1.
Davenport, Iowa
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Davenport was founded on May 14,1836 by Antoine Le Claire and was named for his friend, George Davenport, a colonel during the Black Hawk War stationed at nearby Fort Armstrong. According to the 2010 census, the city had a population of 99,685, located approximately halfway between Chicago and Des Moines, Davenport is on the border of Iowa and Illinois. The city is prone to frequent flooding due to its location on the Mississippi River, there are two main universities, Saint Ambrose University and Palmer College of Chiropractic, which is where the first chiropractic adjustment took place. Several annual music festivals take place in Davenport, including the Mississippi Valley Blues Festival, The Mississippi Valley Fair, an internationally known 7-mile foot race called the Bix 7 is run during the festival. The city has a Class A minor league team, the Quad Cities River Bandits. Davenport has 50 plus parks and facilities, as well as over 20 miles of paths for biking or walking. Four interstates and two major United States Highways serve the city, Davenport has seen steady population growth since its incorporation, with an exception being the 1980s, when the population decreased due to job loss. The Quad Cities was ranked as the most affordable metropolitan area in 2010 by Forbes, in 2007, Davenport, along with neighboring Rock Island, won the City Livability Award in the small-city category from the U. S. In 2012, Davenport as well as the Quad Cities Metropolitan Area was ranked among the areas in the nation in the growth of high-tech jobs. The current mayor of Davenport is Frank Klipsch, the land was originally owned by the Sauk people, Meskwaki, and Ho-Chunk – indigenous peoples of the Americas. In 1803 France sold it to the United States under the Louisiana Purchase, lieutenant Zebulon Pike was the first United States representative to officially visit the Upper Mississippi River area. On August 27,1805, Pike camped on the present day site of Davenport, in 1832, a group of Sauk, Meskwaki, and Kickapoo people were defeated by the United States in the Black Hawk War. The United States government then concluded the Black Hawk Purchase, sometimes called the Forty-Mile Strip or Scotts Purchase, the purchase was made for $640,000 on September 21,1832 and contained an area of some 6 million acres, at a price equivalent to 11 cents/acre. Although named after the defeated chief Black Hawk, he was being held prisoner at the time, the purchase was therefore agreed to by Sauk chief Keokuk, who had remained neutral in the war. It was made on the site of present-day Davenport, army General Winfield Scott and Governor of Illinois, John Reynolds, acted on behalf of the United States, with the future Davenport founder, half-Native, Antoine Le Claire serving as translator. Chief Keokuk gave a portion of land to Antoine Le Claires wife, Marguerite. Antoine built their home on the spot where the agreement was signed. Antoine did so, finishing the Treaty House in the spring of 1833, Davenport was established on May 14,1836 by Le Claire, and named after his friend Colonel George Davenport, who was stationed at Fort Armstrong during the war
2.
