1.
Criminal Justice (TV series)
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Criminal Justice is a British television drama series produced by the BBC and first shown in 2008. Written by Peter Moffat, each five-episode series follows the journey of an individual through the system and was first broadcast over five successive nights on BBC One. It was directed by Otto Bathurst and Luke Watson, in 2009, the second series featured Maxine Peake as troubled housewife Juliet Miller whose husband was stabbed in their bed. Yann Demange and Marc Jobst directed the second series, the first series won two British Academy Television Awards for Best Drama Serial and Best Writer, three Royal Television Society Awards and an International Emmy. The first season has been re-made into a HBO miniseries The Night Of, starring John Turturro, the first series was composed of five episodes, which were broadcast nightly from 30 June to 4 July 2008 on BBC One. The first series starred Ben Whishaw as Ben Coulter, a man who is accused of murder after a drunken and drug-filled night out. As well as Whishaw, the show starred Pete Postlethwaite, Con ONeill, Lindsay Duncan, David Westhead, Ruth Negga, Ben Coulter takes his parents black cab out for the night. At a traffic light, a woman gets into the cab. Despite telling her he does not take fares, she insists on going to the seaside, while there, she offers Ben ecstasy, which he accepts. The pair go back to her house, and after sleeping together, Ben awakes downstairs and he goes upstairs to find the girl dead, with a stab wound to the chest. Police stop Ben after he crashes the taxi in shock and they later find he matches a description given by a neighbour, who saw Ben break into the girls house to wipe his DNA off the house. They also find a knife in Bens pocket and he is arrested on suspicion of murder. He is later charged and refused bail, Ben spends his first day in prison. He seeks protection after being beaten up by Milroy, a feared jailbird, in return for being protected, Ben must smuggle an item past the prison guard. He also re-employs his former lawyer and this episode sees the first appearance of Vineeta Rishi as Frances Kapoor. He shares his cell mostly with Hooch, who has the status of Listener in the prison and his advice and support to Ben are marred by his own limitations and ties. Finally he makes the sacrifice to open the path to Bens release, Bens expensive new barrister persuades him to plead self-defence despite his misgivings, he then takes to the witness box before returning to prison and getting into a brawl. Bens barrister, Frances Kapoor, appears to be the person who believes Bens pleas of innocence
2.
Criminology
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Criminology is the scientific study of the nature, extent, management, causes, control, consequences, and prevention of criminal behavior, both on the individual and social levels. The term criminology was coined in 1885 by Italian law professor Raffaele Garofalo as criminologia, later, French anthropologist Paul Topinard used the analogous French term criminologie. In the mid-18th century criminology arose as social philosophers gave thought to crime, over time, several schools of thought have developed. There were three schools of thought in early criminological theory spanning the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-twentieth century, Classical, Positive. The Classical School, which developed in the century, was based on utilitarian philosophy. Cesare Beccaria, author of On Crimes and Punishments, Jeremy Bentham, thus, it ignores the possibility of irrationality and unconscious drives as motivators. Punishment can deter people from crime, as the costs outweigh benefits, the more swift and certain the punishment, the more effective it is in deterring criminal behavior. The Classical school of thought came about at a time when major reform in penology occurred, also, this time period saw many legal reforms, the French Revolution, and the development of the legal system in the United States. The Positivist school presumes that criminal behavior is caused by internal and external factors outside of the individuals control, the scientific method was introduced and applied to study human behavior. Positivism can be broken up into three segments which include biological, psychological and social positivism, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian sociologist working in the late 19th century, is regarded as the father of criminology. He was one of the key contributors to biological positivism and founded the Italian school of criminology, Lombroso took a scientific approach, insisting on empirical evidence for studying crime. This approach, influenced by the theory of phrenology and by Charles Darwin. Criminologists have since rejected Lombrosos biological theories, with groups not used in his studies. Sociological positivism suggests that factors such as poverty, membership of subcultures. Adolphe Quetelet made use of data and statistical analysis to gain insight into the relationship between crime and sociological factors and he found that age, gender, poverty, education, and alcohol consumption were important factors related to crime. Lance Lochner conducted three different research experiments that shared the same conclusion, schooling reduces crime by a significant margin, Rawson W. Rawson utilized crime statistics to suggest a link between population density and crime rates, with crowded cities creating an environment conducive for crime. Joseph Fletcher and John Glyde also presented papers to the Statistical Society of London on their studies of crime, Henry Mayhew used empirical methods and an ethnographic approach to address social questions and poverty, and presented his studies in London Labour and the London Poor. Émile Durkheim viewed crime as an aspect of society, with uneven distribution of wealth
3.
