1.
Davenport, Iowa
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Davenport was founded on May 14,1836 by Antoine Le Claire and was named for his friend, George Davenport, a colonel during the Black Hawk War stationed at nearby Fort Armstrong. According to the 2010 census, the city had a population of 99,685, located approximately halfway between Chicago and Des Moines, Davenport is on the border of Iowa and Illinois. The city is prone to frequent flooding due to its location on the Mississippi River, there are two main universities, Saint Ambrose University and Palmer College of Chiropractic, which is where the first chiropractic adjustment took place. Several annual music festivals take place in Davenport, including the Mississippi Valley Blues Festival, The Mississippi Valley Fair, an internationally known 7-mile foot race called the Bix 7 is run during the festival. The city has a Class A minor league team, the Quad Cities River Bandits. Davenport has 50 plus parks and facilities, as well as over 20 miles of paths for biking or walking. Four interstates and two major United States Highways serve the city, Davenport has seen steady population growth since its incorporation, with an exception being the 1980s, when the population decreased due to job loss. The Quad Cities was ranked as the most affordable metropolitan area in 2010 by Forbes, in 2007, Davenport, along with neighboring Rock Island, won the City Livability Award in the small-city category from the U. S. In 2012, Davenport as well as the Quad Cities Metropolitan Area was ranked among the areas in the nation in the growth of high-tech jobs. The current mayor of Davenport is Frank Klipsch, the land was originally owned by the Sauk people, Meskwaki, and Ho-Chunk – indigenous peoples of the Americas. In 1803 France sold it to the United States under the Louisiana Purchase, lieutenant Zebulon Pike was the first United States representative to officially visit the Upper Mississippi River area. On August 27,1805, Pike camped on the present day site of Davenport, in 1832, a group of Sauk, Meskwaki, and Kickapoo people were defeated by the United States in the Black Hawk War. The United States government then concluded the Black Hawk Purchase, sometimes called the Forty-Mile Strip or Scotts Purchase, the purchase was made for $640,000 on September 21,1832 and contained an area of some 6 million acres, at a price equivalent to 11 cents/acre. Although named after the defeated chief Black Hawk, he was being held prisoner at the time, the purchase was therefore agreed to by Sauk chief Keokuk, who had remained neutral in the war. It was made on the site of present-day Davenport, army General Winfield Scott and Governor of Illinois, John Reynolds, acted on behalf of the United States, with the future Davenport founder, half-Native, Antoine Le Claire serving as translator. Chief Keokuk gave a portion of land to Antoine Le Claires wife, Marguerite. Antoine built their home on the spot where the agreement was signed. Antoine did so, finishing the Treaty House in the spring of 1833, Davenport was established on May 14,1836 by Le Claire, and named after his friend Colonel George Davenport, who was stationed at Fort Armstrong during the war
2.
Scott County, Iowa
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Scott County is a county located in the U. S. state of Iowa. As of the 2010 census, the population was 165,224, Scott County is included in the Davenport-Moline-Rock Island, IA-IL Metropolitan Statistical Area. The first American settlement in the now known as Scott County was Clarks Ferry or Clarks Landing in 1833. Other early towns included Davenport and the town of Rockingham, the area was fully surveyed in 1837, and the county was established by the Wisconsin territorial legislature in that same year. Scott County is named for General Winfield Scott, who was the officer at the signing of the peace treaty ending the Black Hawk War. By 1900 the population of the county was 51,500, Scott County now comprises part of the Quad City region, which includes the cities of Davenport and Bettendorf and Rock Island, Moline and East Moline. The present Scott County Courthouse was completed in 1955 and expanded along with the jail in 2007, the old section of the Scott County Jail was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1983. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has an area of 468 square miles. The 2010 census recorded a population of 165,224 in the county, there were 71,835 housing units, of which 66,765 were occupied. As of the census of 2000, there were 158,668 people,62,334 households, the population density was 346 people per square mile. There were 65,649 housing units at a density of 143 per square mile. The racial makeup of the county was 88. 54% White,6. 11% Black or African American,0. 32% Native American,1. 58% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,1. 64% from other races, and 1. 80% from two or more races. 4. 06% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race,26. 90% of all households were made up of individuals and 9. 00% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.49 and the family size was 3.04. Age spread,26. 50% under the age of 18,9. 30% from 18 to 24,29. 40% from 25 to 44,23. 00% from 45 to 64, the median age was 35 years. For every 100 females there were 95.80 males, for every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.50 males. The median income for a household in the county was $42,701, males had a median income of $38,985 versus $25,456 for females. The per capita income for the county was $21,310, about 7. 70% of families and 10. 50% of the population were below the poverty line, including 13. 70% of those under age 18 and 5. 80% of those age 65 or over
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
4.
Davenport Register of Historic Properties
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This is a list of the Davenport Register of Historic Properties in Davenport, Iowa, United States. The historic preservation movement began in the city of Davenport in the mid-1970s with the renovation of historic structures. A comprehensive study of the neighborhoods, districts and architecture was begun in 1978. The study was conducted in three phases, the first two phases were carried out from 1979 to 1982 and the third phase from 1982 to 1983. The results were published in two volumes, davenport—Where the Mississippi Runs West reported on the first two phases and Davenport Architecture—Tradition and Transition reported on the third phase. A Multiple Resource nomination was submitted to the National Register of Historic Places that included 12 districts, by March 1985 all the districts and 249 properties were listed on the national register. The Historic Preservation Commission was established in 1992, and the historic preservation ordinance was passed the same year, Davenport became a Certified Local Government in the state of Iowa. It was now responsible to review local projects participating in state and it was also able to exercise some control over the modification and/or demolition of historic buildings in the city. The historic preservation ordinance also allowed the establishment of a register of historic properties. The first four properties were added in 1992, the list below contains properties on the Davenport Register of Historic Places in alphabetical order, National Register of Historic Places listings in Davenport, Iowa
5.
War of 1812
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Historians in the United States and Canada see it as a war in its own right, but the British often see it as a minor theatre of the Napoleonic Wars. By the wars end in early 1815, the key issues had been resolved, the view was shared in much of New England and for that reason the war was widely referred to there as Mr. Madison’s War. As a result, the primary British war goal was to defend their North American colonies, the war was fought in three theatres. Second, land and naval battles were fought on the U. S. –Canadian frontier, Third, large-scale battles were fought in the Southern United States and Gulf Coast. With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, early victories over poorly-led U. S. armies demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. Despite this, the U. S. was able to inflict serious defeats on Britains Native American allies, both governments were eager for a return to normality and peace negotiations began in Ghent in August 1814. This brought an Era of Good Feelings in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened American nationalism, the war was also a major turning point in the development of the U. S. military, with militia being increasingly replaced by a more professional force. The U. S. also acquired permanent ownership of Spains Mobile District, the government of Canada declared a three-year commemoration of the War of 1812 in 2012, intended to offer historical lessons and celebrate 200 years of peace across the border. At the conclusion of the commemorations in 2014, a new national War of 1812 Monument was unveiled in Ottawa. The war is remembered in Britain primarily as a footnote in the much larger Napoleonic Wars occurring in Europe, historians have long debated the relative weight of the multiple reasons underlying the origins of the War of 1812. This section summarizes several contributing factors which resulted in the declaration of war by the United States, as Risjord notes, a powerful motivation for the Americans was the desire to uphold national honour in the face of what they considered to be British insults such as the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair. The approaching conflict was about violations of American rights, but it was also vindication of American identity. Americans at the time and historians since often called it the United States Second War of Independence, in 1807, Britain introduced a series of trade restrictions via a series of Orders in Council to impede neutral trade with France, with which Britain was at war. The United States contested these restrictions as illegal under international law, the American merchant marine had come close to doubling between 1802 and 1810, making it by far the largest neutral fleet. Britain was the largest trading partner, receiving 80% of U. S. cotton, the British public and press were resentful of the growing mercantile and commercial competition. The United States view was that Britains restrictions violated its right to trade with others, during the Napoleonic Wars, the Royal Navy expanded to 176 ships of the line and 600 ships overall, requiring 140,000 sailors to man. The United States believed that British deserters had a right to become U. S. citizens and this meant that in addition to recovering naval deserters, it considered any United States citizens who were born British liable for impressment. Aggravating the situation was the reluctance of the United States to issue formal naturalization papers and it was estimated by the Admiralty that there were 11,000 naturalized sailors on United States ships in 1805
6.
Fort Belle Fontaine
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Fort Bellefontaine was the first United States military installation in the Louisiana Territory. Located on the bank of the Missouri River, in present-day Missouri. Rudolf Tiller served as factor and Colonel Thomas Hunt served as the military commander, the trading post was discontinued after 1808, and from 1809 to 1826 the facility served as a United States military fort. During that time period, from about 1809 to 1815, the served as the headquarters of the Department of Louisiana. Part of the site of the fort is preserved as the Fort Belle Fontaine County Park, an archaeological site associated with the fort was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2016. Luttig, Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri, 1812-1813, Kansas City, MO, The Missouri Historical Society,1920 Fort Belle Fontaine, US GenNet
7.
Fort Osage
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Fort Osage was an early 19th century factory trading post system ran by the United States, being located in present day Sibley, Missouri. The Treaty of Fort Clark was signed with certain members of the Osage Nation in 1808 calling for the creation of Fort Osage and it was one of three forts established by the U. S. Army to establish control over the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase territories. Fort Madison in SE Iowa was built to control trade and pacify Native Americans in the Upper Mississippi River region, Fort Belle Fontaine near St. Louis controlled the mouth of the Missouri. The fort ceased operations in the 1820s as the Osage in subsequent treaties ceded the rest of their land in Missouri, a replica of the fort was rebuilt on the site between 1948 and 1961. The Fort Osage school district, which serves northeast Independence and the area, was named after it. In the same year Pierre Chouteau of the Chouteau fur trading family, William Clark led a team in September 1808 back to the site to begin construction of Fort Osage. In November 1808 Pierre Chouteau negotiated the Treaty of Fort Clark with certain members of the Osage Nation, in exchange for access to the trading post, the attending Osage agreed to cede all of their lands east of the fort in Louisiana Territory. This effectively left them with a band of territory on the extreme western border of Missouri. The Great Osage were to receive $1,000 and the Little Osage were to get $500, the fort was officially christened Fort Osage by Captain Eli Clemson who was in charge of the military garrison at Fort Osage from 1808 until it was evacuated in 1813. It has also been referred to as Fort Clark in honor of William Clark who was in charge of Indian Affairs. It was one of the first United States military installations in Louisiana Territory, daniel Boone was to visit it in 1814, at the age of 81, while on one of his last hunting trips. Sacagawea and her husband, Toussaint Charbonneau, also stayed at the fort on their way north to Dakota Territory. Fort Osage was abandoned in June 1813 during the War of 1812 because it was not considered to be under threat, since most of the wars fighting was further east and north, the soldiers there were transferred to different locations. After the war the fort was reoccupied in 1815, Fort Osage was for many years a productive location, with the first Factor George C. Sibley reporting prosperous trade with the Osage was due to goods being sold at less than half what the traders extort from them. The end of the War of 1812 and the Adams–Onís Treaty removed the threat of Spanish or British backed Indigenous campaigns against the United States throughout the Louisiana Purchase. As the Osage ceded more and more of their land a new trading post at Fort Scott, Kansas was established closer to the villages near the headwaters of the Osage River near Nevada. Fort Osage formally was closed in 1822 but remained a landmark on the Santa Fe Trail, however, by 1836 it had been totally obliterated with its pre-cut wood used by local settlers for building houses and barns
8.
