promoting the liberal. Since March 15,2012 he has been detained by the Syrian government in Damascus at Adra Prison, on October 17,2015 Creative Commons Board of Directors approved a resolution calling for Bassel Khartabil release. All current CC licenses require attribution, which can be inconvenient for works based on other works. Critics also worried that the lack of rewards for content producers will dissuade artists from publishing their work, Creative Commons founder Lawrence Lessig countered that copyright laws have not always offered the strong and seemingly indefinite protection that todays law provides
2.
Copyright
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Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time, the exclusive rights are not absolute but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is that copyright protects only the expression of ideas. Copyright is a form of property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all jurisdictions require fixing copyrighted works in a tangible form and it is often shared among multiple authors, each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights holders. These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public performance, copyrights are considered territorial rights, which means that they do not extend beyond the territory of a specific jurisdiction. While many aspects of copyright laws have been standardized through international copyright agreements. Typically, the duration of a copyright spans the authors life plus 50 to 100 years, some countries require certain copyright formalities to establishing copyright, but most recognize copyright in any completed work, without formal registration. Generally, copyright is enforced as a matter, though some jurisdictions do apply criminal sanctions. Most jurisdictions recognize copyright limitations, allowing fair exceptions to the exclusivity of copyright. Copyright came about with the invention of the press and with wider literacy. As a legal concept, its origins in Britain were from a reaction to printers monopolies at the beginning of the 18th century, Copyright laws allow products of creative human activities, such as literary and artistic production, to be preferentially exploited and thus incentivized. Different cultural attitudes, social organizations, economic models and legal frameworks are seen to account for why copyright emerged in Europe and not, for example, however, with copyright laws, intellectual production comes to be seen as a product of an individual, with attendant rights. The most significant point is that patent and copyright laws support the expansion of the range of human activities that can be commodified. This parallels the ways in which led to the commodification of many aspects of social life that earlier had no monetary or economic value per se. Often seen as the first real copyright law, the 1709 British Statute of Anne gave the rights for a fixed period. The act also alluded to individual rights of the artist and it began, Whereas Printers, Booksellers, and other Persons, have of late frequently taken the Liberty of Printing. Books, and other Writings, without the Consent of the Authors. to their very great Detriment, and too often to the Ruin of them and their Families
3.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
4.
Open Knowledge International
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Open Knowledge International is a global non-profit network that promotes and shares information at no charge, including both content and data. It was founded by Rufus Pollock on 24 May 2004 in Cambridge, the aims of Open Knowledge International are, Promoting the idea of open knowledge, both what it is, and why is it a good idea. Running open knowledge events, such as OKCon, working on open knowledge projects, such as Open Economics or Open Shakespeare. Providing infrastructure, and potentially a home, for open knowledge projects, for example, the KnowledgeForge service and CKAN. Acting at UK, European and international levels on open knowledge issues, in April 2015 Pavel Richter took on the role of CEO of Open Knowledge International. Pavel was formerly Executive Director of Wikimedia Deutschland, Pollock remains in a leadership role. The Open Knowledge International Advisory Council includes people from the areas of access, open data, open content, open science, data visualization. In 2015, it consisted of, As of 2015, Open Knowledge International has 9 official chapters and 49 groups in different countries and it also supports 19 working groups. Many of Open Knowledge Internationals projects are technical in nature and its most prominent project, CKAN, is used by many of the worlds governments to host open catalogues of data that their countries possess. The organisation tends to support its aims by hosting infrastructure for semi-independent projects to develop and this approach to organising was hinted as one of its earliest projects was a project management service called KnowledgeForge, which runs on the KForge platform. KnowledgeForge allows sectoral working groups to have space to manage projects related to open knowledge, more widely, the project infrastructure includes both technical and face-to-face aspects. The organisation hosts several dozen mailing lists for discussion, utilises IRC for real-time communications. Open Knowledge International is a partner with organisations working in similar areas. It also supported the development of the Open Database License, outside of technology, Open Knowledge International plays a role in advocating for openness broadly. This includes supporting the drafting of reports, facilitating consultation and producing guides, Rufus Pollock, one of Open Knowledge Internationals founders, and current board secretary sits on the UK governments Public Sector Transparency Board. The foundation places a strong interest in the use of open source technologies and its software projects are hosted on GitHub, which utilises the Git version control software. Some of the projects are listed below, CKAN, a tool that provides store for metadata and this enables governments to quickly and cheaply provide a catalogue of their data. Datahub, a catalogue of useful sets of data on the Internet
5.
Software
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Computer software, or simply software, is that part of a computer system that consists of data or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. In computer science and software engineering, computer software is all information processed by computer systems, programs, computer software includes computer programs, libraries and related non-executable data, such as online documentation or digital media. Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be used on its own. At the lowest level, executable code consists of machine language instructions specific to an individual processor—typically a central processing unit, a machine language consists of groups of binary values signifying processor instructions that change the state of the computer from its preceding state. For example, an instruction may change the value stored in a storage location in the computer—an effect that is not directly observable to the user. An instruction may also cause something to appear on a display of the computer system—a state change which should be visible to the user. The processor carries out the instructions in the order they are provided, unless it is instructed to jump to a different instruction, the majority of software is written in high-level programming languages that are easier and more efficient for programmers, meaning closer to a natural language. High-level languages are translated into machine language using a compiler or an interpreter or a combination of the two, an outline for what would have been the first piece of software was written by Ada Lovelace in the 19th century, for the planned Analytical Engine. However, neither the Analytical Engine nor any software for it were ever created, the first theory about software—prior to creation of computers as we know them today—was proposed by Alan Turing in his 1935 essay Computable numbers with an application to the Entscheidungsproblem. This eventually led to the creation of the academic fields of computer science and software engineering. Computer science is more theoretical, whereas software engineering focuses on practical concerns. However, prior to 1946, software as we now understand it—programs stored in the memory of stored-program digital computers—did not yet exist, the first electronic computing devices were instead rewired in order to reprogram them. On virtually all platforms, software can be grouped into a few broad categories. There are many different types of software, because the range of tasks that can be performed with a modern computer is so large—see list of software. System software includes, Operating systems, which are collections of software that manage resources and provides common services for other software that runs on top of them. Supervisory programs, boot loaders, shells and window systems are parts of operating systems. In practice, an operating system bundled with additional software so that a user can potentially do some work with a computer that only has an operating system. Device drivers, which operate or control a particular type of device that is attached to a computer, utilities, which are computer programs designed to assist users in the maintenance and care of their computers
6.