Penology
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The Oxford English Dictionary defines penology as the study of the punishment of crime and prison management, and in this sense it is equivalent with corrections. Penology is concerned with the effectiveness of social processes devised and adopted for the prevention of crime. The study of penology therefore deals with the treatment of prisoners and it also encompasses aspects of probation as well as penitentiary science relating to the secure detention and retraining of offenders committed to secure institutions. Penology concerns many topics and theories, including those concerning prisons, contemporary penology concerns itself mainly with criminal rehabilitation and prison management. The word seldom applies to theories and practices of punishment in less formal environments such as parenting, school, historical theories put based on the notion that fearful consequences would discourage potential offenders. Similarly, certain hudud offenses under Sharia hadith tradition may incur fearful penalties and they center on the concept of proportionality. Subsequent development of the ideas of Beccaria made non-lethal punishment more socially acceptable, consequently, convicted prisoners had to be re-integrated into society when their punishment was complete. Auburn System Zebulon Brockway Jeremy Bentham Elmira System Incapacitation Panopticon Diiulio, John J. Governing Prisons, A Comparative Study of Correctional Management, Simon, ISBN 0-02-907883-0 The Florida State University College of Criminology and Criminal Justice CrimLinks UK based site
4.
Anomie
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Anomie is a condition in which society provides little moral guidance to individuals. It is the breakdown of social bonds between an individual and the community, e. g. under unruly scenarios resulting in fragmentation of social identity and it was popularized by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his influential book Suicide. Durkheim never uses the term normlessness, rather, he describes anomie as derangement, Durkheim used the term the malady of the infinite because desire without limit can never be fulfilled, it only becomes more intense. Thus, a society with too much rigidity and little individual discretion could also produce a kind of anomie, thus, fatalistic suicide arises when a person is too rule-governed. In 1893 Durkheim introduced the concept of anomie to describe the mismatch of collective guild labour to evolving societal needs when the guild was homogeneous in its constituency and he equated homogeneous skills to mechanical solidarity whose inertia retarded adaptation. Durkheim observed that the conflict between the organic division of labour and the homogeneous mechanical type was such that one could not exist in the presence of the other. When solidarity is organic, anomie is impossible, sensitivity to mutual needs promotes evolution in the division of labour. Producers, being near consumers, can easily reckon the extent of the needs to be satisfied, equilibrium is established without any trouble and production regulates itself. Relations rare, are not repeated enough, the producer can no longer embrace the market at a glance, nor even in thought. He can no longer see its limits, since it is, accordingly, production becomes unbridled and unregulated. g. Economics, due to the necessity of a buildup of sufficient force or momentum to overcome the inertia. Later in 1897, in his studies of suicide, Durkheim associated anomie to the influence of a lack of norms or norms that were too rigid. In 1983 Robert K. Merton links anomie with deviance and argues that the discontinuity between culture and structure have the consequence of leading to deviance within society. He described 5 types of deviance in terms of the acceptance or rejection of social goals, the word, a reborrowing with French spelling of anomy, comes from Greek ἀνομία lawlessness, namely the privative alpha prefix, and nomos law. The Greeks distinguished between nomos, and arché, for example, a monarch is a single ruler but he or she might still be subject to, and not exempt from, the prevailing laws, i. e. nomos. In the original city state democracy, the majority rule was an aspect of arché because it was a rule-based, customary system, which might or might not make laws, i. e. nomos. Thus, the meaning of anomie defined anything or anyone against or outside the law. This was contrary to theories on suicide which generally maintained that suicide was precipitated by negative events in a persons life
5.