Fort Madison, Iowa
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Fort Madison is a city and a county seat of Lee County, Iowa, United States along with Keokuk. Of Iowas 99 counties, Lee County is the one with two county seats. The population was 11,051 at the 2010 census, located along the Mississippi River in the states southeast corner, it lies between small bluffs along one of the widest portions of the river. Fort Madison was founded at the location of the first U. S. military fort in the upper Mississippi region, a replica of the fort stands along the river. Sheaffer Pens were developed and made in Fort Madison for many years, the city is the location of the Iowa State Penitentiary—the states maximum security prison for men. Fort Madison is the Mississippi river crossing and station stop for Amtraks Southwest Chief, Fort Madison has the last remaining double swing-span bridge on the Mississippi River, the Fort Madison Toll Bridge. It has a top level for cars and a level for trains. The Fort Madison Downtown Commercial Historic District is a collection of well-preserved historic storefronts from the late 19th century, the city of Fort Madison was established around the site of the historic Fort Madison, which was the first permanent U. S. military fortification on the Upper Mississippi. Fort Madison was the site of Black Hawks first battle against U. S. troops and it was also the location of the first U. S. military cemetery in the upper Midwest. The fort was named for James Madison, fourth President of the United States, Fort Madison was one of three posts established by the U. S. Army to establish control over the newly acquired Louisiana Purchase territories. Fort Madison was built to control trade and pacify Native Americans in the Upper Mississippi River region, a disputed 1804 treaty with the Sauk and affiliated tribes led to the U. S. claim of control over western Illinois and parts of what is now Iowa. To establish control, the U. S. Army set out to construct a post near the mouth of the Des Moines River, again, this land was not considered suitable for a fort. The Army settled on a several miles upstream at what is now the city of Fort Madison. First called Fort Belleview, this post was soon deemed inadequate and it was poorly situated at the base of a bluff next to a deep ravine, areas from which enemies could safely fire at the fort. Black Hawk lamented over the new fort, and disparaged its construction in his autobiography, A number of people went down to see what was going on. On our arrival we found that they were building a fort, the soldiers were busily engaged in cutting timber, and I observed that they took their arms with them when they went to the woods. The whole party acted as they would do in an enemys country and we were pleased at this information and hoped that it was all true, but we were not so credulous as to believe that all these buildings were intended merely for the accommodation of a trader. Being distrustful of their intentions, we were anxious for them to leave off building, —Black Hawk, Autobiography Almost from the beginning, the fort was attacked by Sauk and other tribes
9.
Fort Shelby (Wisconsin)
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Fort Shelby was a United States military installation in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, built in 1814. It was named for Isaac Shelby, Revolutionary War soldier and first governor of Kentucky, the fort was captured by the British during the Siege of Prairie du Chien in July 1814. The British renamed the fort Fort McKay after Major William McKay, Fort McKay remained under British control until 1815, when the British destroyed it before leaving the area. Fort Crawford was built on the site in 1816
10.
Battle of Rock Island Rapids
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The Battle of Rock Island Rapids, also called the Battle of Campbell Island, was an American defeat during the War of 1812 at the hands of the British allied Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo. In July 1814, an expedition was mounted to supply the U. S garrison at Prairie du Chien after calls for help. The U. S expedition was ambushed on July 19, in the aftermath another expedition was sent to re-capture Prairie after it fell to the British. This expedition was too ambushed in the Battle of Credit Island, in June 1814, the U. S army at Fort Shelby, Prairie du Chien, was threatened with British and Indian attack. After calls for more supplies and men reached St. Louis, on July 4, Campbells expedition left Cape au Gris with three fortified barges, or keel boats, each with a cabin and all having sails. There were 33 regular soldiers and 65 rangers, some of the latter being Frenchmen from Cahokia, the regulars were from the 1st and 7th Infantry regiments together with the Illinois rangers. The expedition also included a settlers establishment, boatmen, and women and children, making the total one hundred and thirty-three persons. Lieutenant John Campbell of the First Infantry commanded the first boat, occupied by the 1st Infantry, contractors, the second boat was commanded by Lieutenant Stephen Rector and the third by Lieutenant Jonathan Riggs. The number of regulars in this expedition has been given as forty-two, Major Campbell, however, reported that he had. On July 13, about eighty miles below the mouth of Rock river and they informed Campbell that the American garrison at Prairie was still holding on. On the eighteenth of July, about twenty miles below Rock river and they told Major Campbell that they had heard of the Americans approach and had come to welcome them in peace. The keel boats proceeded up the river and landed on the Illinois shore opposite of the end of Rock Island. In a short time, about one hundred and fifty warriors, besides women and children of the Sauk, Chief Black Hawk was at the head of the party. During the meeting Campbell and Black Hawk discussed opening a war against the Winnebagos only if he had the means to do so. Black Hawk also ensured Campbell that the Mississippi River would remain open to U. S travel, fear that the British, keeping in spirit the Indians remained very friendly for the remainder of the night, recognizing many old friends among the Frenchmen from Cahokia. On the morning of July 19, the continued on its way to Prairie du Chien. However, later last night, a party of Indians arrived at the Sauk village from Prairie du Chien and they brought the Sauks six kegs of powder and told them that the fort at Prairie du Chien had been captured by the British. These messengers told the Sauks that the British wished them to join them in the war against the Americans which Black Hawk agreed to do
11.
Credit Island
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Credit Island is an island in the Mississippi River on the south west side of Davenport, Iowa within the Quad Cities area. Its name was derived by the use of the island as an early Indian trading post, Credit could be obtained on the promise of hides and skins to be delivered at a later time - hence Credit Island. It was listed on the Davenport Register of Historic Properties February 3,1999 and we gave them three shots from the six pounder. At two the Feuille or Leaf with fifty Sioux arrived on their way to join the expedition, shortly after, forty Renards arrived for the same purpose. I gave them fifteen loaves of bread and sent to procure a beef that I knew was for sale, I then inquired of Mr Brisbois, from whom I have had every assistance he could possibly give, even to the distressing of his own family. He furnished a pair of bulls which I gave to the whole of the warriors. The Feuille heard this too late to authorize him to take the Renard. The Feuille does not understand the Renard language himself but this was interpreted to him time after passing the Renard canoe. Sunday August 28 — Gave the Feuille ten bushels of wheat to take him with the Renards to the Rock River, a young lad of this place by the name of Antoine du Bois volunteered his service and embarked with the Sioux interpreter. I gave the Feuille a few articles he was absolutely in want of, wrote a note to Capt Grignon to prepare himself to go off express to Mackinaw to-morrow at ten oclock. Monday August 29 — Finished the dispatches at ten and Capt Grignon being detained in expectation of Mr Antoine Brisbois arriving from below, american Major Taylor led a force of more than 350 U. S. regulars and militia to relieve Prairie du Chien and evacuate the garrison. When Taylors command reached the Rock River on the evening of September 4 and that night, Black Hawk attacked Taylors pickets and killed two of his men. At dawn, Taylor was preparing to land when three British guns opened fire on his boats, under heavy fire, Taylor withdrew downstream, with a further loss of 11 men wounded. The following is Black Hawks recollection of Campbells Island and they landed by running hard aground and lowered their sail. This boat the Great Spirit gave to us, all that could, hurried aboard, but they were unable to push off, being fast aground. We advanced to the rivers bank undercover, and commenced firing on the boat, I encouraged my braves to continue firing. Several guns were fired from the boat, but without effect, I prepared my bow and arrows to throw fire to the sail, which was lying on the boat. After two or three attempts, I succeeded in setting it on fire, the boat was soon in flames
12.
Fort Johnson
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The fort was established in September 1814 by Major Zachary Taylor, future U. S. president. Troops retreating from the Battle of Credit Island constructed the fort after effectively surrendering control of the upper Mississippi to the British and allied Indian tribes, because of the chaotic situation along the Mississippi River frontier, the fort was abandoned in late October 1814 after provisions ran out. The company retreated to Cap au Gris near St. Louis and we arrived in the vicinity in the evening, and encamped on a high bluff for the night. We made no fire, for fear of being observed, I was very tired, and was soon asleep. In the morning I communicated to my braves what the Great Spirit had said to me, took one of them, I soon came in sight of the place where they were building the fort, which was on a hill at the opposite side of the creek. We crawled cautiously on our hands and knees until we got to the land, then through the grass. Here I found a tree that had cut down, I looked in at the top of it and saw a large snake, with his head raised. I raised myself cautiously, and discovered nearly opposite to me and they turned and walked back toward the place where the men were working at the fort. In a little while they returned, walking directly towards the spot where we lay concealed, if they had they would have been killed, for each of us had a good rifle. We crossed the creek and crawled to a cluster of bushes, I again raised myself a little to see if they were coming, but they went into the fort, and by this they saved their lives. We recrossed the creek and I returned alone, going up the same ravine I came down. My brave went down the creek, and I, on raising the brow of a hill to the left of the one we came down, I saw a sentinel walking in the bottom near the mouth of the creek. I watched him attentively, to see if he perceived my companion, the sentinel stopped for some time and looked toward where my brave was concealed. He walked first one way and then the other, I observed my brave creeping towards him, at last he lay still for a while, not even moving the grass, and as the sentinel turned to walk away, my brave fired and he fell. I looked towards the fort, and saw the whites were in confusion, running wildly in every direction. My comrade joined me, we returned to the rest of the party and all hurried back to Rock River, where we arrived in safety at our village. I hung up my medicine bag, put away my rifle and spear, feeling as if I should want them no more, nothing happened worthy of note until spring, except that the fort below the rapids had been abandoned and burned by the Americans. In October 1815 the fort site was reoccupied and rebuilt, christened Cantonment Davis, troops stationed at Cantonment Davis helped to construct Fort Edwards, an important military and trading post occupied until 1824 by the U. S. Army and by traders until about 1832
13.
Battle of the Sink Hole
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The Battle of the Sink Hole was fought on May 24,1815, after the official end of the War of 1812, between Missouri Rangers and Sauk Indians led by Black Hawk. The Sauk were unaware, or did not care, that their British patrons had signed the Treaty of Ghent with the U. S. The battle was fought in a low spot near the mouth of the Cuivre River in Missouri, near Fort Howard, an ambush by Sauk on a company of rangers led to a prolonged siege in which seven Rangers and one Sauk were killed. Conflicting accounts of the action were given by John Shaw and by Black Hawk, after the battle, in 1816, Black Hawk reaffirmed the Treaty of St. Louis after re-negotiation with the United States government
14.