Free and open-source software
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Free and open-source software is computer software that can be classified as both free software and open-source software. This is in contrast to proprietary software, where the software is under restrictive copyright, the benefits of using FOSS can include decreasing software costs, increasing security and stability, protecting privacy, and giving users more control over their own hardware. Free, open-source operating systems such as Linux and descendents of BSD are widely utilized today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones, Free software licenses and open-source licenses are used by many software packages. In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s to 1980s, it was common for users to have the source code for all programs they used. Software, including source code, was shared by individuals who used computers. Most companies had a model based on hardware sales, and provided or bundled software with hardware. Organizations of users and suppliers were formed to facilitate the exchange of software, see, for example, SHARE, by the late 1960s, the prevailing business model around software was changing. In United States vs. IBM, filed 17 January 1969, while some software might always be free, there would be a growing amount of software that was for sale only. Software development for the GNU operating system began in January 1984, an article outlining the project and its goals was published in March 1985 titled the GNU Manifesto. The manifesto included significant explanation of the GNU philosophy, Free Software Definition, the Linux kernel, started by Linus Torvalds, was released as freely modifiable source code in 1991. Initially, Linux was not released under a free or open-source software license, however, with version 0.12 in February 1992, he relicensed the project under the GNU General Public License. Much like Unix, Torvalds kernel attracted the attention of volunteer programmers, freeBSD and NetBSD were released as free software when the USL v. BSDi lawsuit was settled out of court in 1993. OpenBSD forked from NetBSD in 1995, also in 1995, The Apache HTTP Server, commonly referred to as Apache, was released under the Apache License 1.0. In 1997, Eric Raymond published The Cathedral and the Bazaar and this code is today better known as Mozilla Firefox and Thunderbird. Netscapes act prompted Raymond and others to look into how to bring the FSFs free software ideas, the new name they chose was open source, and quickly Bruce Perens, publisher Tim OReilly, Linus Torvalds, and others signed on to the rebranding. The Open Source Initiative was founded in February 1998 to encourage use of the new term, a Microsoft executive publicly stated in 2001 that open source is an intellectual property destroyer. I cant imagine something that could be worse than this for the software business and this view perfectly summarizes the initial response to FOSS by some software corporations. IBM, Oracle, Google and State Farm are just a few of the companies with a serious public stake in todays competitive open-source market, there has been a significant shift in the corporate philosophy concerning the development of free and open-source software
7.
Software license
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A software license is a legal instrument governing the use or redistribution of software. Under United States copyright law all software is copyright protected, in code as also object code form. The only exception is software in the public domain, most distributed software can be categorized according to its license type. Two common categories for software under copyright law, and therefore with licenses which grant the licensee specific rights, are proprietary software and free, unlicensed software outside the copyright protection is either public domain software or software which is non-distributed, non-licensed and handled as internal business trade secret. Contrary to popular belief, distributed unlicensed software is copyright protected. Examples for this are unauthorized software leaks or software projects which are placed on public software repositories like GitHub without specified license. As voluntarily handing software into the domain is problematic in some international law domains, there are also licenses granting PD-like rights. Therefore, the owner of a copy of software is legally entitled to use that copy of software. Hence, if the end-user of software is the owner of the respective copy, as many proprietary licenses only enumerate the rights that the user already has under 17 U. S. C. §117, and yet proclaim to take away from the user. Proprietary software licenses often proclaim to give software publishers more control over the way their software is used by keeping ownership of each copy of software with the software publisher. The form of the relationship if it is a lease or a purchase, for example UMG v. Augusto or Vernor v. Autodesk. The ownership of goods, like software applications and video games, is challenged by licensed. The Swiss based company UsedSoft innovated the resale of business software and this feature of proprietary software licenses means that certain rights regarding the software are reserved by the software publisher. Therefore, it is typical of EULAs to include terms which define the uses of the software, the most significant effect of this form of licensing is that, if ownership of the software remains with the software publisher, then the end-user must accept the software license. In other words, without acceptance of the license, the end-user may not use the software at all, one example of such a proprietary software license is the license for Microsoft Windows. The most common licensing models are per single user or per user in the appropriate volume discount level, Licensing per concurrent/floating user also occurs, where all users in a network have access to the program, but only a specific number at the same time. Another license model is licensing per dongle which allows the owner of the dongle to use the program on any computer, Licensing per server, CPU or points, regardless the number of users, is common practice as well as site or company licenses
8.
Mari0
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Mari0 is a fan-made video game that combines elements of the video games Super Mario Bros and Portal. The game was developed by Maurice Guégan of Stabyourself. net, Mari0 was developed with the LÖVE framework, and is cross-platform. The game was released on March 3,2012 for Windows, Mac OS X, the source code is also available to download. The core game of Mari0 plays directly from the 8-bit Super Mario Bros, the game adds the concept of the portal gun from the Portal series, the player can click with the mouse device on two separate surfaces on the level to create a portal between them. Up to four players can play in the game. Online multiplayer is to be released in a future version, on August 12,2015, development on Mari0 SE, the successor to Mari0 was cancelled. However, the versions of Mari0 SE were spread onto the Stabyourself. net forums. The original idea for Mari0 was to make a clone of Super Mario Bros. after seeing a video on the humor site Dorkly entitled Mario With A Portal Gun, Maurice Guégan came up with the final idea for the game. Development began in January 2011 by Maurice Guégan, the programmer of Stabyourself. net. He frequently created blog posts keeping followers up to date with the latest Mari0 developments, several teasers and videos were posted and a speculated release date of Christmas 2011 was proposed, this was later pushed towards New Years Eve 2011. However, the date was postponed further until beta testing had been completed. The final release date was posted as a puzzle, it was decoded to reveal March 3,2012 as the release date. An accompanying count-down timer was placed on the Stabyourself. net homepage. The first official release was made alongside the publishing of a trailer video, the website often offers updates to fix bugs. Mari0 has been covered on various technology and video game websites and it has gained a lot of attention on sites such as YouTube and Reddit. The game has been received on various video game blog sites. John Walker of Rock, Paper, Shotgun stated If it doesnt make you gasp and want to post it to the rest of the internet, list of open source games Official website
9.
AssaultCube
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AssaultCube, formerly ActionCube, is a free and open source software first-person shooter video game, based on the Cube engine. It takes place in environments, with fast, arcade gameplay. Although the main focus of AssaultCube is multiplayer gaming, a single-player mode consists of computer-controlled bots. AssaultCube utilises efficient bandwidth usage, allowing the game to be run with connection speeds as low as 56kbit/s and it can run on older computer hardware as well. AssaultCube is available for free on Microsoft Windows, OS X, the game engine is free software, however parts of the accompanying game media, such as the graphics, are released under non-free licenses. AssaultCube was designed to be realistic and team-oriented than Cube while keeping Cubes distinctive fast-paced gameplay. In comparison to games, AssaultCube is slower than Quake. There are two different teams in AssaultCube, called the Cubers Liberations Army and the Rabid Viper Special Forces, AssaultCube retains a movement bug from the original Cube engine that allows players to utilize straferunning to move at a faster speed. This was left intentionally unfixed by the developers because it was considered a feature of Cube. Another feature of the game is the potential for using the recoil of the weapons to reach and this was also included intentionally, allowing players to achieve faster movement and jump higher. This feature was inherited from Cube, though it was absent in the release of AssaultCube. AssaultCubes weapons are all fictional and fill the niches of a modern first-person shooter. The first official release was in November 2006, the plan was to create an entirely new game incorporating Cubes simplicity and movement style in a more realistic environment. On May 6,2007, ActionCube was renamed to AssaultCube due to a request from the developers of Action Quake. Despite its simplistic graphics and gameplay, AssaultCube maintained a consistent player base of hundreds of players, AssaultCube also has several gaming clans, some of which participate in organized tournaments. Although it is based on the Cube engine, AssaultCubes engine has been improved compared to the original Cube. Version 1.0 was released on November 21,2008, the latest version,1.2.0.2, was released on November 10,2013. AssaultCube retains an in-game mapping feature from the original Cube game, the diverse nature of the Cube engines mapping feature allows for creativity and almost endless possibilities for custom maps
10.