Biosocial criminology
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Biosocial criminology is an interdisciplinary field that aims to explain crime and antisocial behavior by exploring both biological factors and environmental factors. Environment has a significant effect on genetic expression, disadvantaged environments enhance antisocial gene expression, suppress prosocial gene action and prevent the realization of genetic potential. The heritability coefficient for antisocial behavior is estimated to be between 0.40 and 0.58, another approach is to examine the relationship between neurophysiology and criminality. One example is that measured levels of such as serotonin. Another is that neuroimaging studies give strong evidence that both brain structure and function are involved in criminal behaviors, the limbic system creates emotions such as anger and jealousy that ultimately may cause criminal behavior. The prefrontal cortex is involved in delaying gratification and impulse control, if this balance is shifted in favor of the limbic system this may contribute to criminal behavior. Men can potentially have many children with little effort, women only a few with great effort and this is argued to contribute to males having more variable reproductive success than females. One argued consequence of this is that males are more aggressive, in particular, low-status males may be more likely to remain completely childless. This may explain why males have higher rates than females and why low status. The evolutionary neuroandrogenic theory focuses on the hormone testosterone as a factor influencing aggression and criminality, in most species, males are more aggressive than females. Castration of males usually has an effect on aggressive behavior in males. In humans, males engage in crime and especially violent crime more than females, the involvement in crime usually rises in the early teens to mid teens in correlation with the rise of testosterone levels. Research on the relationship between testosterone and aggression is difficult since the only reliable measurement of brain testosterone is by lumbar puncture, studies therefore have often instead used less reliable measurements from blood or saliva. Some studies support a link between adult criminality and testosterone, although the relationship is modest if examined separately for each sex, a significant link between juvenile delinquency and testosterone levels has not been established. Some studies have also found testosterone to be associated with behaviors or personality traits linked with criminality such as antisocial behavior, many studies have also been done on the relationship between more general aggressive behavior/feelings and testosterone. About half the studies have found a relationship and about half no relationship, many conflicts causing homicides involve status conflicts, protecting reputation, and seemingly trivial insults. Steven Pinker in his book The Blank Slate argues that in non-state societies without a police it was important to have a credible deterrence against aggression. Therefore, it was important to have a reputation for retaliation, Pinker argues that the development of the state and the police have dramatically reduced the level of violence compared to the ancestral environment
6.
Broken windows theory
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The broken windows theory is a criminological theory of the norm-setting and signaling effect of urban disorder and vandalism on additional crime and anti-social behavior. The theory was introduced in a 1982 article by social scientists James Q. Wilson, since then it has been subject to great debate both within the social sciences and the public sphere. The theory has been used as a motivation for several reforms in criminal policy, including the mass use of stop, question. James Q. Wilson and George L. Kelling first introduced the broken windows theory in an article titled Broken Windows, the title comes from the following example, Consider a building with a few broken windows. If the windows are not repaired, the tendency is for vandals to break a few more windows, eventually, they may even break into the building, and if its unoccupied, perhaps become squatters or light fires inside. Eventually, people even start leaving bags of refuse from take-out restaurants there or even break into cars, before the introduction of this theory by Wilson and Kelling, Philip Zimbardo, a Stanford psychologist, arranged an experiment testing the broken-window theory in 1969. The car in the Bronx was attacked within minutes of its abandonment, Zimbardo noted that the first vandals to arrive were a family – a father, mother and a young son – who removed the radiator and battery. Within twenty-four hours of its abandonment, everything of value had been stripped from the vehicle, after that, the cars windows were smashed in, parts torn, upholstery ripped, and children were using the car as a playground. At the same time, the vehicle sitting idle in Palo Alto sat untouched for more than a week until Zimbardo himself went up to the vehicle, soon after, people joined in for the destruction. Zimbardo observed that a majority of the vandals in both cases were primarily well dressed, Caucasian, clean-cut and seemingly respectable individuals. Similar events can occur in any civilized community when communal barriers—the sense of mutual regard, the article received a great deal of attention and was very widely cited. It discusses the theory in relation to crime and strategies to contain or eliminate crime from urban neighborhoods, a successful strategy for preventing vandalism, according to the books authors, is to address the problems when they are small. Repair the broken windows within a time, say, a day or a week. Clean up the sidewalk every day, and the tendency is for not to accumulate. Problems are less likely to escalate and thus respectable residents do not flee the neighborhood. Though police work is crucial to prevention, Oscar Newman, in his 1972 book, Defensible Space, wrote that the presence of police authority is not enough to maintain a safe. People in the community help with crime prevention, Newman proposes that people care for and protect spaces they feel invested in, arguing that an area is eventually safer if the people feel a sense of ownership and responsibility towards the area. Broken windows and vandalism are still prevalent because communities simply do not care about the damage, regardless of how many times the windows are repaired, the community still must invest some of their time to keep it safe
7.