American Indian Wars
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These conflicts occurred in the current boundaries of the United States from the time of earliest colonial settlements until 1924. In many cases, wars resulted from competition for resources and land ownership as Europeans, Warfare and raiding also took place as a result of conflicts between European governments and later the United States. These governments enlisted Native Americans tribes to help them conduct warfare against each others settlements, after 1776, many conflicts were local, involving disputes over land use, and some entailed cycles of reprisal. In the 1800s, conflicts were spurred by ideologies such as Manifest Destiny, in the years leading up to the Indian Removal Act of 1830 there were many armed conflicts between settlers and Native Americans. Prior to the Act of 1830, some conflicts were resolved through sale or exchange of territory through treaties between the government and specific tribes. The 1830 act authorized the removal of indigenous peoples who lived East of the Mississippi River to the West. As United States citizens continued to settle areas towards the Pacific, the policy of removal was refined to move some indigenous peoples to very specific reservations. The 2010 census found 2,932,248 Americans who identified themselves as being Native American, no consensus exists on how many native people lived in the Americas before the arrival of Columbus, but extensive research has been and continues to be conducted. Estimates on the population of pre-Colombus North America range from a low of 2.1 million to 7 million people to 18 million, scholars believe that the overwhelming main causes were new infectious diseases carried by European explorers and traders. Native Americans had no acquired immunity to diseases, which had been chronic in Eurasian populations for over five centuries. For instance, some estimates indicate case fatality rates of 80–98% in Native American populations during smallpox epidemics. They have cost the lives of about 19,000 white men, women and children, including those killed in individual combats, the actual number of killed and wounded Indians must be very much higher than the number given. Fifty percent additional would be a safe estimate, from about 1600 onwards, the process of European colonization of North America by the English, French, Spanish, Dutch and Swedish was contested by various indigenous tribes. Similarly, in the American Revolution and the War of 1812, the British planned to set up an Indian nation in what is now the Ohio-Wisconsin area to block further American expansion. The U. S. protested and finally, in 1812, most Indian tribes, especially those allied with Tecumseh, supported the British and were ultimately defeated by General William Henry Harrison. The latter were defeated by General Andrew Jackson, during and after such warfare, many refugees from defeated tribes went over the border to Canada, those in the South went to Florida while it was under Spanish control. During the early 19th century, the government was under pressure by settlers in many regions to expel Native Americans from their areas. Some resisted fiercely, most notably the Seminoles in a series of wars in Florida and they were never finally defeated, although some Seminole did remove to Indian Territory
15.
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland
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The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was established as a sovereign state on 1 January 1801 by the Acts of Union 1800, which merged the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland. The growing desire for an Irish Republic led to the Irish War of Independence, Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom, and the state was consequently renamed the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Britain financed the European coalition that defeated France in 1815 in the Napoleonic Wars, the British Empire thereby became the foremost world power for the next century. The Crimean War with Russia and the Boer wars were relatively small operations in a largely peaceful century, rapid industrialisation that began in the decades prior to the states formation continued up until the mid-19th century. A devastating famine, exacerbated by government inaction in the century, led to demographic collapse in much of Ireland. It was an era of economic modernization and growth of industry, trade and finance. Outward migration was heavy to the colonies and to the United States. Britain also built up a large British Empire in Africa and Asia, India, by far the most important possession, saw a short-lived revolt in 1857. In foreign policy Britain favoured free trade, which enabled its financiers and merchants to operate successfully in many otherwise independent countries, as in South America. Britain formed no permanent military alliances until the early 20th century, when it began to cooperate with Japan, France and Russia, and moved closer to the United States. A brief period of limited independence for Ireland came to an end following the Irish Rebellion of 1798, the British governments fear of an independent Ireland siding against them with the French resulted in the decision to unite the two countries. This was brought about by legislation in the parliaments of both kingdoms and came into effect on 1 January 1801, however, King George III was bitterly opposed to any such Emancipation and succeeded in defeating his governments attempts to introduce it. When the Treaty of Amiens ended the war, Britain agreed to return most of the territories it had seized, in May 1803, war was declared again. In 1806, Napoleon issued the series of Berlin Decrees, which brought into effect the Continental System and this policy aimed to eliminate the threat from the British by closing French-controlled territory to foreign trade. Frances population and agricultural capacity far outstripped that of the British Isles, Napoleon expected that cutting Britain off from the European mainland would end its economic hegemony. The Spanish uprising in 1808 at last permitted Britain to gain a foothold on the Continent, after Napoleons surrender and exile to the island of Elba, peace appeared to have returned. The Allies united and the armies of Wellington and Blucher defeated Napoleon once, simultaneous with the Napoleonic Wars, trade disputes, arming hostile Indians and British impressment of American sailors led to the War of 1812 with the United States. The war was little noticed in Britain, which could devote few resources to the conflict until the fall of Napoleon in 1814, American frigates inflicted a series of defeats on the Royal Navy, which was short on manpower due to the conflict in Europe
16.
Sauk people
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The Sac or Sauk are a group of Native Americans of the Eastern Woodlands culture group. Their autonym is oθaakiiwaki, and their exonym is Ozaagii in Ojibwe, the latter name was transliterated into French and English by colonists of those cultures. Today they have three federally recognized tribes, together with the Meskwaki, located in Iowa, Oklahoma and Kansas, the Sauk, an Algonquian languages people, are believed to have developed as a people along the St. Lawrence River. They were driven by pressure from other tribes, especially the powerful Iroquois League or Haudenosaunee, to migrate to Michigan, French colonists transliterated that as Sac and the English as Sauk. Anishinaabe expansion and the Huron attempt to gain regional stability drove the Sac out of their territory, the Huron were armed with guns supplied by their French trading partners. The Sac moved south to territory in parts of what are now northern Illinois, a closely allied tribe, the Meskwaki, were noted for resisting French encroachment, having fought two wars against them in the early 18th century. The Sac continued moving west to Iowa and Kansas, two important leaders arose among the Sac, Keokuk and Black Hawk. At first Keokuk accepted the loss of land as inevitable in the face of the vast numbers of soldiers and settlers coming west. He tried to preserve land and his people, and to keep the peace. Having failed to receive expected supplies from the Americans on credit, Black Hawk wanted to fight, about this time, one group of Sac moved into Missouri, and later to Kansas and Nebraska. In 1869 the larger group of Sac moved into reservations in Oklahoma, a smaller number returned to the Midwest from Oklahoma They joined the Mesquakie at the Mesqwaki Settlement, Iowa. Originally, the Sauk had a clan system, in which descent. Clans which continue are, Fish, Ocean/Sea, Thunder, Bear, Fox, Potato, Deer, Beaver, Snow, the tribe was governed by a council of sacred clan chiefs, a war chief, the head of families, and the warriors. Chiefs were recognized in three categories, civil, war, and ceremonial, only the civil chiefs were hereditary. The other two chiefs were recognized by bands after they demonstrated their ability or spiritual power, in the 20th century, the tribe adopted a constitutional government patterned after the United States form. Sauk is one of the many Algonquian languages and it is very closely related to the varieties spoken by the Meskwaki and the Kickapoo tribes, linguist often describe these three as dialects of the same language. Each of the dialects contains archaisms and innovations that distinguish them from each other, Sauk and Meskwaki appear to be the most closely related of the three, reflecting the peoples long relationship. Sauk is considered to be mutually intelligible, to a point, in their own language, the Sauk at one time called themselves asakiwaki, people of the outlet
17.
United States
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Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
18.
United States Army
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The United States Armed Forces are the federal armed forces of the United States. They consist of the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, from the time of its inception, the military played a decisive role in the history of the United States. A sense of unity and identity was forged as a result of victory in the First Barbary War. Even so, the Founders were suspicious of a permanent military force and it played an important role in the American Civil War, where leading generals on both sides were picked from members of the United States military. Not until the outbreak of World War II did a standing army become officially established. The National Security Act of 1947, adopted following World War II and during the Cold Wars onset, the U. S. military is one of the largest militaries in terms of number of personnel. It draws its personnel from a pool of paid volunteers. As of 2016, the United States spends about $580.3 billion annually to fund its military forces, put together, the United States constitutes roughly 40 percent of the worlds military expenditures. For the period 2010–14, the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute found that the United States was the worlds largest exporter of major arms, the United States was also the worlds eighth largest importer of major weapons for the same period. The history of the U. S. military dates to 1775 and these forces demobilized in 1784 after the Treaty of Paris ended the War for Independence. All three services trace their origins to the founding of the Continental Army, the Continental Navy, the United States President is the U. S. militarys commander-in-chief. Rising tensions at various times with Britain and France and the ensuing Quasi-War and War of 1812 quickened the development of the U. S. Navy, the reserve branches formed a military strategic reserve during the Cold War, to be called into service in case of war. Time magazines Mark Thompson has suggested that with the War on Terror, Command over the armed forces is established in the United States Constitution. The sole power of command is vested in the President by Article II as Commander-in-Chief, the Constitution also allows for the creation of executive Departments headed principal officers whose opinion the President can require. This allowance in the Constitution formed the basis for creation of the Department of Defense in 1947 by the National Security Act, the Defense Department is headed by the Secretary of Defense, who is a civilian and member of the Cabinet. The Defense Secretary is second in the chain of command, just below the President. Together, the President and the Secretary of Defense comprise the National Command Authority, to coordinate military strategy with political affairs, the President has a National Security Council headed by the National Security Advisor. The collective body has only power to the President
19.
Black Hawk (Sauk leader)
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Black Hawk, born Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak, was a band leader and warrior of the Sauk American Indian tribe in what is now the Midwest of the United States. Although he had inherited an important historic medicine bundle from his father, Black Hawk earned his status as a war chief or captain by his actions, leading raiding and war parties as a young man, and a band of Sauk warriors during the Black Hawk War of 1832. During the War of 1812, Black Hawk had fought on the side of the British against the U. S. hoping to push white American settlers away from Sauk territory. Later he led a band of Sauk and Fox warriors, known as the British Band, against European-American settlers in Illinois, after the war, he was captured by U. S. forces and taken to the eastern U. S. He and other war leaders were taken on tour of several cities, the first Native American autobiography to be published in the U. S. his book became an immediate bestseller and has gone through several editions. Black Hawk died in 1838 in what is now southeastern Iowa and he has been honored by an enduring legacy, his book, many eponyms, and other tributes. Black Hawk, or Black Sparrow Hawk was born in 1767 in the village of Saukenuk on the Rock River, Black Hawks father Pyesa was the tribal medicine man of the Sauk people. The Sauk used the village in the summer for raising corn, during the winter, they moved across the Mississippi to present-day Iowa for winter hunts and fur trapping. Little is known about Black Hawks youth and he was said to be a descendant of Nanamakee, a Sauk chief who, according to tradition, met an early French explorer, possibly Samuel de Champlain. At age 15, Black Hawk accompanied his father Pyesa on a raid against the Osage and he won approval by killing and scalping his first enemy. The young Black Hawk tried to establish himself as a war captain by leading other raids and he had limited success until, at age 19, he led 200 men in a battle against the Osage, in which he personally killed five men and one woman. Soon after, he joined his father in a raid against Cherokee along the Meramec River in Missouri, after Pyesa died from wounds received in the battle, Black Hawk inherited the Sauk medicine bundle which his father had carried, giving him an important role in the tribe. After an extended period of mourning for his father, Black Hawk resumed leading raiding parties over the years, usually targeting the traditional enemy. Black Hawk did not belong to a clan that provided the Sauk with hereditary civil leaders and he achieved status through his exploits as a warrior and by leading successful raiding parties. Twenty-first century historians such as John W. Hall have suggested the term war captain for this role, during the War of 1812, Black Hawk, now 45, served as a war leader of a Sauk band at their village of Saukenuk, which fielded about 200 warriors. The Sauk and Fox are consensus-based decision makers and those sent to the meeting with the US government did not have the power to cede tribal territory although Quashquame did. The lack of the consensus aspect by each the Sauk and Fox councils the treaty could never be considered valid by Black Hawk and other traditionalists. Black Hawk took part in skirmishes against US forces at the newly constructed Fort Madison in the disputed land, this was the first time he fought directly against the U. S. Army
20.