Free Software Foundation
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The FSF was incorporated in Massachusetts, USA, where it is also based. From its founding until the mid-1990s, FSFs funds were used to employ software developers to write free software for the GNU Project. Since the mid-1990s, the FSFs employees and volunteers have worked on legal and structural issues for the free software movement. Consistent with its goals, the FSF aims to use free software on its own computers. The Free Software Foundation was founded in 1985 as a non-profit corporation supporting free software development and it continued existing GNU projects such as the sale of manuals and tapes, and employed developers of the free software system. Since then, it has continued these activities, as well as advocating for the free software movement, the FSF is also the steward of several free software licenses, meaning it publishes them and has the ability to make revisions as needed. The FSF holds the copyrights on many pieces of the GNU system, as holder of these copyrights, it has the authority to enforce the copyleft requirements of the GNU General Public License when copyright infringement occurs on that software. From 1991 until 2001, GPL enforcement was done informally, usually by Stallman himself, often with assistance from FSFs lawyer, typically, GPL violations during this time were cleared up by short email exchanges between Stallman and the violator. In the interest of promoting copyleft assertiveness by software companies to the level that the FSF was already doing, in 2004 Harald Welte launched gpl-violations. org. In late 2001, Bradley M. Kuhn, with the assistance of Moglen, David Turner, from 2002-2004, high-profile GPL enforcement cases, such as those against Linksys and OpenTV, became frequent. GPL enforcement and educational campaigns on GPL compliance was a focus of the FSFs efforts during this period. In March 2003, SCO filed suit against IBM alleging that IBMs contributions to free software, including FSFs GNU. While FSF was never a party to the lawsuit, FSF was subpoenaed on November 5,2003, during 2003 and 2004, FSF put substantial advocacy effort into responding to the lawsuit and quelling its negative impact on the adoption and promotion of free software. From 2003 to 2005, FSF held legal seminars to explain the GPL, usually taught by Bradley M. Kuhn and Daniel Ravicher, these seminars offered CLE credit and were the first effort to give formal legal education on the GPL. In 2007, the FSF published the version of the GNU General Public License after significant outside input. In December 2008, FSF filed a lawsuit against Cisco for using GPL-licensed components shipped with Linksys products, Cisco was notified of the licensing issue in 2003 but Cisco repeatedly disregarded its obligations under the GPL. The GNU project The original purpose of the FSF was to promote the ideals of free software, the organization developed the GNU operating system as an example of this. GNU licenses The GNU General Public License is a widely used license for software projects
11.
Public domain
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The term public domain has two senses of meaning. Anything published is out in the domain in the sense that it is available to the public. Once published, news and information in books is in the public domain, in the sense of intellectual property, works in the public domain are those whose exclusive intellectual property rights have expired, have been forfeited, or are inapplicable. Examples for works not covered by copyright which are therefore in the domain, are the formulae of Newtonian physics, cooking recipes. Examples for works actively dedicated into public domain by their authors are reference implementations of algorithms, NIHs ImageJ. The term is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, as rights are country-based and vary, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required. Although the term public domain did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined many things that cannot be privately owned as res nullius, res communes, res publicae and res universitatis. The term res nullius was defined as not yet appropriated. The term res communes was defined as things that could be enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight. The term res publicae referred to things that were shared by all citizens, when the first early copyright law was first established in Britain with the Statute of Anne in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the eighteenth century, instead of public domain they used terms such as publici juris or propriété publique to describe works that were not covered by copyright law. The phrase fall in the domain can be traced to mid-nineteenth century France to describe the end of copyright term. In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain. Because copyright law is different from country to country, Pamela Samuelson has described the public domain as being different sizes at different times in different countries. According to James Boyle this definition underlines common usage of the public domain and equates the public domain to public property. However, the usage of the public domain can be more granular. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to fair use rights, the materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival
12.
All rights reserved
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All rights reserved is a copyright formality indicating that the copyright holder reserves, or holds for their own use, all the rights provided by copyright law. Originating in the Buenos Aires Convention of 1910, it no longer has any effect in any jurisdiction. However, it is used by many copyright holders. The phrase originated as a result of the Buenos Aires Convention of 1910, the phrase all rights reserved was not specified in the text, but met this requirement. Other international copyright treaties did not require this formality, for example, the Universal Copyright Convention, adopted in 1952, adopted the © symbol as an indicator of protection. As of that date, every country that was a member of the Buenos Aires Convention was also a member of Berne, Copyright formalities Copyright notice Creative Commons, which uses Some rights reserved Public domain
13.
Definition of Free Cultural Works
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The Definition of Free Cultural Works is a definition of free content from 2006. The project evaluates and recommends compatible free content licenses, the Open Content Project by David A. Wiley in 1998 was a predecessor project which defined open content. In 2003 Wiley joined the Creative Commons as Director of Educational Licenses and announced the Creative Commons, the first draft of the Definition of Free Cultural Works was published 3 April 2006. The 1.0 and 1.1 versions were published in English, the Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation. In 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as Approved for Free Cultural Works, following in June 2009, Wikipedia migrated to use two licenses, the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike as main license, additionally to the previously used GNU Free Documentation License. An improved license compatibility with the free content ecosystem was given as reason for the license change. In October 2014 the Open Knowledge Foundations Open Definition 2.0 for Open Works and Open Licenses described open as synonymous to the definition of free in the Definition of Free Cultural Works
14.
Remix culture
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Remix culture, sometimes read-write culture, is a society that allows and encourages derivative works by combining or editing existing materials to produce a new creative work or product. A remix culture would be, by default, permissive of efforts to improve upon, change, integrate, the remix culture for cultural works is related and inspired by the earlier Free and open source software for software movement, which encourages the reuse and remixing of software works. In the usual Read Only media culture is the culture consumed more or less passively, the information or product is provided by a professional source, the content industry, that possesses an authority on that particular product/information. There is a one-way flow only of creative content and ideas due to a clear separation between content producer and content consumer. Digital technology does not have the natural constraints of the analog that preceded it, RO culture had to be recoded in order to compete with the free distribution made possible by the Internet. This is primarily done in the form of Digital Rights Management, regardless, DRM has proven largely ineffective in enforcing the constraints of analog media. As opposed to RO culture, Read/Write culture has a relationship between the producer and the consumer. Taking works, such as songs, and appropriating them in circles is exemplary of RW culture. The technologies and copyright laws that soon followed, however, changed the dynamics of popular culture, as it became professionalized, people were taught to defer production to the professionals. Digital technologies provide the tools for reviving RW culture and democratizing production, blogs explain the three layers of this democratization. Blogs have redefined our relationship to the content industry as they allowed access to non-professional, the comments feature that soon followed provided a space for readers to have a dialogue with the amateur contributors. Tagging of the blogs by users based on the content provided the necessary layer for users to filter the sea of content according to their interest. The third layer added bots that analyzed the relationship between various websites by counting the clicks between them and, thus, organizing a database of preferences, the three layers working together established an ecosystem of reputation that served to guide users through the blogosphere. For Remix culture to survive it must be shared and created or remixed by contributors and this is where Participatory culture comes into play, because consumers start participating by becoming contributors, especially the many teens growing up with these media cultures. This form of teaching enforces the correlation between participatory and remix culture while highlighting its importance in evolving literature, since media culture consumers start to look at art and content as something that can be repurposed or recreated therefore making them the producer. Remix culture has created an environment that is impossible for artists to have or own original work. Media and the internet has made art so public that it leaves the work up for interpretation and in return. A major example of this in the 21st century is the idea of memes, once one is put into cyberspace it is automatically assumed that someone else can come along and remix the picture
15.