Scott County, Iowa
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Scott County is a county located in the U. S. state of Iowa. As of the 2010 census, the population was 165,224, Scott County is included in the Davenport-Moline-Rock Island, IA-IL Metropolitan Statistical Area. The first American settlement in the now known as Scott County was Clarks Ferry or Clarks Landing in 1833. Other early towns included Davenport and the town of Rockingham, the area was fully surveyed in 1837, and the county was established by the Wisconsin territorial legislature in that same year. Scott County is named for General Winfield Scott, who was the officer at the signing of the peace treaty ending the Black Hawk War. By 1900 the population of the county was 51,500, Scott County now comprises part of the Quad City region, which includes the cities of Davenport and Bettendorf and Rock Island, Moline and East Moline. The present Scott County Courthouse was completed in 1955 and expanded along with the jail in 2007, the old section of the Scott County Jail was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 468 square miles. The 2010 census recorded a population of 165,224 in the county, there were 71,835 housing units, of which 66,765 were occupied. As of the census of 2000, there were 158,668 people,62,334 households, the population density was 346 people per square mile. There were 65,649 housing units at a density of 143 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 88. 54% White,6. 11% Black or African American,0. 32% Native American,1. 58% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,1. 64% from other races, and 1. 80% from two or more races. 4. 06% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,26. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the family size was 3.04. Age spread,26. 50% under the age of 18,9. 30% from 18 to 24,29. 40% from 25 to 44,23. 00% from 45 to 64, the median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 95.80 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.50 males. The median income for a household in the county was $42,701, males had a median income of $38,985 versus $25,456 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,310, about 7. 70% of families and 10. 50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 70% of those under age 18 and 5. 80% of those age 65 or over
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Davenport Register of Historic Properties
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This is a list of the Davenport Register of Historic Properties in Davenport, Iowa, United States. The historic preservation movement began in the city of Davenport in the mid-1970s with the renovation of historic structures. A comprehensive study of the neighborhoods, districts and architecture was begun in 1978. The study was conducted in three phases, the first two phases were carried out from 1979 to 1982 and the third phase from 1982 to 1983. The results were published in two volumes, davenport—Where the Mississippi Runs West reported on the first two phases and Davenport Architecture—Tradition and Transition reported on the third phase. A Multiple Resource nomination was submitted to the National Register of Historic Places that included 12 districts, by March 1985 all the districts and 249 properties were listed on the national register. The Historic Preservation Commission was established in 1992, and the historic preservation ordinance was passed the same year, Davenport became a Certified Local Government in the state of Iowa. It was now responsible to review local projects participating in state and it was also able to exercise some control over the modification and/or demolition of historic buildings in the city. The historic preservation ordinance also allowed the establishment of a register of historic properties. The first four properties were added in 1992, the list below contains properties on the Davenport Register of Historic Places in alphabetical order, National Register of Historic Places listings in Davenport, Iowa
5.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
6.
Fort Belle Fontaine
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Fort Bellefontaine was the first United States military installation in the Louisiana Territory. Located on the bank of the Missouri River, in present-day Missouri. Rudolf Tiller served as factor and Colonel Thomas Hunt served as the military commander, the trading post was discontinued after 1808, and from 1809 to 1826 the facility served as a United States military fort. During that time period, from about 1809 to 1815, the served as the headquarters of the Department of Louisiana. Part of the site of the fort is preserved as the Fort Belle Fontaine County Park, an archaeological site associated with the fort was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016. Luttig, Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri, 1812-1813, Kansas City, MO, The Missouri Historical Society,1920 Fort Belle Fontaine, US GenNet
7.
Fort Osage
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Fort Osage was an early 19th century factory trading post system ran by the United States, being located in present day Sibley, Missouri. The Treaty of Fort Clark was signed with certain members of the Osage Nation in 1808 calling for the creation of Fort Osage and it was one of three forts established by the U. S. Army to establish control over the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase territories. Fort Madison in SE Iowa was built to control trade and pacify Native Americans in the Upper Mississippi River region, Fort Belle Fontaine near St. Louis controlled the mouth of the Missouri. The fort ceased operations in the 1820s as the Osage in subsequent treaties ceded the rest of their land in Missouri, a replica of the fort was rebuilt on the site between 1948 and 1961. The Fort Osage school district, which serves northeast Independence and the area, was named after it. In the same year Pierre Chouteau of the Chouteau fur trading family, William Clark led a team in September 1808 back to the site to begin construction of Fort Osage. In November 1808 Pierre Chouteau negotiated the Treaty of Fort Clark with certain members of the Osage Nation, in exchange for access to the trading post, the attending Osage agreed to cede all of their lands east of the fort in Louisiana Territory. This effectively left them with a band of territory on the extreme western border of Missouri. The Great Osage were to receive $1,000 and the Little Osage were to get $500, the fort was officially christened Fort Osage by Captain Eli Clemson who was in charge of the military garrison at Fort Osage from 1808 until it was evacuated in 1813. It has also been referred to as Fort Clark in honor of William Clark who was in charge of Indian Affairs. It was one of the first United States military installations in Louisiana Territory, daniel Boone was to visit it in 1814, at the age of 81, while on one of his last hunting trips. Sacagawea and her husband, Toussaint Charbonneau, also stayed at the fort on their way north to Dakota Territory. Fort Osage was abandoned in June 1813 during the War of 1812 because it was not considered to be under threat, since most of the wars fighting was further east and north, the soldiers there were transferred to different locations. After the war the fort was reoccupied in 1815, Fort Osage was for many years a productive location, with the first Factor George C. Sibley reporting prosperous trade with the Osage was due to goods being sold at less than half what the traders extort from them. The end of the War of 1812 and the Adams–Onís Treaty removed the threat of Spanish or British backed Indigenous campaigns against the United States throughout the Louisiana Purchase. As the Osage ceded more and more of their land a new trading post at Fort Scott, Kansas was established closer to the villages near the headwaters of the Osage River near Nevada. Fort Osage formally was closed in 1822 but remained a landmark on the Santa Fe Trail, however, by 1836 it had been totally obliterated with its pre-cut wood used by local settlers for building houses and barns
8.