Zachary Taylor
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Zachary Taylor was the 12th President of the United States, serving from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. Before his presidency, Taylor was an officer in the United States Army. Taylors status as a hero as a result of his victories in the Mexican-American War won him election to the White House despite his vague political beliefs. His top priority as president was preserving the Union, but he died 16 months into his term, before making any progress on the status of slavery and he remains the only President to come from Louisiana. Taylor was born into a prominent family of planters who migrated westward from Virginia to Kentucky in his youth and he was commissioned as an officer in the U. S. Army in 1808 and made a name for himself as a captain in the War of 1812. He climbed the ranks establishing military forts along the Mississippi River and his success in the Second Seminole War attracted national attention and earned him the nickname Old Rough and Ready. The Mexican–American War broke out in April 1846, in May, Taylor defeated Mexican troops commanded by General Mariano Arista at the Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and managed to drive his troops out of Texas. Taylor subsequently led his troops into Mexico, where once again defeated Mexican troops commanded by Pedro de Ampudia at the Battle of Monterrey in September. Defying orders, Taylor moved his troops further south, despite being severely outnumbered, he dealt a crushing blow to Mexican forces under Antonio López de Santa Anna in February 1847 at the Battle of Buena Vista. After this, most of Taylors troops were transferred to the command of Major General Winfield Scott, the Whig Party convinced the reluctant Taylor to lead their ticket in the 1848 presidential election, despite his unclear political beliefs and lack of interest in politics. At the 1848 Whig National Convention, Taylor defeated Scott and former Senator Henry Clay to take the nomination, as president, Taylor kept his distance from Congress and his cabinet, even as partisan tensions threatened to divide the Union. Debate over the status of slavery in the Mexican Cession dominated the political agenda, despite being a Southerner and a slaveholder himself, Taylor did not push for the expansion of slavery, and he sought sectional harmony above all other concerns. To avoid the issue of slavery, he urged settlers in New Mexico and California to bypass the territorial stage and draft constitutions for statehood, Taylor died suddenly of a stomach-related illness in July 1850, with his administration having accomplished little aside from the ratification of the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty. Fillmore served the remainder of Taylors term, Zachary Taylor was born on November 24,1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. He is inconclusively believed to have born at the home of his maternal grandfather. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family and had three younger sisters and his mother was Sarah Dabney Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution, Taylors second cousin through that line was James Madison, the fourth president. Leaving exhausted lands, his family joined the migration out of Virginia and settled near what developed as Louisville, Kentucky
21.
Battle of Tippecanoe
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Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa were leaders of a confederacy of Native Americans from various tribes that opposed US expansion into Native territory. Tecumseh, not yet ready to oppose the United States by force, was away recruiting allies when Harrisons army arrived, Tenskwatawa, a spiritual leader but not a military man, was in charge. Harrison camped near Prophetstown on November 6 and arranged to meet with Tenskwatawa the following day, early the next morning, however, warriors from Prophetstown attacked Harrisons army. Although the outnumbered attackers took Harrisons army by surprise, Harrison, the Native Americans were ultimately repulsed when their ammunition ran low. After the battle, they abandoned Prophetstown and Harrisons men burned it to the ground, destroying the supplies stored for the winter. Harrison, having accomplished his goal of destroying Prophetstown, proclaimed he had won a decisive victory and he gained the nickname Tippecanoe, which was popularized in the campaign song Tippecanoe and Tyler too during the election of 1840, which Harrison won and became president. The defeat was a setback for Tecumsehs confederacy from which it never fully recovered, public opinion blamed the violence on British interference in American affairs through financial and munitions support for the Indians. This led to a deterioration of relations with Britain and was a catalyst of the War of 1812. By the time the US declared war on the United Kingdom in June 1812, in preparation, the Natives soon rebuilt Prophetstown, and frontier violence increased after the battle until Tecumseh was finally killed in 1813 during the Battle of the Thames. Tenskwatawa, known as the Prophet, had been leading a movement among the northwestern tribes. His brother, Tecumseh, was outraged by the Treaty of Fort Wayne, not yet ready to confront the United States directly, Tecumsehs primary adversaries were initially the Native American leaders who had signed the treaty. He began by intimidating them and threatening to kill anyone and their followers who carried out the terms of the treaty, Tecumseh began to travel widely, urging warriors to abandon the accommodationist chiefs and to join the resistance at Prophetstown. Tecumseh insisted that the Fort Wayne treaty was illegitimate, in an 1810 meeting with Harrison, he demanded that Harrison nullify the treaty and warned that settlers should not attempt to settle the lands sold in the treaty. Harrison rejected his demands and insisted that the tribes could have relations with the United States. In the meeting Tecumseh warned Harrison that he would seek an alliance with the British if hostilities broke out, tensions between the United States and Britain had been high for several months as a result of British interference in U. S. commerce with France. In August 1811, Tecumseh again met with Harrison at Vincennes, Tecumseh then traveled to the south on a mission to recruit allies among the Five Civilized Tribes. Harrison left the territory for business in Kentucky shortly after the meeting with Tecumseh, by mid-September, most of the militia regiments had formed. By then, Harrison had returned, accompanied by a force of army regulars
22.
Siege of Fort Mackinac
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The Siege of Fort of Mackinac was one of the first engagements of the War of 1812. A British and Native American force captured the island soon after the outbreak of war between Britain and the United States, encouraged by the easy British victory, more Native Americans rallied to their support. Their cooperation was an important factor in several British victories during the remainder of the war, Mackinac Island was a U. S. fur trading post in the Straits of Mackinac between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron. Since the mid-seventeenth century, it had been important for its influence, British and Canadian traders had resented it being ceded to the United States at the end of the American Revolutionary War. The United States Army maintained a fort, named Fort Mackinac. About 40 miles away was the British military post on St. Joseph Island, as soon as he learned of the outbreak of war, Brock sent a canoe party led by the noted trader William McKay to Roberts with the vital news, and orders to capture Mackinac. McKay reached St. Joseph Island on 8 July, as preparations for the expedition proceeded, Roberts received successive orders from Brock to cancel, and then to reinstate, the attack on Mackinac. Colonel Edward Baynes, the Adjutant General for all British forces in Canada, however, on 15 July, Roberts received further orders from Brock which allowed him to use his own discretion. Fearing that the Indians would drift away if they were not allowed to attack and his force was embarked in the armed schooner Caledonia belonging to the North West Company, seventy war canoes and ten bateaux. Fort Mackinac was sited on a ridge which overlooked the harbour at the south-eastern end of the island. The American garrison consisted of 61 artillerymen under Lieutenant Porter Hanks with seven guns, although one of these. There were other weaknesses, the garrison relied for fresh water on a spring outside the fort, the United States Secretary of War William Eustis, who was apparently preoccupied with financial economies, had sent no communications to Hanks for several months. He sent word of the declaration of war on 18 June to the commanders in the northwest by ordinary rate post, though he was unaware of events elsewhere, Hanks had heard rumours of unusual activity at St. Joseph Island. He sent a fur trader named Michael Dousman, who held a commission as an officer in the militia, dousmans boat was captured by the advancing British force, and Dousman apparently quickly changed sides. Hankss force was surprised and was already at a tactical disadvantage, the flag of truce had been accompanied by three of the villagers, who greatly exaggerated the number of Indians in Robertss force. Fearing a massacre by the Indians, Hanks capitulated without a fight, the garrison of the fort was taken prisoner but was released on giving their parole not to fight for the remainder of the war. The islands inhabitants were made to swear an oath of allegiance to the United Kingdom or leave within a month, Roberts arrested three deserters from the British Army and twenty alleged British citizens. There was no looting, although Roberts expropriated the goods in the United States storehouses, the British abandoned their own fort at St. Joseph Island and concentrated their forces at Mackinac Island
23.
Battle of Fort Dearborn
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The battle, which occurred during the War of 1812, followed the evacuation of the fort as ordered by William Hull, commander of the United States Army of the Northwest. The battle lasted about 15 minutes and resulted in a victory for the Native Americans. Fort Dearborn was burned down and those soldiers and settlers who survived were taken captive, Fort Dearborn was constructed by United States troops under the command of Captain John Whistler in 1803. It was located on the bank of the main stem of the Chicago River in what is now the Loop community area of downtown Chicago. At the time, the area was seen as wilderness, in the view of later commander, Heald, the fort was named in honor of Henry Dearborn, then United States Secretary of War. It had been commissioned following the Northwest Indian War of 1785–1795, the British Empire had ceded the Northwest Territory—comprising the modern states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin—to the United States in the Treaty of Paris in 1783. However the area had been the subject of dispute between the Native American nations and the United States since the passage of the Northwest Ordinance in 1787, the Indian Nations followed Tenskwatawa, the Shawnee prophet and the brother of Tecumseh. Tenskwatawa had a vision of purifying his society by expelling the children of the Evil Spirit, Tenskwatawa and Tecumseh formed a confederation of numerous tribes to block American expansion. The British saw the Native American nations as valuable allies and a buffer to its Canadian colonies, attacks on American settlers in the Northwest further aggravated tensions between Britain and the United States. The Confederations raids hindered American access to potentially valuable farmlands, mineral deposits, in 1810, as a result of a long running feud, Captain Whistler and other senior officers at Fort Dearborn were removed. Whistler was replaced by Captain Nathan Heald, who had stationed at Fort Wayne. Heald was dissatisfied with his new posting and immediately applied for a leave of absence to spend the winter in Massachusetts. On his return journey to Chicago, he visited Kentucky, where he married Rebekah Wells, the daughter of Samuel Wells, as the United States and Britain moved towards war, antipathy between the settlers and Native Americans in the Chicago area increased. In the summer of 1811, British emissaries tried to enlist the support of Native Americans in the region, on April 6,1812, a band of Winnebago Indians murdered Liberty White, an American, and John B. Cardin, a French Canadian, at a farm called Hardscrabble that was located on the branch of the Chicago River. News of the murder was carried to Fort Dearborn by a soldier of the garrison named John Kelso, following the murder, some residents of Chicago moved into the fort while the rest fortified themselves in a house that had belonged to Charles Jouett, a Native American agent. Fifteen men from the population were organized into a militia by Captain Heald. On June 18,1812, the United States declared war on the British Empire, Hull also sent a copy of these orders to Fort Wayne with additional instructions to provide Heald with all the information, advice and assistance within their power
24.
Siege of Detroit
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The Siege of Detroit, also known as the Surrender of Detroit, or the Battle of Fort Detroit, was an early engagement in the Anglo-American War of 1812. The British victory reinvigorated the militia and civil authorities of Upper Canada, many Native American people in the Northwest Territory were inspired to take arms against American outposts and settlers. The British held Detroit for more than a year before their small fleet on Lake Erie was defeated, in particular it was urgently necessary to reinforce the outpost of Detroit, which had a population of 800 but a peacetime garrison of only 120 soldiers. Madison and Eustis concurred with this plan, Madison offered command of the army to Hull, an ageing veteran of the American Revolutionary War. Hull was initially reluctant to take the appointment, but no other officer with his prestige, after repeated pleas from Madison, Hull finally accepted, and was commissioned as a Brigadier General in the United States Army. Hulls army consisted initially of three regiments of Ohio militia under Colonels Lewis Cass, Duncan McArthur and James Findlay. When Hull took command of them at Dayton on 25 May, he found that they were equipped and ill-disciplined. He made hasty efforts to remedy the deficiencies in equipment, Infantry under Lieutenant Colonel James Miller, the army marched north from Urbana on 10 June. On instructions from Eustis, Hull ignored an earlier established by Anthony Wayne. On 26 June, he received a letter from Eustis, dated 18 June, warning him that war was imminent, Eustis had sent his first letter of 18 June by special messenger. Congress had passed the declaration of war later that day but Eustis sent a letter to Hull with this vital information only by ordinary mail. On 28 June, the postmaster at Cleveland, Ohio hired an express rider to rush the letter to Hull but even this arrived only on 2 July. On 2 July, the unsuspecting Cayahoga was captured by a Canadian-manned armed brig of the Provincial Marine, Hull reached Detroit on 5 July. Here he was reinforced by detachments of Michigan militia, including the 140 men of the Michigan Legionary Corps which Hull had established in 1805, the American army was short of supplies, especially food, as Detroit apparently provided only soap and whiskey. Nevertheless, Eustis urged Hull to attack Amherstburg, the fort there was defended by 300 British regulars, mainly from the 41st Regiment of Foot,400 Native Americans, and some militia. The posts commander was Colonel St. George, who was superseded by Colonel Henry Procter of the 41st. Although Hull was not enthusiastic, writing to Eustis that The British command the water and he issued several proclamations which were intended to induce Canadians to join or support his army. Some of his troops raided up the Thames as far as Moraviantown
25.