Attribution (copyright)
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Attribution in copyright law, is acknowledgement as credit to the copyright holder or author of a work. Attribution is often considered as the most basic requirements in the usage of the works of others, with a tradition in the scientific community. In cases when copyright holder is author himself it is regarded as a sign of decency, the most fundamental form of attribution is the statement of the copyright holders identity, often in the form Copyright ©. Copyright holder attribution is in most countries in the world not required, author attribution is required by several licenses, such as the open content Creative Commons licenses and most open-source software licenses like the MIT permissive license. Open content licenses without the requirement for author attribution are Public domain equivalent licenses, like CC0
16.
Share-alike
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Copyleft licences are free content or free software licences with a share-alike condition. Two currently-supported Creative Commons licences have the ShareAlike condition, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike, the term has also been used outside copyright law to refer to a similar plan for patent licensing. Copyleft or libre share-alike licences are the largest subcategory of share-alike licences and they include both free content licences like Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike and free software licences like the GNU General Public License. These licences have been described pejoratively as viral licences, because the inclusion of copyleft material in a larger work typically requires the work to be made copyleft. The term reciprocal license has also used to describe copyleft. Free content and software licences without the share-alike requirement are described as permissive licences, as with all six licences in the current Creative Commons suite, CC Attribution-ShareAlike and CC Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike require attribution. According to Creative Commons, the advantage of this license is that users are not able to add new restrictions to a derivative of your work. Over the years, Creative Commons has issued 5 versions of the BY-SA and BY-NC-SA licenses, Creative Commons hailed this decision as a victory for free culture as well as visionary leadership
17.
Copyleft
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Copyleft software licenses are considered protective or reciprocal, as contrasted with permissive free software licenses. Copyleft is a form of licensing, and can be used to maintain copyright conditions for works ranging from software, to documents. In general, copyright law is used by an author to prohibit recipients from reproducing, adapting, Copyleft licenses for software require that information necessary for reproducing and modifying the work must be made available to recipients of the binaries. The source code files will usually contain a copy of the license terms, Copyleft type licenses are a novel use of existing copyright law to ensure a work remains freely available. The GNU General Public License, originally written by Richard Stallman, was the first software license to see extensive use. Creative Commons, an organization founded by Lawrence Lessig, provides a similar license provision condition called share-alike. Copyleft is a licensing scheme in which an author surrenders some. Under copyleft, derived works may be produced provided they are released under the compatible copyleft scheme, the underlying principle is that one benefits freely from the work of others, but any modifications one makes public must be released under similar terms. For this reason some copyleft licenses are also known as reciprocal licenses, under fair use, however, the copyleft license may be superseded, just like regular copyrights. Therefore, any person utilizing a copyleft-licensed source for their own work is free to any other license provided they meet the fair use standard. According to Free Software Foundation compliance engineer David Turner, the term viral license creates a misunderstanding and a fear of using copylefted free software. If the firm actually copied code from a GPLd program, such a suit would be a perfectly ordinary assertion of copyright, which most private firms would defend if the shoe were on the other foot. Richard Stallman has described this view with an analogy, saying, The GPLs domain does not spread by proximity or contact and it spreads like a spider plant, not like a virus. In particular, permissive free licenses such as BSD allow re-distributors to remove some or all these rights. Reuses of open source software which subvert the freedom of the software by adding extra restrictions are called open source hijacking, other forms of open source licensing are susceptible to hijacking, so creators who desire that their work remain free may choose to use copyleft. The Open Directory Project, which is created and maintained entirely by volunteer editors, since all of the top search engines use DMOZ, it is an extremely important public commodity which is entirely built by volunteer contributions. Despite this, the DMOZ has remained a product for its entire existence. The economic incentives to work on copyleft content can vary, traditional copyright law is designed to promote progress by providing economic benefits to creators
18.
Derivative work
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In copyright law, a derivative work is an expressive creation that includes major copyright-protected elements of an original, previously created first work. The derivative work becomes a second, separate work independent in form from the first, the transformation, modification or adaptation of the work must be substantial and bear its authors personality to be original and thus protected by copyright. Translations, cinematic adaptations and musical arrangements are common types of derivative works, most countries legal systems seek to protect both original and derivative works. They grant authors the right to impede or otherwise control their integrity, derivative works and their authors benefit in turn from the full protection of copyright without prejudicing the rights of the original works author. An extensive definition of the term is given by the United States Copyright Act in 17 U. S. C. A work consisting of editorial revisions, annotations, elaborations, or other modifications which, as a whole, represent an original work of authorship, is a “derivative work”. The copyright in such work is independent of, and does not affect or enlarge the scope, duration, ownership, or subsistence of and this previously published material makes the work a derivative work under the copyright law. To be copyrightable, a work must be different enough from the original to be regarded as a new work or must contain a substantial amount of new material. Making minor changes or additions of little substance to a work will not qualify the work as a new version for copyright purposes. The new material must be original and copyrightable in itself, titles, short phrases, and format, for example, are not copyrightable. The statutory definition is incomplete and the concept of work must be understood with reference to explanatory case law. French law prefers the term œuvre composite although the term œuvre dérivée is sometimes used and it is defined in article L 113-2, alinea 2 of the Intellectual Property Code as the new work in which a pre-existing work without the collaboration of its author. The Court of Cassation has interpreted this statue as requiring two distinct inputs at different points in time, the Court of Justice of the European Union in 2010 decided on a matter of derivative works in Systran v. European Commission. For copyright protection to attach to a later, allegedly derivative work and it cannot be a rote, uncreative variation on the earlier, underlying work. The latter work must contain sufficient new expression, over and above that embodied in the work for the latter work to satisfy copyright law’s requirement of originality. In Durham Industries, Inc. v. Tomy Corp. and earlier in L. Batlin & Son, the Second Circuit held that a derivative work must be original relative to the underlying work on which it is based. Otherwise, it cannot enjoy copyright protection and copying it will not infringe any copyright of the work itself. The Batlin case rested on the copyrightability of an Uncle Sam toy bank and these toys have Uncle Sams extended arm and outstretched hand adapted to receive a coin, when the user presses a lever, Uncle Sam appears to put the coin into a carpet bag
19.
Free content
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Free content, libre content, or free information, is any kind of functional work, work of art, or other creative content that meets the definition of a free cultural work. Free content encompasses all works in the domain and also those copyrighted works whose licenses honor. Although there are a great many different definitions in regular use, free content is legally very similar, if not like an identical twin. An analogy is the use of the terms free software and open source. For instance, the Open Knowledge Foundations Open Definition describes open as synonymous to the definition of free in the Definition of Free Cultural Works, for such free/open content both movements recommend the same three Creative Commons licenses, the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0. Copyright is a concept, which gives the author or creator of a work legal control over the duplication. In many jurisdictions, this is limited by a period after which the works then enter the public domain. Copyright laws are a balance between the rights of creators of intellectual and artistic works and the rights of others to build upon those works. During the time period of copyright the authors work may only be copied, modified, or publicly performed with the consent of the author, unless the use is a fair use. Traditional copyright control limits the use of the work of the author to those who pay royalties to the author for usage of the authors content. Secondly it limits the use of content whose author cannot be found, a public domain work is a work whose author has either relinquished to the public, or no longer can claim control over, the distribution and usage of the work. As such any person may manipulate, distribute, or otherwise utilize the work, a work in the public domain or released under a permissive licence may be referred to as copycenter. Copyleft is a play on the copyright and describes the practice of using copyright law to remove restrictions on distributing copies. The aim of copyleft is to use the framework of copyright to enable non-author parties to be able to reuse and, in many licensing schemes. Copyleft licenses require that any derivative works be distributed under the terms. A symbol commonly associated with copyleft is a reversal of the symbol, facing the other way. Unlike the copyright symbol, the symbol does not have a codified meaning. Projects that provide free content exist in areas of interest, such as software, academic literature, general literature, music, images, video
20.