Fort Madison, Iowa
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Fort Madison is a city and a county seat of Lee County, Iowa, United States along with Keokuk. Of Iowas 99 counties, Lee County is the one with two county seats. The population was 11,051 at the 2010 census, located along the Mississippi River in the states southeast corner, it lies between small bluffs along one of the widest portions of the river. Fort Madison was founded at the location of the first U. S. military fort in the upper Mississippi region, a replica of the fort stands along the river. Sheaffer Pens were developed and made in Fort Madison for many years, the city is the location of the Iowa State Penitentiary—the states maximum security prison for men. Fort Madison is the Mississippi river crossing and station stop for Amtraks Southwest Chief, Fort Madison has the last remaining double swing-span bridge on the Mississippi River, the Fort Madison Toll Bridge. It has a top level for cars and a level for trains. The Fort Madison Downtown Commercial Historic District is a collection of well-preserved historic storefronts from the late 19th century, the city of Fort Madison was established around the site of the historic Fort Madison, which was the first permanent U. S. military fortification on the Upper Mississippi. Fort Madison was the site of Black Hawks first battle against U. S. troops and it was also the location of the first U. S. military cemetery in the upper Midwest. The fort was named for James Madison, fourth President of the United States, Fort Madison was one of three posts established by the U. S. Army to establish control over the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase territories. Fort Madison was built to control trade and pacify Native Americans in the Upper Mississippi River region, a disputed 1804 treaty with the Sauk and affiliated tribes led to the U. S. claim of control over western Illinois and parts of what is now Iowa. To establish control, the U. S. Army set out to construct a post near the mouth of the Des Moines River, again, this land was not considered suitable for a fort. The Army settled on a several miles upstream at what is now the city of Fort Madison. First called Fort Belleview, this post was soon deemed inadequate and it was poorly situated at the base of a bluff next to a deep ravine, areas from which enemies could safely fire at the fort. Black Hawk lamented over the new fort, and disparaged its construction in his autobiography, A number of people went down to see what was going on. On our arrival we found that they were building a fort, the soldiers were busily engaged in cutting timber, and I observed that they took their arms with them when they went to the woods. The whole party acted as they would do in an enemys country and we were pleased at this information and hoped that it was all true, but we were not so credulous as to believe that all these buildings were intended merely for the accommodation of a trader. Being distrustful of their intentions, we were anxious for them to leave off building, —Black Hawk, Autobiography Almost from the beginning, the fort was attacked by Sauk and other tribes
9.
Fort Shelby (Wisconsin)
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Fort Shelby was a United States military installation in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, built in 1814. It was named for Isaac Shelby, Revolutionary War soldier and first governor of Kentucky, the fort was captured by the British during the Siege of Prairie du Chien in July 1814. The British renamed the fort Fort McKay after Major William McKay, Fort McKay remained under British control until 1815, when the British destroyed it before leaving the area. Fort Crawford was built on the site in 1816
10.