Siege of Fort Harrison
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The Siege of Fort Harrison was an engagement that lasted from September 4 to 15,1812. Harrison had long advocated building a fort in the strategic location, the fort protected the armys supply lines, as well as the capital of the Indiana Territory downstream in Vincennes. The site, located in present-day Vigo County, Indiana, at the edge of Terre Haute, was only two miles from the Wea village of Weauteno. It was said to be the location of a battle involving the Illiniwek. Major Joseph Hamilton Daveiss proposed that the stockade be named Fort Harrison in General Harrisons honor, the fort was finished October 28,1811, and had a 150 feet stockade encircling the post. Leaving the fort and a garrison under Colonel James Miller, Harrison led his army to the Tippecanoe battleground. When the army returned, Harrison left Captain Josiah Snelling in command of Fort Harrison, Snelling served as commandant of the fort from November 11,1811 until May 1812. During that winter, the fort was shaken by the 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes, Snelling was later transferred to Fort Detroit. After the outbreak of the War of 1812, Captain Zachary Taylor, future President of the United States, was ordered by Harrison to leave Fort Knox and assume command of Fort Harrison. The United States had suffered a series of defeats immediately after war was declared, at the hands of the British, Canadians and these victories helped motivate other native tribes to take up campaigns against remote American outposts. On September 3,1812, a band of Miami arrived and warned Captain Taylor that they would soon be attacked by a force of Native Americans. That evening, shots were heard, but Taylor was hesitant to send a scout party and he only had 50 men in his garrison, and sickness had reduced the number of effective soldiers to only 15. In the morning, a party was dispatched and discovered the bodies of two settlers, the Doyle brothers. The brothers were buried, and the party reported back to Fort Harrison, Captain Taylor, with his 15 able soldiers and about 5 healthy settlers, made ready for the expected attack. Each of the 20 men was issued sixteen rounds to fire and that day, September 4, a force of 600 Potawatomi, Wea, Shawnee, Kickapoo and Winnebago warriors approached Fort Harrison. A party of 40 men under command of Kickapoo Chief Namahtoha approached under a flag of truce, Taylor agreed, and the Indian force retreated to camp for the night. That night, a warrior crawled up and set the blockhouse on fire, when the sentries opened fire on the arsonist, the 600-strong Indian war party attacked the west side of the fort. Taylor ordered the forts surgeon and a handful of defenders to control the fire, the blockhouse, which was attached to the barracks, had a store of whiskey, which soon ignited, and the fire raged out of control
26.
Siege of Fort Wayne
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The Siege of Fort Wayne took place during the War of 1812, between United States and American Indian forces in the wake of the successful British campaigns of 1812. Since 1811, after the defeat at the Battle of Tippecanoe. Encouraged by other British/Native American victories at places such as Fort Dearborn and Detroit, Fort Wayne, in northeast Indiana Territory, had fallen into disrepair in the years leading up to 1812. As a frontier outpost stationed in a busy Native American town, the garrison was often insubordinate, the walls, once strong enough to withstand cannonballs, had not been maintained. Although there was a well inside the fort, the food stores had gotten low by September. The garrison first learned of the fall of Fort Dearborn on 26 August, on 28 August, Stephen Johnston, the assistant trade factor at Fort Wayne, was killed a mile away from Fort Wayne. The news was met with alarm, and John Johnston of Piqua, in September 1812, Indians from the Potawatomi and Miami tribes, led by Chief Winamac, gathered around Fort Wayne. Captain James Rhea sent letters to John Johnston and Ohio Governor Return Meigs to ask for assistance, the growing Indian threat outside the fort led Rhea to begin drinking heavily. On several occasions Rhea invited Indian delegates into the fort to discuss terms of peace with the Indians, on 4 September, Potawatomi chiefs Winamac and Five Medals approached the fort under a flag of truce and asked to speak to Captain Rhea. Rhea, who had been drinking, met them at the gate, Rhea invited Winamac to his quarters, where they shared wine. Rhea declared Winamac to be his friend, and invited him back for breakfast the next day, Winamac interpreted feigned friendship as cowardliness, however, and prepared for battle. Morning 5 September, the siege began when Chief Winamacs forces attacked two soldiers returning from an outhouse, the Native Americans assaulted the fort from the east side and burned the homes of the surrounding village. The Indians constructed two wooden cannons and were able to trick the garrison into thinking they had artillery besieging the fort as well, Captain Rhea was again drunk, and took to his quarters, sick. The Indian Agent at Fort Wayne, Benjamin Stickney, was recovering from an illness, Chief Winamac came to the gate again, that evening, and was admitted- unarmed- with thirteen of his men. As they talked, Winamac revealed a knife that he had hidden, Winamac left the fort, and the Native American forces opened fire at about eight oclock PM. Winamacs forces tried to set the fort on fire, and while the garrison- about 70 soldiers and some tried to keep the walls wet, they returned fire with muskets. The battle lasted until three oclock in the afternoon on 6 September, when the American Indian forces retired to a distance from the fort. The fighting resumed at nine oclock that night, efforts were already underway to reinforce Fort Wayne after the news of Fort Detroit reached Newport Barracks
27.
Battle of Wild Cat Creek
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The Battle of Wild Cat Creek was the result of a November 1812 punitive expedition against Native American villages during the War of 1812. It has been nicknamed Spurs Defeat, which is thought to refer to the used by the soldiers to drive their horses away from the battle as quickly as possible. The campaign is sometimes referred to as the Second Battle of Tippecanoe, russell, coming from the Siege of Fort Harrison, led a force of Illinois militia and Indiana Rangers, and was successful in destroying a hostile Kickapoo village on Peoria Lake. Russell had to retreat to Cahokia, however, when he could not locate the forces under Hopkins, Hopkins could not get his Kentucky militia to engage, and had been driven back to Vincennes when the Kickapoo started a prairie grass fire. Major General Hopkins was humiliated by his loss, and discharged the Kentucky militia under his command. He then raised a new army, consisting of three regiments of Kentucky Infantry, one company of the 7th Infantry under Major Zachary Taylor, a troop of Indiana Rangers, and a company of scouts. Hopkins left Vincennes on 11 November 1812 and marched north, following the same route William Henry Harrison had taken in 1811, when the army reached the site of the Battle of Tippecanoe, they found that some of the United States dead had been exhumed and scalped. The bodies were reburied before the army proceeded to Prophetstown, which it reached on 19 November, Prophetstown had been destroyed in the 1811 Battle of Tippecanoe, but was now partially rebuilt, with an even larger Kickapoo village nearby. All residents and provisions had been evacuated as the army approached, the army burned the villages to the ground. A Winnebago village was nearby, on Wildcat Creek. Colonel Miller led 300 men and destroyed the evacuated village, on November 21, as a scouting party explored the creek, they were fired upon, and the entire force retreated to rejoin the main army, leaving behind the body of a soldier named Dunn. The next day,22 November, Colonels Miller and Wilcox accompanied Captain Beckes, after riding about six miles up Wildcat Creek, they found a dead comrades head stuck on a pole and a Native standing beside the head taunting them. Thirteen Indiana Rangers were outraged by this and chased the rider, but he managed to stay ahead of them, here, Kickapoo, Winnebago, and Shawnee warriors ambushed the Rangers. Within two minutes, twelve men and several horses were dead or dying, many of the officers were killed, and the Rangers fled. One man who escaped did so by spurring his horse to gallop faster, one man, Benoit Besayon, had been a long-time trader with the Indian villages in the area, and was captured alive in the canyon. He was judged to be a traitor, and sentenced to be burned at the stake, as the fire was lit, however, a friend took pity on him and shot him. The American losses on November 21–22 were seventeen killed and three wounded, scouts learned that a large force of Native Americans were gathering to fight Hopkins army, and they prepared to do battle as soon as possible. Bitter cold set in, however, and a snowstorm threatened the expedition, when the Indian camp was reached on 24 November, it was deserted
28.
Battle of the Mississinewa
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The site is near the city of Marion, Indiana. Today, the location is the site of Mississinewa 1812, the largest War of 1812 reenactment in the United States, the annual festival draws thousands of visitors from all over the world. In 2004, a memorial was unveiled and is currently on display near the Mississinewa River in downtown Marion. After receiving permission from Secretary of War William Eustis, Harrison ordered Lieutenant Colonel John B, Campbell to lead an expedition into Indiana. Campbells objective was to destroy the Miami villages along the Mississinewa River, if possible, he was to avoid harm to Miami chiefs Pacanne, Jean Baptiste Richardville, White Loon, or Lenape Chief Silver Heel. Campbells force of 600 mounted troops departed from Fort Greenville on December 14 and traveled 80 miles and reached Silver Heels village on December 17, the mounted force then moved down the Mississinewa River, attacking at least two Miami villages. The Indians were taken by surprise and had not evacuated, a large number of Miami were killed, and 76 were taken prisoner, including 34 women and children. Later that day, having accomplished his objective, Campbell considered returning to Fort Greenville on account of severe frostbite among his troops, the next morning, December 18, as Campbell returned to Silver Heels village, a sizeable Native American force counterattacked. The American Indians were outnumbered, but fought fiercely to rescue the villagers being held by Campbell. A joint cavalry charge led by Major James McDowell and Captains Trotter, the American loss was 8 killed and 48 wounded. Campbell claimed that 8 Indians were killed on December 17 and that at least 30 were killed on December 18,8 warriors and thirty-four women and children were captured. One of the villagers told Campbell that Tecumseh was nearby and was coming with hundreds of men, so Campbell began the return march to Fort Greenville. An entire regiment, under Colonel Simrale, was disbanded due to frostbite, the Indian force was only concerned with protecting their lives and winter food supplies. In order to ensure this, they needed to stop Cambells expedition and force it to return to its base, Harrison received approval and appointed Campbell a full colonel in the Regular Army. Harrison ordered another attack on the Mississinewa villages the following July, although crops and houses were again destroyed, the Miami had evacuated and escaped further casualties. Three active battalions of the Regular Army perpetuate the lineages of the old 19th Infantry Regiment, list of battles fought in Indiana Allison, Harold. The Tragic Saga of the Indiana Indians, the War of 1812 in the Old Northwest. East Lansing, MI, The Michigan State University Press, the Miami Indians of Indiana, A Persistent People
29.