Collective efficacy
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In the sociology of crime, the term collective efficacy refers to the ability of members of a community to control the behavior of individuals and groups in the community. Control of peoples behavior allows community residents to create a safe, advocates of collective efficacy claim that these measures increase community control over individuals, thus creating an environment where violent crime is less likely to occur. Researchers have argued that collective efficacy can lead to a significant reduction of crime in communities. Communities with high levels of collective efficacy have been found to have lower rates of violence and homicide, collective efficacy depends on the values shared by community members. If members of a community trust each other and are willing to cooperate to prevent violence and crime, the concept of collective efficacy has been used to explain why urban neighborhoods differ in the amount of crime that takes place in them. In urban areas where neighbors monitor group behavior and are willing to intervene to break out fights or otherwise prevent disorder, collective efficacy includes behaviors, norms and actions that residents of a given community use to achieve public order. In communities where these informal practices are enforced on a basis by community members. In order for collective efficacy to develop in a community or neighborhood, it is necessary that members of the community have strong feelings of trust. Conversely, it is in those communities where people trust each other more and are willing to cooperate that community supervision is more likely to deter crime. Collective efficacy thus requires that community members feel strongly bonded to each other, collective efficacy is thought to reduce the likelihood of crime by preventing public disputes from erupting into violence. In communities where residents are active in enforcing order, groups of peers. Collective efficacy not only reduces crime in public places, but also lowers the likelihood of some forms of crime in private spaces, a 2002 Chicago study, for example, found that collective efficacy reduces the probability of both female homicide and physical violence against females by male partners. Collective efficacy develops more easily in some types of communities than in others, economic downturns affect some areas more than others, leading individuals in affected areas to move to neighborhoods that offer better economic opportunities. Since developing mutual trust and cooperation with neighbors requires time, those communities where individuals are likely to move out have lower levels of collective efficacy. In communities more seriously affected by instability, social bonds between residents are weaker, meaning that they will be less likely to cooperate in monitoring the behavior of others. Lower income individuals, such as members of minorities or female household heads. These individuals usually lack the resources to live in areas with large proportions of affuent individuals, residents of lower income communities are thus more likely to be excluded from contact with more advantaged people. This isolation creates feelings of helplessness and lack of control among residents of lower income neighborhoods and these feelings in turn make it less likely for trust and cooperation to develop between residents of disadvantaged communities
8.
Crime analysis
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Crime analysis is a law enforcement function that involves systematic analysis for identifying and analyzing patterns and trends in crime and disorder. Information on patterns can help law enforcement agencies deploy resources in an effective manner. Crime analysis also plays a role in devising solutions to crime problems, quantitative social science data analysis methods are part of the crime analysis process, though qualitative methods such as examining police report narratives also play a role. Crime analysis can occur at levels, including tactical, operational. Crime analysts study crime reports, arrests reports, and police calls for service to identify emerging patterns, series and they analyze these phenomena for all relevant factors, sometimes predict or forecast future occurrences, and issue bulletins, reports, and alerts to their agencies. They then work with their agencies to develop effective strategies and tactics to address crime. To see if a crime fits a certain known pattern or a new pattern is often tedious work of analysts, detectives or in small departments. They must manually sift through piles of paperwork and evidence to predict, anticipate, the U. S. Department of Justice and the National Institute of Justice recently launched initiatives to support “predictive policing”, which is an empirical, data-driven approach. However this work to specific patterns of crime committed by an individual or group. MIT doctoral student Tong Wang, Cambridge Police Department CPD Lieutenant Daniel Wagner, CPD crime analyst Rich Sevieri, Series Finder grows a pattern of crime, starting from a seed of two or more crimes. The Cambridge Police Department has one of the oldest crime analysis units in the world, the algorithm tries to construct a modus operandi. The M. O. is a set of habits of a criminal and is a type of behavior used to characterize a pattern, the data of the burglaries include means of entry, day of the week, characteristics of the property, and geographic proximity to other break-ins. Using nine known crime series of burglaries, Series Finder recovered most of the crimes within these patterns, machine learning is a tremendous tool for predictive policing. If patterns are identified the police can immediately try to stop them, without such tools it can take weeks and even years of shifting though databases to discover a pattern. Series Finder provides an important data-driven approach to a difficult problem in predictive policing. It’s the first mathematically principled approach to the learning of crime series. Sociodemographics, along with spatial and temporal information, are all aspects that crime analysts look at to understand what is going on in their jurisdiction. Crime analysis employs data mining, crime mapping, statistics, research methods, desktop publishing, charting, presentation skills, critical thinking, and a solid understanding of criminal behavior
9.