Battle of Rock Island Rapids
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The Battle of Rock Island Rapids, also called the Battle of Campbell Island, was an American defeat during the War of 1812 at the hands of the British allied Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo. In July 1814, an expedition was mounted to supply the U. S garrison at Prairie du Chien after calls for help. The U. S expedition was ambushed on July 19, in the aftermath another expedition was sent to re-capture Prairie after it fell to the British. This expedition was too ambushed in the Battle of Credit Island, in June 1814, the U. S army at Fort Shelby, Prairie du Chien, was threatened with British and Indian attack. After calls for more supplies and men reached St. Louis, on July 4, Campbells expedition left Cape au Gris with three fortified barges, or keel boats, each with a cabin and all having sails. There were 33 regular soldiers and 65 rangers, some of the latter being Frenchmen from Cahokia, the regulars were from the 1st and 7th Infantry regiments together with the Illinois rangers. The expedition also included a settlers establishment, boatmen, and women and children, making the total one hundred and thirty-three persons. Lieutenant John Campbell of the First Infantry commanded the first boat, occupied by the 1st Infantry, contractors, the second boat was commanded by Lieutenant Stephen Rector and the third by Lieutenant Jonathan Riggs. The number of regulars in this expedition has been given as forty-two, Major Campbell, however, reported that he had. On July 13, about eighty miles below the mouth of Rock river and they informed Campbell that the American garrison at Prairie was still holding on. On the eighteenth of July, about twenty miles below Rock river and they told Major Campbell that they had heard of the Americans approach and had come to welcome them in peace. The keel boats proceeded up the river and landed on the Illinois shore opposite of the end of Rock Island. In a short time, about one hundred and fifty warriors, besides women and children of the Sauk, Chief Black Hawk was at the head of the party. During the meeting Campbell and Black Hawk discussed opening a war against the Winnebagos only if he had the means to do so. Black Hawk also ensured Campbell that the Mississippi River would remain open to U. S travel, fear that the British, keeping in spirit the Indians remained very friendly for the remainder of the night, recognizing many old friends among the Frenchmen from Cahokia. On the morning of July 19, the continued on its way to Prairie du Chien. However, later last night, a party of Indians arrived at the Sauk village from Prairie du Chien and they brought the Sauks six kegs of powder and told them that the fort at Prairie du Chien had been captured by the British. These messengers told the Sauks that the British wished them to join them in the war against the Americans which Black Hawk agreed to do
11.
Credit Island
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Credit Island is an island in the Mississippi River on the south west side of Davenport, Iowa within the Quad Cities area. Its name was derived by the use of the island as an early Indian trading post, Credit could be obtained on the promise of hides and skins to be delivered at a later time - hence Credit Island. It was listed on the Davenport Register of Historic Properties February 3,1999 and we gave them three shots from the six pounder. At two the Feuille or Leaf with fifty Sioux arrived on their way to join the expedition, shortly after, forty Renards arrived for the same purpose. I gave them fifteen loaves of bread and sent to procure a beef that I knew was for sale, I then inquired of Mr Brisbois, from whom I have had every assistance he could possibly give, even to the distressing of his own family. He furnished a pair of bulls which I gave to the whole of the warriors. The Feuille heard this too late to authorize him to take the Renard. The Feuille does not understand the Renard language himself but this was interpreted to him time after passing the Renard canoe. Sunday August 28 — Gave the Feuille ten bushels of wheat to take him with the Renards to the Rock River, a young lad of this place by the name of Antoine du Bois volunteered his service and embarked with the Sioux interpreter. I gave the Feuille a few articles he was absolutely in want of, wrote a note to Capt Grignon to prepare himself to go off express to Mackinaw to-morrow at ten oclock. Monday August 29 — Finished the dispatches at ten and Capt Grignon being detained in expectation of Mr Antoine Brisbois arriving from below, american Major Taylor led a force of more than 350 U. S. regulars and militia to relieve Prairie du Chien and evacuate the garrison. When Taylors command reached the Rock River on the evening of September 4 and that night, Black Hawk attacked Taylors pickets and killed two of his men. At dawn, Taylor was preparing to land when three British guns opened fire on his boats, under heavy fire, Taylor withdrew downstream, with a further loss of 11 men wounded. The following is Black Hawks recollection of Campbells Island and they landed by running hard aground and lowered their sail. This boat the Great Spirit gave to us, all that could, hurried aboard, but they were unable to push off, being fast aground. We advanced to the rivers bank undercover, and commenced firing on the boat, I encouraged my braves to continue firing. Several guns were fired from the boat, but without effect, I prepared my bow and arrows to throw fire to the sail, which was lying on the boat. After two or three attempts, I succeeded in setting it on fire, the boat was soon in flames
12.