Battle of Frenchtown
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The Battles of Frenchtown, also known as the Battle of the River Raisin and the River Raisin Massacre, was a series of conflicts that took place from January 18–23,1813 during the War of 1812. It was fought between the United States and a British and Native American alliance near the River Raisin in Frenchtown, the battle on January 22 had the highest number of fatalities of any battle during this war. On January 18,1813 the Americans forced the retreat of the British and their Native American allies from Frenchtown, the movement was part of a larger United States plan to advance north and retake Fort Detroit, following its loss in the Siege of Detroit the previous summer. Despite this initial success, the British and Native Americans rallied and launched a counterattack four days later on January 22. Ill-prepared, the Americans lost 397 soldiers in this battle, while 547 were taken prisoner. Dozens of wounded prisoners were murdered the day in a massacre by the Native Americans. More prisoners were killed if they could not keep up on the march to Fort Malden. This was the deadliest conflict recorded on Michigan soil, and the casualties included the highest number of Americans killed in a battle during the War of 1812. Parts of the battlefield were designated as a state historic park. In 2009 Congress authorized its upgrade into the River Raisin National Battlefield Park, one of four parks in the nation. The Battle of Frenchtown took place in Frenchtown township in the Michigan Territory, much of the land it was fought on is now incorporated into the city of Monroe. The plural Battles of Frenchtown is also used for the conflict from January 18 through 22. While the battle began on January 18, the heaviest fighting took place on January 22 and it is often referred to as the Battle of the River Raisin, because of its proximity to that river. The engagement may be divided into the First Battle of the River Raisin, the name River Raisin Massacre is used for the events of January 23, the day after the surrender, when pro-British Indians murdered dozens of wounded United States prisoners. These volunteer soldiers from Kentucky were too badly injured to march overland to Canada, on August 17,1812, Brigadier General William Hull, commanding the American Army of the Northwest, surrendered his troops and Fort Detroit to the British army following the Siege of Detroit. This early success convinced many Native Americans to side with Britain in the war, General Hull was later tried by a military court and sentenced to death for his disgraceful conduct at Detroit. However, President James Madison commuted the sentence to dismissal from the army in recognition of Hulls honorable service during the American Revolution, at that time, Fort Detroit was a strategic outpost and a potential base for any US invasion of British Upper Canada. Its loss to the British gave them a base to increase their presence in the Michigan Territory, when the British captured Detroit, the Frenchtown militia also surrendered and were disarmed
30.
Siege of Fort Meigs
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The Siege of Fort Meigs took place during the War of 1812, in northwestern Ohio. A small British army with support from Indians attempted to capture the recently constructed fort to forestall an American offensive against Detroit, an American sortie and relief attempt failed with heavy casualties, but the British failed to capture the fort and were forced to raise the siege. In the early days of the War of 1812, an American Army under Brigadier General William Hull surrendered following the Siege of Detroit, to recover Detroit, the Americans formed the Army of the Northwest. Brigadier General James Winchester briefly commanded the Army before William Henry Harrison was commissioned Major General in the regular United States Army, Harrisons advance was hampered by bad weather and shortage of supplies. On 22 January 1813, the detachment of his army was defeated at the Battle of Frenchtown. Two of the most important were Fort Meigs on the Maumee River, Harrison descended the Maumee to the site of Fort Meigs with an army which ultimately numbered 4,000 men and began construction of the fort on 1 February 1813. He found the officer he had left in charge, Joel B, leftwich, had left with all his men because the enlistment period of the militia units assigned to the task had expired. Construction had halted, and the wood that had cut was being used as firewood. As the enlistments of Harrisons Ohio and Kentucky militia were also about to expire, Harrison disbanded his force and departed for Cincinnati, Ohio and he left Engineer Major Eleazer D. Wood to complete the construction of the fort. The fort was on the bank of the Maumee, near the Miami Rapids. Across the river were the ruins of the old British Fort Miami, Fort Meigs occupied an area of 8 acres, the largest constructed in North America to that date. The perimeter consisted of a picket fence, linking eight blockhouses. The north face was protected by the Maumee, and the east and west faces by ravines, the south face was cleared of all timber to create an open glacis. The poor weather of early spring prevented a British attack while the fort was still vulnerable, instead, he decided upon an attack on Fort Meigs, to disrupt American preparations for a summer campaign and hopefully capture supplies. Harrison received word of Procters preparations, and hastened down the Maumee with 300 reinforcements and he had persuaded Isaac Shelby, the Governor of Kentucky, to call up a brigade of 1,200 Kentucky militia under Brigadier General Green Clay. Clays brigade followed Harrison down the Maumee, but had not reached the fort before it was besieged, Procters force disembarked at the mouth of the Maumee on 26 April. His force consisted of 31 men of the Royal Artillery,423 men of the 41st Regiment of Foot,63 men of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment,16 men from other units, and 462 Canadian militia. He also had roughly 1,250 Native American warriors led by Shawnee chief Tecumseh and his artillery consisted of two 24-pounder guns which had been captured at Detroit, nine lighter guns and two gunboats mounting 9-pounder guns
31.
Battle of Fort Stephenson
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The Battle of Fort Stephenson was an American victory during the War of 1812. After failing to defeat American forces in the siege of Fort Meigs, Procter attempted to take Fort Meigs again in July by staging a mock battle to lure the defenders out of the fort. The ploy failed, and Procter abandoned the idea of taking the fort, the British and Indian force moved on to capture an American supply base on the Sandusky River guarded by Fort Stephenson. The fort was commanded by Major George Croghan with a garrison of 160 U. S, william Henry Harrison, the U. S. commander of the Northwest Frontier, believed Procters force to be larger than it was and ordered Croghan to destroy the fort and withdraw. Croghan insisted that he could hold the fort and stayed, Harrison agreed to let Croghan stay, but still fearing the worst he moved all available forces 10 miles away from Fort Stephenson. Expecting Harrison to be moving to Fort Stephensons aid, Procter had no intentions of conducting a siege as he had at Fort Meigs, the British artillery and gunboats began shelling the fort but with little effect. On August 2, Procter ordered an infantry assault, Croghan ordered the defenders to hold fire until the attackers were within close range. Once within range, the garrison opened fired along with the forts artillery, the attack fell back, and Procter tried and failed several more times. Lacking scaling ladders, Procter finally realized that the attackers could do little against the fort. Procter called off the attack, and the Indians returned to the field late at night to carry away the wounded. Five currently active units of the Regular Army perpetuate the lineages of the old 17th and 24th Infantry Regiments, the battle had been a victory for the Americans. George Croghan emerged from the battle as a hero and was promoted to lieutenant colonel, both Procter and Harrison suffered criticism for their parts in the battle. The British as well as Tecumseh were growing increasingly aware of Procters shortcomings, Harrison was criticised for not making a whole-hearted effort to come to the forts aid. Yet the British had been defeated, and Procter withdrew to Canada, in the following months, the Americans won decisive victories at the battles of Lake Erie and the Thames. The War of 1812 in the Old Northwest, east Lansing, MI, The Michigan State University Press
32.
Battle of Lake Erie
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The Battle of Lake Erie, sometimes called the Battle of Put-in-Bay, was fought on 10 September 1813, in Lake Erie off the coast of Ohio during the War of 1812. Nine vessels of the United States Navy defeated and captured six vessels of British Royal Navy and it was one of the biggest naval battles of the War of 1812. When the war broke out, the British immediately seized control of Lake Erie and they already had a small force of warships there, the sloop-of-war Queen Charlotte and the brig General Hunter. The schooner Lady Prevost was under construction and was put into service a few weeks after the outbreak of war and these vessels were controlled by the Provincial Marine, which was a military transport service and not a naval service. Nevertheless, the Americans lacked any counter to the British armed vessels, the British took Adams when Detroit was surrendered, renaming her Detroit. Detroit ran aground on an island in the middle of the Niagara River and was set on fire to prevent her being recaptured, Caledonia was taken to the navy yard at Black Rock and commissioned into the United States Navy. Also present at Black Rock were the schooners Somers and Ohio and the sloop-rigged Trippe, while the British held Fort Erie and the nearby batteries which dominated the Niagara River, all these vessels were pinned down and unable to leave Black Rock. Dobbins recommended the bay of Presque Isle in Erie, Pennsylvania as a base on the lake. Dobbins was dispatched to build four gunboats there, although Lieutenant Elliot objected to the lack of facilities, Commodore Isaac Chauncey had been appointed to command of the United States naval forces on the Great Lakes in September 1812. Other than their rig and crude construction, the two brigs were close copies of the contemporary USS Hornet, the heaviest armament for the ships came from foundries on Chesapeake Bay, and were moved to Presque Isle only with great difficulty. However, the Americans could get other materials and fittings from Pittsburgh, which was expanding as a manufacturing center, master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry had earlier been appointed to command on Lake Erie, through lobbying by Jeremiah B. Howell, the Senior Senator from Rhode Island, supplanting Lieutenant Elliot and he arrived at Presque Isle to take command at the end of March. Having arranged for the defense of Presque Isle, he proceeded to Lake Ontario to obtain reinforcements of seamen from Commodore Isaac Chauncey. Perry had them towed by oxen up the Niagara, an operation which took six days. Meanwhile, Commander Robert Heriot Barclay was appointed to command the British squadron on Lake Erie, another British officer had already endangered his career by refusing the appointment as success appeared unlikely. Barclay missed a rendezvous with Queen Charlotte at Point Abino and was forced to make the journey to Amherstburg overland. He brought with him only a handful of officers and seamen, nevertheless, he immediately set out in Queen Charlotte and Lady Prevost. He first reconnoitred Perrys base at Presque Isle and determined that it was defended by 2,000 Pennsylvania militia, with batteries and he then cruised the eastern end of Lake Erie, hoping to intercept the American vessels from Black Rock
33.
Battle of the Thames
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The Battle of the Thames, also known as the Battle of Moraviantown, was a United States victory in the War of 1812 against the United Kingdom and Tecumsehs Confederacy. It took place on October 5,1813 in Upper Canada, near present-day Chatham, British troops under Major General Henry Procter had occupied Detroit until the U. S. Navy gained control of Lake Erie, depriving them of their supplies. Procter was forced to retreat north up the river Thames to Moraviantown, where his allies, American control over the Northwest frontier was re-established, the tribal confederacy collapsed, and Procter would later be court-martialled for his poor leadership. The British position depended on maintaining command of Lake Erie, from the start of the war to the end of July 1813, the British ships, which since May 5,1813 were led by Commander Robert Heriot Barclay, had maintained control of the lake. They contained the American squadron under Master Commandant Oliver Hazard Perry at Presque Isle harbour, when Barclay lifted the blockade for two days in order to receive supplies, Perry was able to move his ships across the sandbar at the entrance to the harbour and into the lake. Once it was armed and manned, Perrys superior squadron instituted a counter-blockade of Amherstburg. Finally, with supplies almost exhausted, Barclay put out to battle with Perry. On September 10, Perry gained a victory in the Battle of Lake Erie. On receiving Perrys hastily written note that We have met the enemy and they are ours, Harrison knew that Procter would be forced to retreat, and ordered an advance. Even before he received news of Barclays defeat, Procter had made preparations to fall back to the British position at Burlington Heights at the end of Lake Ontario. Our ships have one way, and we are much astonished to see our Father tying up everything and preparing to run the other. We must compare our Fathers conduct to a fat animal that carries its tail upon its back, nevertheless, Procter could not defend Fort Amherstburg. Not only was no food, but the guns had been removed from the fort to be mounted on Barclays ships. Procter began to retreat up the Thames River on September 27, Tecumseh had no option but to go with him. Procter apparently agreed to a compromise to retreat only as far as Moraviantown, as this was the highest point of the river to which batteaux could navigate, it was safe from outflanking moves by water. Also, some supplies could in theory be brought overland from Burlington Heights. However, Procter made no attempt to fortify this position, the British retreat was badly managed, and the soldiers had been reduced to half rations. The Americans left a brigade under Duncan McArthur to garrison Detroit and another under Lewis Cass to garrison Sandwich, Harrison led the main body from Sandwich in pursuit of Procter on October 2
34.