Debian Free Software Guidelines
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The DFSG is part of the Debian Social Contract. Allowing for modifications and derived works, integrity of the authors source code. No discrimination against persons or groups, no discrimination against fields of endeavor, like commercial use. The license needs to apply to all to whom the program is redistributed, license must not be specific to a product. License must not restrict other software, the GNU GPL, BSD, and Artistic licenses are examples of licenses considered free. The DFSG was first published together with the first version of the Debian Social Contract in July 1997, the Open Source Definition was created by modifying the text of the DFSG soon afterwards. DFSG was preceded by Free Software Foundations Free Software Definition, once the DFSG became the Open Source Definition, Richard Stallman saw the need to differentiate free software from open source and promoted the Free Software Definition. Published versions of FSFs Free Software Definition existed as early as 1986 and it is worth noting that the core of the Free Software Definition is the Four Freedoms, which clearly preceded the drafting and promulgation of the DFSG, but were unknown to its authors. In November 1998, Ian Jackson and others proposed several changes in a draft versioned 1.4, Jackson stated that the problems were loose wording and the patch clause. As of 2011, the document has never been revised, nevertheless, there were changes made to the Social Contract which were considered to affect the parts of the distribution covered by the DFSG. The Debian General Resolution 2004-003, titled Editorial amendments to the social contract, the proposer Andrew Suffield stated, The rule is this resolution only changes the letter of the law, not the spirit. Mostly it changes the wording of the contract to better reflect what it is supposed to mean. This prompted another General Resolution, 2004-004, in which the developers voted overwhelmingly against immediate action, most discussions about the DFSG happen on the debian-legal mailing list. When a Debian Developer first uploads a package for inclusion in Debian, the team sometimes confers with the debian-legal list in difficult cases. Also, the existence of PostScript, executable scripts, sourced documents, thus, to break the confusion, in June 2004 the Debian project decided to explicitly apply the same principles to software documentation, multimedia data and other content. The non-program content of Debian began to comply with the DFSG more strictly in Debian 4.0 and this assertion is the end result of a long discussion and the General Resolution 2006-001. Due to the GFDL invariant sections, content under this license must be contained in an additional non-free repository which is not officially considered part of Debian. The debian-legal mailing list subscribers have created some tests to check whether a license violates the DFSG, the common tests are the following, The Desert Island test
21.
Wikipedia
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Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia that aims to allow anyone to edit articles. Wikipedia is the largest and most popular reference work on the Internet and is ranked among the ten most popular websites. Wikipedia is owned by the nonprofit Wikimedia Foundation, Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, by Jimmy Wales and Larry Sanger. Sanger coined its name, a portmanteau of wiki and encyclopedia, There was only the English language version initially, but it quickly developed similar versions in other languages, which differ in content and in editing practices. With 5,377,348 articles, the English Wikipedia is the largest of the more than 290 Wikipedia encyclopedias, in 2005, Nature published a peer review comparing 42 science articles from Encyclopædia Britannica and Wikipedia, and found that Wikipedias level of accuracy approached Encyclopædia Britannicas. Other collaborative online encyclopedias were attempted before Wikipedia, but none were so successful, Wikipedia began as a complementary project for Nupedia, a free online English-language encyclopedia project whose articles were written by experts and reviewed under a formal process. Nupedia was founded on March 9,2000, under the ownership of Bomis and its main figures were Jimmy Wales, the CEO of Bomis, and Larry Sanger, editor-in-chief for Nupedia and later Wikipedia. Nupedia was licensed initially under its own Nupedia Open Content License, while Wales is credited with defining the goal of making a publicly editable encyclopedia, Sanger is credited with the strategy of using a wiki to reach that goal. On January 10,2001, Sanger proposed on the Nupedia mailing list to create a wiki as a project for Nupedia. Wikipedia was launched on January 15,2001, as a single English-language edition at www. wikipedia. com, Wikipedias policy of neutral point-of-view was codified in its first months. Otherwise, there were few rules initially and Wikipedia operated independently of Nupedia. Originally, Bomis intended to make Wikipedia a business for profit, Wikipedia gained early contributors from Nupedia, Slashdot postings, and web search engine indexing. By August 8,2001, Wikipedia had over 8,000 articles, on September 25,2001, Wikipedia had over 13,000 articles. By the end of 2001, it had grown to approximately 20,000 articles and 18 language editions and it had reached 26 language editions by late 2002,46 by the end of 2003, and 161 by the final days of 2004. Nupedia and Wikipedia coexisted until the servers were taken down permanently in 2003. Citing fears of commercial advertising and lack of control in Wikipedia and these moves encouraged Wales to announce that Wikipedia would not display advertisements, and to change Wikipedias domain from wikipedia. com to wikipedia. org. Around 1,800 articles were added daily to the encyclopedia in 2006, a team at the Palo Alto Research Center attributed this slowing of growth to the projects increasing exclusivity and resistance to change. Others suggest that the growth is flattening naturally because articles that could be called low-hanging fruit—topics that clearly merit an article—have already been created, the Wall Street Journal cited the array of rules applied to editing and disputes related to such content among the reasons for this trend
22.
GNU
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GNU /ɡnuː/ is an operating system and an extensive collection of computer software. GNU is composed wholly of free software, most of which is licensed under the GNU Projects own GPL, GNU is a recursive acronym for GNUs Not Unix. Chosen because GNUs design is Unix-like, but differs from Unix by being free software, the GNU project includes an operating system kernel, GNU HURD, which was the original focus of the Free Software Foundation. However, non-GNU kernels, most famously Linux, can also be used with GNU software, and since the kernel is the least mature part of GNU, the combination of GNU software and the Linux kernel is commonly known as Linux. Richard Stallman, the founder of the project, views GNU as a means to a social end. unix-wizards. Software development began on January 5,1984, when Stallman quit his job at the Lab so that they could not claim ownership or interfere with distributing GNU components as free software, Richard Stallman chose the name by using various plays on words, including the song The Gnu. The goal was to bring a free software operating system into existence. This philosophy was published as the GNU Manifesto in March 1985. It was thus decided that the development would be started using C and Lisp as system programming languages, at the time, Unix was already a popular proprietary operating system. The design of Unix was modular, so it could be reimplemented piece by piece, in October 1985, Stallman set up the Free Software Foundation. In the late 1980s and 1990s, the FSF hired software developers to write the software needed for GNU, as GNU gained prominence, interested businesses began contributing to development or selling GNU software and technical support. The most prominent and successful of these was Cygnus Solutions, now part of Red Hat, GNU developers have contributed to Linux ports of GNU applications and utilities, which are now also widely used on other operating systems such as BSD variants, Solaris and macOS. Many GNU programs have been ported to other operating systems, including proprietary platforms such as Microsoft Windows, GNU programs have been shown to be more reliable than their proprietary Unix counterparts. As of November 2015, there are a total of 466 GNU packages hosted on the official GNU development site. With the April 30,2015 release of the Debian GNU/HURD2015 distro, GNU OS now provides the components to assemble a system that users can install. This includes the GNU Hurd kernel, that is currently in a pre-production state, the Hurd status page states that it may not be ready for production use, as there are still some bugs and missing features. However, it should be a base for further development. Due to Hurd not being ready for use, in practice these operating systems are Linux distributions
23.