Criminalization
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Criminalization or criminalisation, in criminology, is the process by which behaviors and individuals are transformed into crime and criminals. Previously legal acts may be transformed into crimes by legislation or judicial decision, the power of judges to make new law and retrospectively criminalise behaviour is also discouraged. In a less overt way, where laws have not been strictly enforced, there has been some uncertainty as to the nature and extent of the contribution to be made by the victims of crime. But, as Garkawe indicates, the relationship between victimology and criminology has become problematic, in formal academically published theory, the real ruling class of a society reaches a temporary view on whether certain acts or behavior are harmful or criminal. Historically this one theory will be modified by scientific, medical evidence, by change. Conversely, when local politics determines that it is no longer a crime, several principles may underpin decisions about criminalization. These include the de minimis principle, that of the minimum criminalization, under this principle, the general harm principle fails to consider the possibility of other sanctions and the effectiveness of criminalization as a chosen option. Those other sanctions include civil courts, laws of tort and regulation, having criminal remedies in place is seen as a last resort since such actions often infringe personal liberties – incarceration, for example, prevents the freedom of movement. In this sense, law making that places an emphasis on human rights. Most crimes of direct actions are not affected by such a stance. The policy of social defense can be seen as an opposing view and it argues that criminalization is used against any form of activity which threatens good order or is thought reprehensible. The minimization principle may unwittingly prevent the adaptation of the law to new situations, in general, worldwide policy makers have created a myriad of smaller offences, in contradiction to the minimization principle and more in keeping with the social defence. Leading criminal law philosophers, such as Dennis Baker and Joel Feinberg have argued that conduct should only be criminalized when it is fair to do so. In particular, such theorists assert that objective reasons are needed to demonstrate that it is fair to conduct in any given case. The commonly cited objective justification for invoking the law is harm to others. For example, people are not necessarily harmed by public nudity, Feinberg suggests that offence to others also provides an objective reason for invoking the criminal law, but it clearly does not as offence is determined according to conventional morality. Prostitution is another area, as some countries allow it in different forms. One argument may be that prostitution perpetuates the spread of sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS, people experience a range of physical and social injuries in different contexts which will vary according to the level of economic and political development of their country
10.
Differential association
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The differential association theory is the most talked about of the learning theories of deviance. This theory focuses on how individuals learn to become criminals, and they learn how to commit criminal acts, they learn motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes. It grows socially easier for the individuals to commit a crime and their inspiration is the processes of cultural transmission and construction. Sutherland had developed the idea of the self as a social construct, phenomenology and ethnomethodology also encouraged people to debate the certainty of knowledge and to make sense of their everyday experiences using indexicality methods. People define their lives by reference to their experiences, and then generalise those definitions to provide a framework of reference for deciding on future action. From a researchers perspective, a subject will view the world very differently if employed as opposed to unemployed, however, individuals might respond to the same situation differently depending on how their experience predisposes them to define their current surroundings. Differential association predicts that an individual will choose the path when the balance of definitions for law-breaking exceeds those for law-abiding. This tendency will be reinforced if social association provides active people in the persons life, earlier in life the individual comes under the influence of those of high status within that group, the more likely the individual to follow in their footsteps. This does not deny that there may be motives for crime. If a person is hungry but has no money, there is a temptation to steal, but, the use of needs and values is equivocal. To a greater or lesser extent, both non-criminal and criminal individuals are motivated by the need for money and social gain, the principles of Sutherlands Theory of Differential Association key points,1. Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with other persons in a process of communication, the principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the codes as favorable or unfavorable. A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law over definitions unfavorable to violation of the law, Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning. While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values, since non-criminal behavior is an expression of the same needs, the differential association theory according to the version of K. -D. Opp is fairly well corroborated by the data, only three of the postulated relationships are rejected. The theory explains 51% of the variance of criminal behavior, even considering that no criminal population is used for the test, furthermore, special analysis show that several propositions favour the theory
11.