Battle of Longwoods
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The Battle of Longwoods took place during the Anglo-American War of 1812. Late in December,1813, the British established an outpost at Delaware, on 23 December, the garrison of the post at Delaware surprised and captured a small American outpost near Chatham. The American commander at Amherstburg was Lieutenant Colonel Anthony Butler of the 28th U. S. Infantry and he sent an expedition under Captain Andrew Holmes to capture one of these two British posts, as circumstances allowed. The expedition consisted of mounted detachments from the 24th, 26th, 27th and 28th U. S, Regiments of Infantry and two six-pounder cannon, and was later joined by some rangers and militia dragoons from Michigan. The raiders, including the regulars, were dressed in buckskins against the cold and were armed with rifles, Holmes left Amherstburg on 21 February, moving along the shore of Lake Erie. The ground was soft, and he was forced to abandon his two guns near Pointe au Pelee, after a clash with some Canadian militia who escaped, Holmes decided that the militia would warn the defenders of Port Talbot, and he determined therefore to make for Delaware instead. On 2 March, he was within 15 miles of Delaware, the British had indeed been warned of his presence, and Holmes learned from a Canadian renegade that 300 men had sallied from Delaware and were within an hours march of him. Holmes left the Michigan Rangers as a rearguard while his main body retreated five miles to the Twenty Mile Creek, the Michigan troops also fell back after a skirmish with Caldwells Rangers, who were leading the British advance. Holmes was urged by some of his subordinates to retreat further and he occupied a hill overlooking the bridge over the creek, and fortified the hill with a u-shaped abatis. Early on 4 March, Caldwells Rangers exchanged a few shots with the Americans and then feigned a retreat, Holmes did indeed pursue for 5 miles before the Michigan Militia Dragoons warned him that the British were preparing an ambush, and he hastily returned to his position. The full British force followed up the Americans and arrived at Twenty Mile Creek at 5 p. m. that day, the force consisted of two companies of regulars, two full-time militia units and 44 Native American warriors. In all, this force numbered about 240 men, although Basden had only a rough idea of the ground and American strength from the Rangers earlier reconnaissance, he nevertheless attacked immediately. The Rangers, militia and Indians crossed the out of range of the American position. The regulars opened fire against the American centre, with little effect, Basden then led a charge against the American position. As the British advanced towards the bridge, bunched into a column by the narrow road, Basden only became aware of the abatis after the British had crossed the bridge, but nevertheless led an advance up the hill. The British were unable to climb the icy slope in the face of the fire and were beaten back. Basden himself was wounded in the leg, and Captain Johnston, on the flanks, the Indians had not pressed their attack. The Rangers had been successful, but were too few to risk an attack into the American position
35.
Siege of Prairie du Chien
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The Siege of Prairie du Chien was a British victory in the far western theater of the War of 1812. During the war, Prairie du Chien was a frontier settlement with residents loyal to both American and British causes. Although Prairie du Chien became a part of the United States following the Treaty of Paris in 1783, thus, it remained largely under British influence into the 19th Century. In the spring of 1814, American forces decided to secure the location, realizing that if it fell to the British, William Clark, the governor of Missouri Territory, organized a force in St. Shortly after the force was assembled, Taylor left for personal reasons, in his place, Lieutenant Joseph Perkins of the 24th Infantry took command of the regulars. On May 1, Governor Clark and the forces under Perkins, Yeizer. On May 17, they scattered some Sauk warriors who attempted to bar their passage at the Rock Island rapids, the American force arrived in Prairie du Chien on June 2. A few days later, on June 6, they began building a fort on a mound north of the main village. The fort was named Fort Shelby in honor of Governor Isaac Shelby of Kentucky, seeing that construction of the small wooden fort was underway, Governor Clark left to return to St. Louis on June 7. The Americans made steady progress on the fort, and although the defenses were unfinished, around the time that the fort was being occupied, the sixty-day terms of service for the volunteers led by Yeizer and Sullivan expired. Word of the American advance reached the British at Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island, to respond to the American threat, he despatched a force consisting of the Mississippi Volunteers,14 men of the Michigan Fencibles and several hundred Winnebago and Fox warriors. Perhaps the most important part of the force was a brass 3-pounder gun, captain William McKay of the Michigan Fencibles was made a local Lieutenant Colonel and put in command of the force. Having collected additional militia volunteers and Native Americans en route, McKays force eventually numbered about 650 men, on July 17, the British force arrived at Prairie du Chien. Late in the morning, Thomas Anderson approached Fort Shelby to deliver Perkins a note demanding the Americans unconditional surrender, Perkins refused and prepared to defend the fort. The battle began early in the afternoon when the British 3-pounder gun opened fire, the gun damaged the Governor Clark and compelled it to retreat downriver. The boat carried the Americans cannon and a supply of goods and ammunition. With the gunboat gone, the British concentrated their fire on Fort Shelby, the Americans and the British maintained a steady exchange of gunfire throughout the next day, but to no avail for either side. However, by the day of battle the Americans inside Fort Shelby were beginning to run short of ammunition
36.
Battle of Mackinac Island (1814)
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The Battle of Mackinac Island was a British victory in the War of 1812. Before the war, Fort Mackinac had been an important American trading post in the straits between Lake Michigan and Lake Huron and it was important for its influence and control over the Native American tribes in the area, which was sometimes referred to in historical documents as Michilimackinac. The British meanwhile abandoned their own defences at St. Joseph Island, for the rest of the year and through much of 1813, the British hold on Mackinac was secure since they also held Detroit, which the Americans would have to recapture before attacking Mackinac. In February 1814, Lieutenant Colonel Robert McDouall of the Glengarry Light Infantry was ordered to re-establish communications with Mackinac, McDoualls first task was to open a new supply line from York via Yonge Street and Lake Simcoe to the Nottawasaga River, which flows into Georgian Bay. The Nottawasaga was selected in preference to the established post at Penetanguishene on Matchedash Bay, even though the navigation from the Nottwasaga was obstructed by rocks and shoals. McDoualls party consisted of ninety men of the Royal Newfoundland Fencibles, most of whom were accustomed to serving as marines, on 19 April, McDoualls batteaux began descending the river with the Newfoundlanders, artillerymen and sailors, and reached the Lake on 25 April. He arrived at Mackinac on 18 May, carrying a quantity of provisions for the hungry garrison. A few days later he was reinforced by another 200 Native Americans, McDouall ordered the defences of the island to be strengthened. The existing fort was situated on a ridge which dominated the harbour on the side of the island, but was itself overlooked by another wooded ridge. In 1812, the British had dragged artillery to this ridge to compel the fort to surrender, McDoualls troops built a stockade and blockhouse on the upper ridge, naming the new fortification Fort George. The expedition to recover Mackinac was prepared at Detroit, and Brigadier General Duncan McArthur established Fort Gratiot at the end of Lake Huron as an advanced base. William Clark, Governor of the Missouri Territory, meanwhile led an expedition to establish a fort at Prairie du Chien on the Mississippi River, news that the Americans had occupied Prairie du Chien arrived at Mackinac on 21 June. McDouall was compelled to weaken his garrison by despatching an expedition under William McKay to recover the post. As the weather was foggy and the Americans had no pilots familiar with the area and they then sailed to St. Joseph Island, which had been the original British military post in 1812, but found it had been abandoned. They burned the empty post, and also the Canadian North West Company trading post at Sault Sainte Marie, the Americans finally arrived off Mackinac on 26 July. Their delayed arrival had given McDouall ample warning, and he had reinforced his defences by calling in the last two companies of militia left to defend St. Joseph Island and Sault Ste. The American ships attempted to bombard the fort for two days, with most of the shot falling harmlessly in vegetable gardens around the fort, Sinclair discovered that the new British blockhouse, Fort George, stood too high for the naval guns to reach. A dense fog forced the American squadron away from the island for a week
37.
Mississippi River
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The Mississippi River is the chief river of the largest drainage system on the North American continent. Flowing entirely in the United States, it rises in northern Minnesota, with its many tributaries, the Mississippis watershed drains all or parts of 31 U. S. states and 2 Canadian provinces between the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains. The Mississippi ranks as the fourth longest and fifteenth largest river in the world by discharge, the river either borders or passes through the states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, Illinois, Missouri, Kentucky, Tennessee, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Native Americans long lived along the Mississippi River and its tributaries, most were hunter-gatherers, but some, such as the Mound Builders, formed prolific agricultural societies. The arrival of Europeans in the 16th century changed the way of life as first explorers, then settlers. The river served first as a barrier, forming borders for New Spain, New France, and the early United States, and then as a vital transportation artery and communications link. Formed from thick layers of the silt deposits, the Mississippi embayment is one of the most fertile agricultural regions of the country. In recent years, the river has shown a shift towards the Atchafalaya River channel in the Delta. The word itself comes from Messipi, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe name for the river, see below in the History section for additional information. In addition to historical traditions shown by names, there are at least two measures of a rivers identity, one being the largest branch, and the other being the longest branch. Using the largest-branch criterion, the Ohio would be the branch of the Lower Mississippi. Using the longest-branch criterion, the Middle Mississippi-Missouri-Jefferson-Beaverhead-Red Rock-Hellroaring Creek River would be the main branch and its length of at least 3,745 mi is exceeded only by the Nile, the Amazon, and perhaps the Yangtze River among the longest rivers in the world. The source of this waterway is at Browers Spring,8,800 feet above sea level in southwestern Montana and this is exemplified by the Gateway Arch in St. Louis and the phrase Trans-Mississippi as used in the name of the Trans-Mississippi Exposition. It is common to qualify a regionally superlative landmark in relation to it, the New Madrid Seismic Zone along the river is also noteworthy. These various basic geographical aspects of the river in turn underlie its human history and present uses of the waterway, the Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca,1,475 feet above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, however, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, fourteen of these dams are located above Minneapolis in the headwaters region and serve multiple purposes, including power generation and recreation. The remaining 29 dams, beginning in downtown Minneapolis, all locks and were constructed to improve commercial navigation of the upper river
38.
Quad Cities
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The Quad Cities is a region of four counties in northwest Illinois and Southeastern Iowa. The urban core consists of four cities, Davenport and Bettendorf in Iowa. These cities are the center of the Quad Cities Metropolitan Area, which as of 2013 had an estimate of 383,781. At the time of European encounter, it was a home and principal trading place of the Sauk, Saukenuk was the principal village of the Sauk tribe and birthplace of its 19th-century war chief, Black Hawk. In 1832, Sauk chief Keokuk and General Winfield Scott signed a treaty in Davenport after the US defeated the Sauk, the treaty resulted in the Native Americans ceding six million acres of land to the United States in exchange for a much smaller reservation elsewhere. Black Hawk State Historic Site in Rock Island preserves part of historic Saukenuk and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places, the history of urban settlements in the Quad-Cities was stimulated by riverboat traffic. For 14 miles between LeClaire, Iowa, and Rock Island, the Mississippi River flowed across a series of finger-like rock projections protruding from either bank and these rapids were difficult for steamboats to traverse. As demand for river-based transportation increased along the upper Mississippi, the navigability of the river throughout the Rock Island Rapids became a greater concern, over time, a minor industry grew up in the area to meet the steamboats needs. Today, the rocks are submerged six feet underwater by a formed by two locks and dams. As the Industrial Revolution developed in the United States, many enterprising industrialists looked to the Mississippi River as a source of water power. The combination of energy and easy access to river transportation attracted entrepreneurs, in 1848, John Deere moved his plough business to Moline. His business was incorporated as Deere & Company in 1868, Deere & Company is the largest employer today in the Quad Cities. The first railroad built across the Mississippi River connected Davenport. It was built by the Rock Island Railroad Company, and replaced the seasonal ferry service. Steamboaters saw the nationwide railroads as a threat to their business, on May 6,1856, just weeks after completion of the bridge, an angry steamboater crashed the Effie Afton into it. John Hurd, the owner of the Effie Afton, filed a lawsuit against the Rock Island Railroad Company, the Rock Island Railroad Company selected Abraham Lincoln as their trial lawyer and won after he took the case to the US Supreme Court. Phillip Suiter was one of his expert witnesses and it was a pivotal trial in Lincolns career. After the civil war, the region began to gain a common identity, the river towns that were thoughtfully planned and competently led flourished, while other settlements, usually get-rich-quick schemes for speculators, failed to pan out
39.