GNU General Public License
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The GNU General Public License is a widely used free software license, which guarantees end users the freedom to run, study, share and modify the software. The license was written by Richard Stallman of the Free Software Foundation for the GNU Project. The GPL is a license, which means that derivative work can only be distributed under the same license terms. This is in distinction to permissive free licenses, of which the BSD licenses. GPL was the first copyleft license for general use, historically, the GPL license family has been one of the most popular software licenses in the free and open-source software domain. Prominent free software licensed under the GPL include the Linux kernel. In 2007, the version of the license was released to address some perceived problems with the second version that were discovered during its long-time usage. To keep the license up to date, the GPL license includes an optional any later version clause, developers can omit it when licensing their software, for instance the Linux kernel is licensed under GPLv2 without the any later version clause. The GPL was written by Richard Stallman in 1989, for use with programs released as part of the GNU project, the original GPL was based on a unification of similar licenses used for early versions of GNU Emacs, the GNU Debugger and the GNU C Compiler. These licenses contained similar provisions to the modern GPL, but were specific to each program, rendering them incompatible, Stallmans goal was to produce one license that could be used for any project, thus making it possible for many projects to share code. The second version of the license, version 2, was released in 1991, version 3 was developed to attempt to address these concerns and was officially released on 29 June 2007. Version 1 of the GNU GPL, released on 25 February 1989, the first problem was that distributors may publish binary files only—executable, but not readable or modifiable by humans. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that any vendor distributing binaries must also make the source code available under the same licensing terms. The second problem was that distributors might add restrictions, either to the license, the union of two sets of restrictions would apply to the combined work, thus adding unacceptable restrictions. To prevent this, GPLv1 stated that modified versions, as a whole, had to be distributed under the terms in GPLv1. Therefore, software distributed under the terms of GPLv1 could be combined with software under more permissive terms, according to Richard Stallman, the major change in GPLv2 was the Liberty or Death clause, as he calls it – Section 7. The section says that licensees may distribute a GPL-covered work only if they can all of the licenses obligations. In other words, the obligations of the license may not be severed due to conflicting obligations and this provision is intended to discourage any party from using a patent infringement claim or other litigation to impair users freedom under the license
24.
Creative Commons jurisdiction ports
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To address this issue, Creative Commons has ported the various licenses to accommodate local copyright and private law. The porting process involves both linguistically translating the licenses and legally adapting them to particular jurisdictions, as of August 2011, Creative Commons licenses have been ported over 50 different jurisdictions worldwide. No new ports have implemented in version 4.0 of the license. Version 4.0 discourages using ported versions and instead acts as a single global license which can be used without porting. e, country teams usually have a Project Lead and may have their own website in addition to their listing on the main Creative Commons website. Country teams may be supported by organisations, for example, CC Ireland is a collaboration between Creative Commons and University College Cork, Creative Commonss Jurisdiction Database provides information about the status of its ports for jurisdictions around the world. A summary as of August 2011 is provided here, Creative Commons has developed licenses for the following jurisdictions, Licenses for these jurisdictions are currently being drafted. Armenia Azerbaijan Georgia Indonesia Ireland Nigeria Ukraine Creative Commons is working to establish Affiliate Teams in these jurisdictions, or the drafting process has not begun yet
25.
Jurisdictions
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Jurisdiction is the practical authority granted to a legal body to administer justice within a defined area of responsibility, e. g. Michigan tax law. In federations like the U. S. areas of jurisdiction apply to local, state, colloquially it is used to refer to the geographical area to which such authority applies, e. g. the court has jurisdiction over all of Colorado. The legal term refers only to the authority, not to a geographical area. International laws and treaties provide agreements which nations agree to be bound to, supranational organizations provide mechanisms whereby disputes between nations may be resolved through arbitration or mediation. When a country is recognized as de jure, it is an acknowledgment by the de jure nations that the country has sovereignty. However, it is often at the discretion of each nation whether to co-operate or participate, if a nation does agree to participate in activities of the supranational bodies and accept decisions, the nation is giving up its sovereign authority and thereby allocating power to these bodies. The fact that organizations, courts and tribunals have been created raises the difficult question of how to co-ordinate their activities with those of national courts. But, to invoke the jurisdiction in any case, all the parties have to accept the prospective judgment as binding. This reduces the risk of wasting the Courts time, each such group may form transnational institutions with declared legislative or judicial powers. For example, in Europe, the European Court of Justice has been given jurisdiction as the appellate court to the member states on issues of European law. This jurisdiction is entrenched and its authority could only be denied by a member if that member nation asserts its sovereignty. Hence, in the Netherlands, all treaties and the orders of international organizations are effective without any action being required to convert international into municipal law, in nations adopting this theory, the local courts automatically accept jurisdiction to adjudicate on lawsuits relying on international law principles. Otherwise the courts have a discretion to apply international law where it does not conflict with statute or the common law. According to the Supreme Court of the United States, the treaty power authorizes Congress to legislate under the Necessary and this concerns the relationships both between courts in different jurisdictions, and between courts within the same jurisdiction. The usual legal doctrine under which questions of jurisdiction are decided is termed forum non conveniens, to deal with the issue of forum shopping, nations are urged to adopt more positive rules on conflict of laws. In addition, the Lugano Convention binds the European Union and the European Free Trade Association, council Regulation 44/2001 now also applies as between the rest of the EU Member States and Denmark due to an agreement reached between the European Community and Denmark. In some legal areas, at least, the CACA enforcement of judgments is now more straightforward. At a national level, the rules still determine jurisdiction over persons who are not domiciled or habitually resident in the European Union or the Lugano area
26.
Open content
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Open content is a neologism coined by David Wiley in 1998 which describes a creative work that others can copy or modify. The term evokes the concept of open source software. It has since come to describe a class of content without conventional copyright restrictions. Unlike open source and free content, there is no clear threshold that a work must reach to qualify as open content, in 2003 Wiley announced that the Open Content Project has been succeeded by Creative Commons and their licenses, where he joined as Director of Educational Licenses. The Definition of Free Cultural Works is used by the Wikimedia Foundation, in 2008, the Attribution and Attribution-ShareAlike Creative Commons licenses were marked as Approved for Free Cultural Works among other licenses. Another successor project is the Open Knowledge Foundation, founded by Rufus Pollock in Cambridge, UK in 2004 as a global network to promote and share open content. In October 2014 with version 2, a distinct difference is the focus given to the public domain and that it focuses also on the accessibility and the readability. Among several conformant licenses, six are recommended, three own and the CC BY, CC BY-SA, and CC0 creative commons licenses. The OpenContent website once defined OpenContent as freely available for modification, use, however, such a definition would exclude the Open Content License because that license forbade charging a fee for the itself, a right required by free and open source software licenses. The term since shifted in meaning, OpenContent is licensed in a manner that provides users with free and perpetual permission to engage in the 5R activities. However, it is similar to several definitions for open educational resources, Open access refers to toll-free or gratis access to content, consisting mainly of published peer-reviewed scholarly journal articles. Some open access works are also licensed for reuse and redistribution, over the past decade, open content has been used to develop alternative routes towards higher education. Traditional universities are expensive, and their rates are increasing. Open content allows a way of obtaining higher education that is focused on collective knowledge. There are multiple projects and organizations that promote learning through open content, including OpenCourseWare Initiative, The Saylor Foundation, some universities, like MIT, Yale, and Tufts are making their courses freely available on the internet. The textbook industry is one of the industries in which open content can make the biggest impact. Traditional textbooks, aside from being expensive, can also be inconvenient and out of date, Open textbooks help to eliminate this problem, because they are online and thus easily updatable. Being openly licensed and online can be helpful to teachers, because it allows the textbook to be modified according to the teachers unique curriculum, there are multiple organizations promoting the creation of openly licensed textbooks
27.