Fort Johnson
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The fort was established in September 1814 by Major Zachary Taylor, future U. S. president. Troops retreating from the Battle of Credit Island constructed the fort after effectively surrendering control of the upper Mississippi to the British and allied Indian tribes, because of the chaotic situation along the Mississippi River frontier, the fort was abandoned in late October 1814 after provisions ran out. The company retreated to Cap au Gris near St. Louis and we arrived in the vicinity in the evening, and encamped on a high bluff for the night. We made no fire, for fear of being observed, I was very tired, and was soon asleep. In the morning I communicated to my braves what the Great Spirit had said to me, took one of them, I soon came in sight of the place where they were building the fort, which was on a hill at the opposite side of the creek. We crawled cautiously on our hands and knees until we got to the land, then through the grass. Here I found a tree that had cut down, I looked in at the top of it and saw a large snake, with his head raised. I raised myself cautiously, and discovered nearly opposite to me and they turned and walked back toward the place where the men were working at the fort. In a little while they returned, walking directly towards the spot where we lay concealed, if they had they would have been killed, for each of us had a good rifle. We crossed the creek and crawled to a cluster of bushes, I again raised myself a little to see if they were coming, but they went into the fort, and by this they saved their lives. We recrossed the creek and I returned alone, going up the same ravine I came down. My brave went down the creek, and I, on raising the brow of a hill to the left of the one we came down, I saw a sentinel walking in the bottom near the mouth of the creek. I watched him attentively, to see if he perceived my companion, the sentinel stopped for some time and looked toward where my brave was concealed. He walked first one way and then the other, I observed my brave creeping towards him, at last he lay still for a while, not even moving the grass, and as the sentinel turned to walk away, my brave fired and he fell. I looked towards the fort, and saw the whites were in confusion, running wildly in every direction. My comrade joined me, we returned to the rest of the party and all hurried back to Rock River, where we arrived in safety at our village. I hung up my medicine bag, put away my rifle and spear, feeling as if I should want them no more, nothing happened worthy of note until spring, except that the fort below the rapids had been abandoned and burned by the Americans. In October 1815 the fort site was reoccupied and rebuilt, christened Cantonment Davis, troops stationed at Cantonment Davis helped to construct Fort Edwards, an important military and trading post occupied until 1824 by the U. S. Army and by traders until about 1832
13.
Battle of the Sink Hole
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The Battle of the Sink Hole was fought on May 24,1815, after the official end of the War of 1812, between Missouri Rangers and Sauk Indians led by Black Hawk. The Sauk were unaware, or did not care, that their British patrons had signed the Treaty of Ghent with the U. S. The battle was fought in a low spot near the mouth of the Cuivre River in Missouri, near Fort Howard, an ambush by Sauk on a company of rangers led to a prolonged siege in which seven Rangers and one Sauk were killed. Conflicting accounts of the action were given by John Shaw and by Black Hawk, after the battle, in 1816, Black Hawk reaffirmed the Treaty of St. Louis after re-negotiation with the United States government
14.
American Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
15.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
16.
Sauk people
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The Sac or Sauk are a group of Native Americans of the Eastern Woodlands culture group. Their autonym is oθaakiiwaki, and their exonym is Ozaagii in Ojibwe, the latter name was transliterated into French and English by colonists of those cultures. Today they have three federally recognized tribes, together with the Meskwaki, located in Iowa, Oklahoma and Kansas, the Sauk, an Algonquian languages people, are believed to have developed as a people along the St. Lawrence River. They were driven by pressure from other tribes, especially the powerful Iroquois League or Haudenosaunee, to migrate to Michigan, French colonists transliterated that as Sac and the English as Sauk. Anishinaabe expansion and the Huron attempt to gain regional stability drove the Sac out of their territory, the Huron were armed with guns supplied by their French trading partners. The Sac moved south to territory in parts of what are now northern Illinois, a closely allied tribe, the Meskwaki, were noted for resisting French encroachment, having fought two wars against them in the early 18th century. The Sac continued moving west to Iowa and Kansas, two important leaders arose among the Sac, Keokuk and Black Hawk. At first Keokuk accepted the loss of land as inevitable in the face of the vast numbers of soldiers and settlers coming west. He tried to preserve land and his people, and to keep the peace. Having failed to receive expected supplies from the Americans on credit, Black Hawk wanted to fight, about this time, one group of Sac moved into Missouri, and later to Kansas and Nebraska. In 1869 the larger group of Sac moved into reservations in Oklahoma, a smaller number returned to the Midwest from Oklahoma They joined the Mesquakie at the Mesqwaki Settlement, Iowa. Originally, the Sauk had a clan system, in which descent. Clans which continue are, Fish, Ocean/Sea, Thunder, Bear, Fox, Potato, Deer, Beaver, Snow, the tribe was governed by a council of sacred clan chiefs, a war chief, the head of families, and the warriors. Chiefs were recognized in three categories, civil, war, and ceremonial, only the civil chiefs were hereditary. The other two chiefs were recognized by bands after they demonstrated their ability or spiritual power, in the 20th century, the tribe adopted a constitutional government patterned after the United States form. Sauk is one of the many Algonquian languages and it is very closely related to the varieties spoken by the Meskwaki and the Kickapoo tribes, linguist often describe these three as dialects of the same language. Each of the dialects contains archaisms and innovations that distinguish them from each other, Sauk and Meskwaki appear to be the most closely related of the three, reflecting the peoples long relationship. Sauk is considered to be mutually intelligible, to a point, in their own language, the Sauk at one time called themselves asakiwaki, people of the outlet
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United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
18.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
19.
Black Hawk (Sauk leader)
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Black Hawk, born Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak, was a band leader and warrior of the Sauk American Indian tribe in what is now the Midwest of the United States. Although he had inherited an important historic medicine bundle from his father, Black Hawk earned his status as a war chief or captain by his actions, leading raiding and war parties as a young man, and a band of Sauk warriors during the Black Hawk War of 1832. During the War of 1812, Black Hawk had fought on the side of the British against the U. S. hoping to push white American settlers away from Sauk territory. Later he led a band of Sauk and Fox warriors, known as the British Band, against European-American settlers in Illinois, after the war, he was captured by U. S. forces and taken to the eastern U. S. He and other war leaders were taken on tour of several cities, the first Native American autobiography to be published in the U. S. his book became an immediate bestseller and has gone through several editions. Black Hawk died in 1838 in what is now southeastern Iowa and he has been honored by an enduring legacy, his book, many eponyms, and other tributes. Black Hawk, or Black Sparrow Hawk was born in 1767 in the village of Saukenuk on the Rock River, Black Hawks father Pyesa was the tribal medicine man of the Sauk people. The Sauk used the village in the summer for raising corn, during the winter, they moved across the Mississippi to present-day Iowa for winter hunts and fur trapping. Little is known about Black Hawks youth and he was said to be a descendant of Nanamakee, a Sauk chief who, according to tradition, met an early French explorer, possibly Samuel de Champlain. At age 15, Black Hawk accompanied his father Pyesa on a raid against the Osage and he won approval by killing and scalping his first enemy. The young Black Hawk tried to establish himself as a war captain by leading other raids and he had limited success until, at age 19, he led 