Fort Armstrong, Illinois
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Fort Armstrong, was one of a chain of western frontier defenses which the United States erected after the War of 1812. It was located at the foot of Rock Island, Illinois, in the Mississippi River near the present-day Quad Cities of Illinois and it was five miles from the principal Sac and Fox village on Rock River in Illinois. Of stone and timber construction,300 feet square, the fort was begun in May 1816, in 1832, the U. S. Army used the fort, as a military headquarters, during the Black Hawk War. It was normally garrisoned by two companies, of United States Army regulars, with the pacification of the Indian threat in Illinois, the U. S. Government ceased operations at Fort Armstrong and the U. S. Army abandoned the frontier fort in 1836. Pike identified one site as the big island, Congress agreed with his recommendation, reserving the island for use in 1809. The Sauk considered the sacred, This was the best one on the Mississippi. It was our garden, like the people have near their big villages. Being situated at the foot of the rapids, its waters supplied us with the finest fish, in my early life I spent many happy days on this island. A good spirit had charge of it, which lived in a cave in the rocks immediately under the place where the now stands. This guardian spirit has often seen by our people. It was white, with wings like a swans. We were particular not to make noise in that part of the island which it inhabited. But the noise at the fort has since driven it away, -Black Hawk This was to be the second US fort between St. Louis and Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. The US wanted to establish a presence to dissuade the French. After its losses at several forts during the War of 1812, the fort also would serve to protect American settlers within the area and to help control or remove the Sauk, the American Indians in the region. The Sauk disapproved of its construction, Black Hawk wrote in his memoir and this, in our opinion, was a contradiction to what we had done– to prepare for war in time of peace. We did not object, however, to their building their fort on the island, on May 10,1816, soldiers arrived to begin construction of Fort Armstrong. It was named after John Armstrong, the Secretary of War under President James Madison, the army assigned 600 soldiers and 150 laborers to the project
40.
Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin
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Prairie du Chien is a city in and the county seat of Crawford County, Wisconsin, United States. The population was 5,911 at the 2010 census, often referred to as Wisconsins second oldest city, Prairie du Chien was established as a European settlement by French voyageurs in the late seventeenth century. The city is located near the confluence of the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers, early French visitors to the site found it occupied by a group of Fox Indians led by a chief whose name Alim meant Chien in French. The French explorers named the location Prairie du Chien, French for Dogs Prairie, originally this name applied only to the plain upon which the settlement is located, but it was later extended to mean the city as well. The city of Prairie du Chien is located between the Town of Prairie du Chien and the Town of Bridgeport. The first Europeans to reach Prairie du Chien were the French explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet, later travel between French Canada and the Mississippi River passed through Prairie du Chien, although routes via the Illinois River were also used. In 1685, the French explorer Nicolas Perrot established a trading post in the area as part of the large, the significance of Prairie du Chien as a center of the fur trade did not diminish until the mid-nineteenth century. In 1763, when Great Britain defeated France in the French and Indian War, it took possession of the French territory in North America, the British expanded the fur trade during their occupation of the area. During the American Revolutionary War, the city was used as a point for British troops. After the American victory, the Treaty of Paris granted the area to the new United States of America, only after the War of 1812 did the city become fully American. In July, British soldiers captured the fort during the Siege of Prairie du Chien, the British maintained control over the city until the wars end in 1815. Not wanting another invasion through Prairie du Chien, the Americans constructed Fort Crawford in 1816, the fort was the site of the negotiations and signing of the Treaties of Prairie du Chien, by which the Fox and Sauk ceded much of their land to the US. Representing them and the United Nations of the Chippewa, Ottawa and Pottawatomie in the 1829 negotiations was Billy Caldwell, of Scots-Irish and he became involved with the Pottawatomie after moving to the US as a young man from Canada. In 1829, the army doctor William Beaumont carried out many of his famous experiments on digestion in the hospital of Fort Crawford, beaumonts discoveries are still the basis of current knowledge on the human digestive process. Col. Zachary Taylor, who became the 12th U. S. President, was the commanding officer at Fort Crawford during the Black Hawk War of 1832. Taylor oversaw the surrender of Black Hawk in Prairie du Chien, lt. Jefferson Davis, who later became president of the Confederate States of America, was stationed at Fort Crawford at the same time. Here Jefferson Davis met Zachary Taylors daughter, Sarah Knoxie Taylor, outside the walls of the fort, early nineteenth century life in Prairie du Chien was still dominated by the fur trade. Prairie du Chiens most well-known traders during this time were Michel Brisbois, Joseph Rolette, Nathan Myrick, and Hercules L. Dousman
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Meskwaki
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The Meskwaki are a Native American people often known to Anglo-Americans as the Fox tribe. They have been linked to the Sauk people of the same language family. In the Meskwaki language, the Meskwaki call themselves Meshkwahkihaki, which means the Red-Earths, historically their homelands were in the Great Lakes region. The tribe coalesced in the St. Lawrence River Valley in present-day Ontario, the Meskwaki suffered damaging battles with French and their Native American allies in the early 18th century, with one in 1730 decimating the tribe. In the 19th century, Euro-American colonization and settlement proceeded by the United States and they forced the Meskwaki/Fox south and west into the tall grass prairie in the American Midwest. In 1851 the Iowa state legislature passed an act to allow the Fox to buy land. Other Sac and Fox were removed to Indian territory in what became Kansas, Oklahoma, in the 21st century, three federally recognized tribes of Sac and Fox have reservations. The name is derived from the Meskwaki creation myth, in which their culture hero, Wisaka and they called themselves Meshkwahkihaki in Meskwaki, meaning the Red-Earths. Later the English and Anglo-Americans adopted the French name, using its translation in English as Fox and this name was also used officially by the United States government from the 19th century. Historically the Meskwaki used Triodanis perfoliata as an emetic in tribal ceremonies to make one sick all day long and they traditionally smoked it at purification and other spiritual rituals. Meskwaki are of Algonquian origin from the prehistoric Woodland period culture area, the Meskwaki language is a dialect of the language spoken by the Sauk and Kickapoo, within the Algonquian languages family. This broad group includes many tribes on the Atlantic Coast and around the Great Lakes, the Meskwaki and Sauk peoples are two distinct tribal groups. Linguistic and cultural connections between the two tribes have made them often associated in history, under US government recognition treaties, officials treat the Sac and Meskwaki as a single political unit, despite their distinct identities. Historically the Meskwaki lived along the Saint Lawrence River in present-day Ontario, the tribe may have numbered as many as 10,000, but years of war with the Huron, whom French colonial agents supplied with arms, and exposure to new European infectious diseases reduced their numbers. In response to pressures, the Meskwaki migrated west, first to present-day eastern Michigan in the area between Saginaw Bay and Detroit west of Lake Huron. Later they moved further west into what is now Wisconsin, the Meskwaki gained control of the Fox River system in eastern and central Wisconsin. As part of the Fox–Wisconsin Waterway, the Fox River allowed travel from Lake Michigan, at first European contact in 1698, the French estimated the number of Meskwaki as about 6,500. By 1712, the number of Meskwaki had declined to 3,500, the Meskwaki fought against the French, in what are called the Fox Wars, for more than three decades to preserve their homelands
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Rock Island, Illinois
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Rock Island is a city in and the county seat of Rock Island County, Illinois, United States. The original Rock Island, from which the city name is derived, is the largest island on the Mississippi River and it is now called Arsenal Island. The population was 39,018 at the 2010 census, located on the Mississippi River, it is one of the Quad Cities, along with neighboring Moline, East Moline, and the Iowa cities of Davenport and Bettendorf. The Quad Cities has a population of about 380,000, the city is home to Rock Island Arsenal, the largest government-owned weapons manufacturing arsenal in the US, which employs 6,000 people. Theres a wide variety of housing available in Rock Island including historic homes, new downtown condos, new construction in the heart of the city, the Rock Island-Milan School District, Rockridge School District along with private schools, serve the city. The District has art galleries and theaters, nightclubs and coffee shops, golf courses, parks, a casino, botanical center, marina, historic tours, bike paths, and festivals offer entertainment opportunities. In 2015 Rock Island was ranked the 32nd Best Small City in the based on economic health, affordability. Rock Island made the list of the nations 25 Most Affordable Housing Markets and this area has been a fortuitous place first for settlement and then for steamboat traffic, bridges, and railroads. Various Native American tribes occupied this area for thousands of years before settlement, by the early nineteenth century, it was occupied chiefly by the historic Sauk tribe. Their major village of Saukenuk was located on the side of Rock Island. After the War of 1812, the United States built Fort Armstrong on the island for defensive reasons in 1816, Saukenuk was the birthplace of the Sauk war chief Black Hawk, for whom the Black Hawk War of 1831–1832 was named. Fort Armstrong served as the US militarys headquarters for the war, today the Black Hawk State Historic Site, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, includes much of the site of the original village of Saukenuk. The park includes a museum and a number of hiking trails along the Rock River, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railroad was founded here in 1851. It was informally known as the Rock Island Line, as part of later nineteenth-century development, two first-class hotels, the Harper House and the Rock Island House were built in town. Rock Island Arsenal has manufactured military equipment and ordnance for the U. S. Army since the 1880s, the railroad was liquidated in bankruptcy in 1980. The first railroad bridge across the Mississippi River was built between Arsenal Island and Davenport in 1856, two weeks after the bridge opened, the steamboat Effie Afton collided with the bridge, caught fire, and damaged the bridge. The owner of the Effie Afton sued the company for damages. This test case was appealed to the United States Supreme Court, although the original bridge is long gone, a monument exists on Arsenal Island marking the Illinois side
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Des Moines Rapids
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The rapids just above the confluence of the Des Moines River were to contribute to the Honey War in the 1830s between Missouri and Iowa over the Sullivan Line that separates the two states. Various attempts to make the river started in 1837 when a channel was blasted through the rapids by U. S. Army Corps of Engineers team led by Robert E. Lee. A canal around the rapids was built in 1877 and it is now obliterated by Lock and Dam No.19. The other major rapids barring traffic on the Mississippi is the Rock Island Rapids. The Mississippi in its natural state widens from 2,500 feet to 4,500 feet in width at Nauvoo as it drops 22 feet over 11 miles over shallow limestone rocks to the confluence with Des Moines. According to records its mean depth through the rapids was 2.4 feet, beginning in 1804 United States government-sponsored trading posts for Native Americans as part of the Native American factory system began being built at the rapids. Forts were associated with the posts including Fort Johnson, Fort Madison. The forts were burned during the War of 1812, after the war Fort Edward was established and commanded by Jefferson Davis. Missouri did not attempt to clarify the mistake even when the Iowa, Sauk and this created the Half-Breed Tract.5 miles north, near Keosauqua, Iowa, and attempted to collect taxes in the area. This prompted the bloodless Honey War, with Iowa resisting the effort, the Supreme Court was to ultimately decide in State of Missouri v. State of Iowa,48 U. S.660, that Iowas southern boundary was the foot of the rapids at modern day Keokuk. Exploration and Settlement - Beautifulnavoo. com Proceedings of the River Improvement Convention, Held in St. Louis February 12 &13,1867 - Union Merchants Exchange of St. Louis -1867
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