Permissive software licence
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A Permissive software license, sometimes also called BSD-like or BSD-style license, is a FOSS software licence with minimal requirements about how the software can be redistributed. Examples include the MIT Licence, BSD licences and the Apache licence, as of 2016, the most popular FOSS licence is the permissive MIT licence. The Open Source Initiative defines a software license as a non-copyleft license. GitHubs choosealicense website described the MIT permissive license as, lets people do anything they want with your code as long as they provide attribution back to you, california Western School of Laws newmediarights. Copycenter is a term used to explain the modified BSD licence. The term was presented by Kirk McKusick, a computer scientist famous for his work on BSD and it is a word play on copyright, copyleft and copy center. ’ The liberty to make as many copies as you want is in fact also provided by all copyleft licenses. However, unlike both copyleft licenses and copyright law, permissive free software licenses do not control the terms that a derivative work falls under. The Copyfree Initiative defines Copyfree as a type of permissive copyright license which falls under their Copyfree Standard Definition, Copyfree licenses include the Simplified BSD licence, the Open Works license, and others, but excludes the GNU GPL or other copyleft licenses. The Creative Commons CC0 public domain dedication and the WTFPL license are also considered to be copyfree, while all copyfree licenses are permissive licenses, not all permissive licenses are copyfree, because they may introduce limitations not allowed under the copyfree definition. Therefore, copyfree can be seen as subset of permissive free licenses, the Apache Licence 2.0 is an example of a non-copyfree permissive licence. Another notable example is the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 license, however, permissive licenses are not actually equivalent to releasing a work into the public domain. Permissive licenses often do stipulate some limited requirements, such as that the original authors must be credited, copyleft licenses enforce the publication of the source code under the copyleft license. Also permissive licenses have often an excellent licence compatibility, in comparison to copyleft licenses who cant be always freely combined and mixed, however, most GPLv2 licensed software allows to upgrade to the terms of later versions of the GPL, achieving by that a somewhat better inter-GPL compatibility. Also, some copyleft licenses have exception clauses that allow combining them with software that is under different licenses or license versions, in general permissive licenses show a good licence compatibility with most other software licenses in most situations. Due to their non-restrictiveness most permissive software licenses are compatible with copyleft licenses. Copyleft licenses dont allow the addition of additional restrictive clauses which would be required in a combined work made from copyleft code. Popular modern permissive licenses, as the MIT Licence, the 3-clause BSD licence, some licenses do not allow derived works to add a restriction that says a redistributor cannot add more restrictions. Examples include the CDDL and MsPL, however such restrictions also make the license incompatible with permissive free software licenses
28.
Open Source Initiative
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The Open Source Initiative is an organization dedicated to promoting open-source software. Later, in August 1998, the added a board of directors. Raymond was president from its founding until February 2005, followed briefly by Russ Nelson and then Michael Tiemann. In May 2012, the new board elected Simon Phipps as president, as a campaign of sorts, open source was launched in 1998 by Jon maddog Hall, Larry Augustin, Eric S. Raymond, Bruce Perens, and others. The group adopted the Open Source Definition for open-source software, based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines and they also established the Open Source Initiative as a steward organization for the movement. However, they were unsuccessful in their attempt to secure a trademark for open source to control the use of the term, public information indicates that the group included Bradley M. Kuhn, Karl Fogel, Jim Blandy, Chamindra da Silva, Lawrence Rosen, and David Ascher. Then-OSI Board member Danese Cooper was the moderator of osi-discuss. Kuhn later recollected that the Charter Membership was a brouhaha and took no action, in 2009, the OSI was temporarily suspended from operation as a California corporation, apparently in response to a complaint concerning tax paperwork from earlier years. In 2012, under the leadership of OSI director and then-president Simon Phipps, the OSI initiated an Affiliate Membership program for government-recognized non-profit charitable and not-for-profit industry associations and academic institutions anywhere in the world. Subsequently, the OSI announced an Individual Membership program and listed a number of Corporate Sponsors, on November 8,2013, OSI appointed Patrick Masson as its General Manager. As early as 1999, OSI co-founder Perens objected to the schism that was developing between supporters of Stallmans Free Software Foundation and the OSI because of their disparate approaches. Stallman has sharply criticized the OSI for its focus and for ignoring what he considers the central ethical imperative
29.
Software patent
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According to the European Patent Office, there is no legal or conclusive definition for a software patent. According to the FFII, software patents should not exist under European law, globally the situation is more complex and reflects varying cultural views of invention itself. Most countries place some limits on the patenting of inventions involving software, for example, U. S. patent law excludes abstract ideas, and this has been used to refuse some patents involving software. There is a debate over the extent to which software patents should be granted, a patent is a set of exclusionary rights granted by a state to a patent holder for a limited period of time, usually 20 years. These rights are granted to patent applicants in exchange for their disclosure of the inventions, once a patent is granted in a given country, no person may make, use, sell or import/export the claimed invention in that country without the permission of the patent holder. Permission, where granted, is typically in the form of a license which conditions are set by the patent owner, to obtain a patent, inventors must file patent applications in each and every country in which they want a patent. For example, separate applications must be filed in Japan, China and these different countries and regional offices have different standards for granting patents. This is particularly true of software or computer-implemented inventions, especially where the software is implementing a business method, on 21 May 1962, a British patent application entitled A Computer Arranged for the Automatic Solution of Linear Programming Problems was filed. The invention was concerned with efficient memory management for the simplex algorithm, the patent was granted on August 17,1966 and seems to be one of the first software patents. Substantive law regarding the patentability of software and computer-implemented inventions, in Canada, courts have held that the use of a computer alone neither lends, nor reduces patentability of an invention. However, it is the position of the Canadian Patent Office that where a computer is an element of a patents claims. Article 52 EPC excludes programs for computers from patentability to the extent that a patent application relates to a program as such. Computer-implemented inventions that only solve a problem using a computer, rather than a technical problem, are considered unpatentable as lacking an inventive step. Nevertheless, the fact that an invention is useful in business does not mean it is not patentable if it solves a technical problem. Concerns have been raised that the new Unified Patent Court will be more open to patents generally. In April 2013, the German Parliament adopted a joint motion against the trend of patent offices to grant patents on software programs. Current case law in the UK states that an invention will only be regarded as an if it provides a contribution that is not excluded. A computer program implementing a process is therefore not an invention
30.