Deviance (sociology)
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In sociology, deviance describes an action or behavior that violates social norms, including a formally enacted rule, as well as informal violations of social norms. It is the purview of criminologists, psychiatrists, psychologists, and sociologists to study how these norms are created, how they change over time, norms are rules and expectations by which members of society are conventionally guided. Deviance is an absence of conformity to these norms, social norms differ from culture to culture. For example, a deviant act can be committed in one society that breaks a social norm there, Deviance can be relative to place and time because what is considered deviant in one social context may be non-deviant in another. Killing another human is considered wrong, except when governments permit it during warfare or for self defense, deviant actions can be mala in se or mala prohibita. Three broad sociological classes exist that describe deviant behavior, namely, structural functionalism, symbolic interaction, social integration is the attachment to groups and institutions, while social regulation is the adherence to the norms and values of the society. Those who are very integrated fall under the category of altruism, similarly, those who are very regulated fall under fatalism and those who are very unregulated fall under anomie. Durkheims theory attributes social deviance to extremes of the dimensions of the social bond, altruistic suicide, egoistic suicide, and anomic suicide are the three forms of suicide that can happen due to extremes. Durkheim claimed that deviance was in fact a normal and necessary part of social organization, when he studied deviance he stated four important functions of deviance. Deviance affirms cultural values and norms, any definition of virtue rests on an opposing idea of vice, There can be no good without evil and no justice without crime. Deviance defines moral boundaries, people learn right from wrong by defining people as deviant, a serious form of deviance forces people to come together and react in the same way against it. Deviance pushes societys moral boundaries which, in turn leads to social change, robert K. Merton discussed deviance in terms of goals and means as part of his strain/anomie theory. He postulated that a response to societal expectations and the means by which the individual pursued those goals were useful in understanding deviance. Often, non-routine collective behavior is said to map onto economic explanations, Merton described 5 types of deviance in terms of the acceptance or rejection of social goals and the institutionalized means of achieving them,1. Innovators accept societys goals, but reject socially acceptable means of achieving them, conformists accept societys goals and the socially acceptable means of achieving them. Ritualism refers to the inability to reach a cultural goal thus embracing the rules to the point where the people in question lose sight of their goals in order to feel respectable. Ritualists reject societys goals, but accept societys institutionalised means, ritualists are most commonly found in dead-end, repetitive jobs, where they are unable to achieve societys goals but still adhere to societys means of achievement and social norms. Retreatism is the rejection of both goals and means, letting the person in question drop out
12.