200 men in a battle against the Osage, in which he personally killed five men and one woman. Soon after, he joined his father in a raid against Cherokee along the Meramec River in Missouri, after Pyesa died from wounds received in the battle, Black Hawk inherited the Sauk medicine bundle which his father had carried, giving him an important role in the tribe. After an extended period of mourning for his father, Black Hawk resumed leading raiding parties over the years, usually targeting the traditional enemy. Black Hawk did not belong to a clan that provided the Sauk with hereditary civil leaders and he achieved status through his exploits as a warrior and by leading successful raiding parties. Twenty-first century historians such as John W. Hall have suggested the term war captain for this role, during the War of 1812, Black Hawk, now 45, served as a war leader of a Sauk band at their village of Saukenuk, which fielded about 200 warriors. The Sauk and Fox are consensus-based decision makers and those sent to the meeting with the US government did not have the power to cede tribal territory although Quashquame did. The lack of the consensus aspect by each the Sauk and Fox councils the treaty could never be considered valid by Black Hawk and other traditionalists. Black Hawk took part in skirmishes against US forces at the newly constructed Fort Madison in the disputed land, this was the first time he fought directly against the U. S. Army
20.
Zachary Taylor
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Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. Before his presidency, Taylor was an officer in the United States Army. Taylors status as a hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican-American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died 16 months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery and he remains the only President to come from Louisiana. Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth and he was commissioned as an officer in the U. S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and his success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname Old Rough and Ready. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, in May, Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and managed to drive his troops out of Texas. Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico, where once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September. Defying orders, Taylor moved his troops further south, despite being severely outnumbered, he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista. After this, most of Taylors troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, the Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political beliefs and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination, as president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda, despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and he sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, Taylor died suddenly of a stomach-related illness in July 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of Taylors term, Zachary Taylor was born on November 24,1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. He is inconclusively believed to have born at the home of his maternal grandfather. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family and had three younger sisters and his mother was Sarah Dabney Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution, Taylors second cousin through that line was James Madison, the fourth president. Leaving exhausted lands, his family joined the migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville, Kentucky
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Battle of Tippecanoe
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Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa were leaders of a confederacy of Native Americans from various tribes that opposed US expansion into Native territory. Tecumseh, not yet ready to oppose the United States by force, was away recruiting allies when Harrisons army arrived, Tenskwatawa, a spiritual leader but not a military man, was in charge. Harrison camped near Prophetstown on November 6 and arranged to meet with Tenskwatawa the following day, early the next morning, however, warriors from Prophetstown attacked Harrisons army. Although the outnumbered attackers took Harrisons army by surprise, Harrison, the Native Americans were ultimately repulsed when their ammunition ran low. After the battle, they abandoned Prophetstown and Harrisons men burned it to the ground, destroying the supplies stored for the winter. Harrison, having accomplished his goal of destroying Prophetstown, proclaimed he had won a decisive victory and he gained the nickname Tippecanoe, which was popularized in the campaign song Tippecanoe and Tyler too during the election of 1840, which Harrison won and became president. The defeat was a setback for Tecumsehs confederacy from which it never fully recovered, public opinion blamed the violence on British interference in American affairs through financial and munitions support for the Indians. This led to a deterioration of relations with Britain and was a catalyst of the War of 1812. By the time the US declared war on the United Kingdom in June 1812, in preparation, the Natives soon rebuilt Prophetstown, and frontier violence increased after the battle until Tecumseh was finally killed in 1813 during the Battle of the Thames. Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet, had been leading a movement among the northwestern tribes. His brother, Tecumseh, was outraged by the Treaty of Fort Wayne, not yet ready to confront the United States directly, Tecumsehs primary adversaries were initially the Native American leaders who had signed the treaty. He began by intimidating them and threatening to kill anyone and their followers who carried out the terms of the treaty, Tecumseh began to travel widely, urging warriors to abandon the accommodationist chiefs and to join the resistance at Prophetstown. Tecumseh insisted that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegitimate, in an 1810 meeting with Harrison, he demanded that Harrison nullify the treaty and warned that settlers should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty. Harrison rejected his demands and insisted that the tribes could have relations with the United States. In the meeting Tecumseh warned Harrison that he would seek an alliance with the British if hostilities broke out, tensions between the United States and Britain had been high for several months as a result of British interference in U. S. commerce with France. In August 1811, Tecumseh again met with Harrison at Vincennes, Tecumseh then traveled to the south on a mission to recruit allies among the Five Civilized Tribes. Harrison left the territory for business in Kentucky shortly after the meeting with Tecumseh, by mid-September, most of the militia regiments had formed. By then, Harrison had returned, accompanied by a force of army regulars
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Siege of Fort Mackinac
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The Siege of Fort of Mackinac was one of the first engagements of the War of 1812. A British and Native American force captured the island soon after the outbreak of war between Britain and the United States, encouraged by the easy British victory, more Native Americans rallied to their support. Their cooperation was an important factor in several British victories during the remainder of the war, Mackinac Island was a U. S. fur trading post in the Straits of Mackinac between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. Since the mid-seventeenth century, it had been important for its influence, British and Canadian traders had resented it being ceded to the United States at the end of the American Revolutionary War. The United States Army maintained a fort, named Fort Mackinac. About 40 miles away was the British military post on St. Joseph Island, as soon as he learned of the outbreak of war, Brock sent a canoe party led by the noted trader William McKay to Roberts with the vital news, and orders to capture Mackinac. McKay reached St. Joseph Island on 8 July, as preparations for the expedition proceeded, Roberts received successive orders from Brock to cancel, and then to reinstate, the attack on Mackinac. Colonel Edward Baynes, the Adjutant General for all British forces in Canada, however, on 15 July, Roberts received further orders from Brock which allowed him to use his own discretion. Fearing that the Indians would drift away if they were not allowed to attack and his force was embarked in the armed schooner Caledonia belonging to the North West Company, seventy war canoes and ten bateaux. Fort Mackinac was sited on a ridge which overlooked the harbour at the south-eastern end of the island. The American garrison consisted of 61 artillerymen under Lieutenant Porter Hanks with seven guns, although one of these. There were other weaknesses, the garrison relied for fresh water on a spring outside the fort, the United States Secretary of War William Eustis, who was apparently preoccupied with financial economies, had sent no communications to Hanks for several months. He sent word of the declaration of war on 18 June to the commanders in the northwest by ordinary rate post, though he was unaware of events elsewhere, Hanks had heard rumours of unusual activity at St. Joseph Island. He sent a fur trader named Michael Dousman, who held a commission as an officer in the militia, dousmans boat was captured by the advancing British force, and Dousman apparently quickly changed sides. Hankss force was surprised and was already at a tactical disadvantage, the flag of truce had been accompanied by three of the villagers, who greatly exaggerated the number of Indians in Robertss force. Fearing a massacre by the Indians, Hanks capitulated without a fight, the garrison of the fort was taken prisoner but was released on giving their parole not to fight for the remainder of the war. The islands inhabitants were made to swear an oath of allegiance to the United Kingdom or leave within a month, Roberts arrested three deserters from the British Army and twenty alleged British citizens. There was no looting, although Roberts expropriated the goods in the United States storehouses, the British abandoned their own fort at St. Joseph Island and concentrated their forces at Mackinac Island
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