Stock photography
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Stock photography is the supply of photographs, which are often licensed for specific uses. The stock photo industry, which began to hold in the 1920s, has established models including traditional macrostock photography, midstock photography. Conventional stock agencies charge from several hundred to several thousand American dollars per image, to know youre seeing a stock image. Historically notable traditional stock photo agencies have included RobertStock, the Bettman Archive in New York, there was a great amount of consolidation among stock photo agencies between 1990 and the mid-2000s, particularly through Corbis and Getty Images. The early microstock company iStockphoto was founded in May 2000, followed by such as Dreamstime, fotoLibra, Can Stock Photo, Shutterstock. Newspapers and magazines were first able to reproduce photographs instead of drawings in the mid-1880s with the invention of the half-tone printing press. Initially starting with staff photographers, eventually independent free-lance photographers took over and this allowed the photograph and others like it to be commercially viable. In an effort to save the cost of hiring photographers for commission-based photo shoots, one of the first major stock photography libraries was founded in 1920 by H. Armstrong Roberts. The Bettman Archive in New York is an example of a traditional stock agency, with the company delivering photos upon 24-hour request to magazines such as Look. He actively expanded his collection by placing ads in magazines for stills, a different early pioneer with the stock industry was photographer Tony Stone, whose portfolio of mountain scenes proved popular with chocolate advertisers. Stones stock library eventually reached 20,000 images, each selected for its likelihood to sell multiple copies, known as a stock resource for newspapers and magazines, the Hulton Archive started as the photographic archive of Picture Post. As the archive expanded through World War II, it clear that its vast collection of photographs. The Gibbs-Smith system claims to be the world’s first indexing system for pictures, by the 1980s, stock photography had become a specialty in its own right, with the stock industry advancing quickly. As photo libraries transitioned from physical archives to servers in the mid-1990s, the archives also began to rely increasingly on keywords for sorting and retrieving photographs. In 1991 Photodisc in Seattle, Washington began selling CD ROMs with packs of images, unlike their competitors, Photodisc licensed the image packs as Royalty Free. In contrast to the Rights Managed system, royalty free allowed the purchaser of a CD ROM to use the images as many times as they liked without paying further fees. There was an amount of consolidation among stock photo agencies between 1990 and the mid-2000s, with Corbis notably acquiring the massive Bettmann Archive in 1995. After Photodisc went online in 1995, in September 1997, PhotoDisc agreed to combine with London-based Getty Communications to form the Seattle-based Getty Images, in 1996, the Hulton Picture Collection was bought by Getty Images for £8.6 million
31.
Lawrence Lessig
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Lester Lawrence Larry Lessig III is an American academic, attorney, and political activist. He is the Roy L. Furman Professor of Law at Harvard Law School, Lessig was a candidate for the Democratic Partys nomination for President of the United States in the 2016 U. S. presidential election, but withdrew before the primaries. Lessig is a proponent of reduced legal restrictions on copyright, trademark, in 2001, he founded Creative Commons, a non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative works available for others to build upon and to share legally. Prior to his most recent appointment at Harvard, he was a professor of law at Stanford Law School, where he founded the Center for Internet and Society, and at the University of Chicago. As a political activist, Lessig has called for state-based activism to promote reform of government with a Second Constitutional Convention. In May 2014, he launched a political action committee which he termed Mayday PAC with the purpose of electing candidates to Congress who would pass campaign finance reform. Lessig is also the co-founder of Rootstrikers, and is on the boards of MapLight and he serves on the advisory boards of the Democracy Café and the Sunlight Foundation. In August 2015, Lessig announced that he was exploring a candidacy for President of the United States. After accomplishing this, on September 6,2015, Lessig announced that he was entering the race to become a candidate for the 2016 Democratic Partys presidential nomination, Lessig has described his candidacy as a referendum on campaign finance reform and electoral reform legislation. He stated that, if elected, he would serve a term as president with his proposed reforms as his legislative priorities. In November 2015, he ended his campaign, Lessig started his academic career at the University of Chicago Law School, where he was Professor from 1991 to 1997. As co-director of the Center for the Study of Constitutionalism in Eastern Europe there, from 1997 to 2000, he was at Harvard Law School, holding for a year the chair of Berkman Professor of Law, affiliated with the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society. He subsequently joined Stanford Law School, where he established the schools Center for Internet, Lessig returned to Harvard in July 2009 as Professor and Director of the Edmond J. Safra Center for Ethics. In 2013, Lessig was appointed as the Roy L. Furman Professor of Law and Leadership, his lecture was titled Aarons Laws, Law. Lessig was portrayed by Christopher Lloyd in The Wake Up Call, Lessig has been politically liberal since studying philosophy at Cambridge in the mid-1980s. Posner would later call him the most distinguished law professor of his generation, Lessig has emphasized in interviews that his philosophy experience at Cambridge radically changed his values and career path. What was intended to be a year abroad at Cambridge convinced him instead to another two years to complete an undergraduate degree in philosophy and develop his changed political values. During this time, he traveled in the Eastern Bloc
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License compatibility
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License compatibility is a legal framework that allows for pieces of software with different software licenses to be distributed together. License compatibility can be defined differently around the concepts of collective/combined/aggregated work, a stronger definition includes the capability to change the license. As most prominent example, the copyleft licenses demand that the work combined from code under various licenses as whole is applied to the copyleft license. A combined work consists of multiple differently-licensed parts, to achieve a combined work including copyleft licensed components, proper isolation/separation needs to be applied. With individually licensed source code files multiple non-reciprocal licenses can be separated, such source code file separation is too weak for copyleft/reciprocal licenses, as they require then the complete work to be re-licensed under the reciprocal license as derivative. A slightly stronger approach is a separation on the stage with binary object code with all the components living in the resulting program in the same process and address space. This satisfies weak copyleft/standard reciprocal combined works, but not strong copyleft/strong reciprocal combined works, while commonly accepted that linking constitutes a derivative of a strong copyleftd work, there are individual alternative interpretations. For combined works with strong copyleft modules, an isolation is required. This can be achieved for instance by separating the programs by an own process, examples are Androids kernel space-to-user space separation via Bionic, or Linux distros which have proprietary binary blobs included despite having a strong copyleft kernel. While for some domains agreement exist if an isolation is suitable, there are domains in dispute, for instance, in 2015 the SFC sued VMware in an ongoing dispute whether loadable kernel modules are derivative works of the GPLed Linux kernel or not. This is despite both licenses being approved by the Open Source Initiative and Free Software Foundation, License compatibility between a copyleft license and another license is often only a one-way compatibility. This characteristic makes the copyleft GPL incompatible with commercial licenses. This one-way compatibility characteristic is for instance criticized by the Apache Foundation, non-copyleft licenses as the FOSS permissive licenses have a less complicated license interaction and often have in general better license compatibility. The resulting binary can be licensed and sold under a different license as long as the code is still available under CDDL. Many of the most common free software licenses, especially the permissive licenses, such as the original MIT/X license, BSD licenses, MPL2.0, and LGPL, are GPL-compatible. That is, their code can be combined with a program under the GPL without conflict, when it comes to copyleft software licenses, they are not inherently GPL-compatible, even the GPLv2 itself is not compatible with GPLv3 or LGPLv3. If you tried to combine code released under both these licenses, you would violate section 6 of GPLv2, resulting in the incompatibility. However, if code is released under GPL version 2 or later, the FSF-recommended GNU Free Documentation License is incompatible with the GPL, text licensed under the GFDL cannot be incorporated into GPL software