Psychopathy
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Different conceptions of psychopathy have been used throughout history. These conceptions are only partly overlapping and may sometimes be contradictory, the creation of ASPD and DPD was driven by the fact that many of the classic traits of psychopathy were impossible to measure objectively. Canadian psychologist Robert D. Hare later repopularized the construct of psychopathy in criminology with his Psychopathy Checklist, the study of psychopathy is an active field of research, and the term is also used by the general public, in popular press, and in fictional portrayals. While the term is employed in common usage along with the related but distinct crazy, insane and mentally ill. There are multiple conceptualizations of psychopathy, including Cleckleyan psychopathy and criminal psychopathy, the latter conceptualization is typically used as the modern clinical concept and assessed by the Psychopathy Checklist. The label psychopath may have implications and stigma related to decisions about punishment severity for criminal acts, medical treatment, civil commitments, efforts have therefore been made to clarify the meaning of the term. Yet another conceptualization, the model, suggests that other conceptualizations of psychopathy emphasize three observable characteristics to varying degrees. Analyses have been made with respect to the applicability of measurement tools such as the Psychopathy Checklist, low fear including stress-tolerance, toleration of unfamiliarity and danger, and high self-confidence and social assertiveness. The PCL-R measures this relatively poorly and mainly through Facet 1 of Factor 1, may correspond to differences in the amygdala and other neurological systems associated with fear. Psychopaths tend to have reduced fear, poor impulse control including problems with planning and foresight, lacking affect and urge control, demand for immediate gratification, and poor behavioral restraints. Similar to PCL-R Factor 2 and PPI Impulsive antisociality, may correspond to impairments in frontal lobe systems that are involved in such control. The PCL-R in general is related to this but in some elements in Factor 1. Similar to PPI Coldheartedness but also elements of subscales in Impulsive antisociality. An early and influential analysis from Harris and colleagues indicated a discrete category may underlie PCL-R psychopathy and they again found that the psychopathy measurements do not appear to be identifying a discrete type. There are different views as to which personality dimensions are more central in regard to psychopathy, besides dimensions described elsewhere in this article, studies have linked psychopathy to alternative dimensions such as antagonism, conscientiousness and anxiousness. Psychopathy has also linked to high psychoticism—a theorized dimension referring to tough. Aspects of this that appear associated with psychopathy are lack of socialization and responsibility, impulsivity, sensation-seeking, however, narcissism is generally seen as only one possible aspect of psychopathy as broadly defined. The dark tetrad refers to these traits with the addition of sadism, Psychopathy is a personality disorder which has symptoms expressed over a wide range of settings
13.
Rational choice theory (criminology)
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In criminology, rational choice theory adopts a utilitarian belief that man is a reasoning actor who weighs means and ends, costs and benefits, and makes a rational choice. This method was designed by Cornish and Clarke to assist in thinking about crime prevention. Rational choice is based on assumptions, one of which is individualism. The offender sees himself as an individual, the second is that individuals have to maximize their goals, and the third is that individuals are self-interested. Offenders are thinking about themselves and how to advance their personal goals, central points of the theory are described as follows, The human being is a rational actor. People choose behavior, both conforming and deviant, based on their rational calculations, the central element of calculation involves a cost benefit analysis, Pleasure versus pain or hedonistic calculus. Choice, with all other conditions equal, will be directed towards the maximization of individual pleasure, Choice can be controlled through the perception and understanding of the potential pain or punishment that will follow an act judged to be in violation of the social good, the social contract. The state is responsible for maintaining order and preserving the good through a system of laws. This leads to persistent systematic crime and delinquency and he also believed that such disorganization causes and reinforces the cultural traditions and cultural conflicts that support antisocial activity. The systematic quality of the behavior was a reference to repetitive and he depicted the law-abiding culture as dominant and more extensive than alternative criminogenic cultural views and capable of overcoming systematic crime if organized for that purpose. In a similar vein, Cohen and Felson developed Routine Activities Theory which focuses on the characteristics of crime rather than the characteristics of the offender and this is one of the main theories of environmental criminology as an aspect of Crime Prevention Theory. Routine Activities Theory relates the pattern of offending to the patterns of social interaction. Since rational choice can explain many different components, it is enough to be applied not only to crime. Studies involve offenders being interviewed on motives, methods and target choices, Rational Choice Theory insists that crime is calculated and deliberate. Crime therefore can be influenced by opportunity, opportunity of a crime can be related to cost benefits, socioeconomic status, risk of detection, dependent on situational context, type of offence and access to external benefits. In addition, opportunities are dependent on the individual’s current surroundings and this theory better explains instrumental crimes rather than expressive crimes. Instrumental crimes involve planning and weighing the risks with a rational mind, an example of an instrumental crime can include, tax evasion, traffic violations, drinking and driving, corporate crime, larceny and sexual assault. On the other hand, expressive crime includes crimes involving emotion, expressive crimes can include, non pre-mediated murder such as manslaughter, and assault
14.
Social control theory
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Internal, by which a youth refrains from delinquency through the conscience or superego. Control through needs satisfaction, i. e. if all an individuals needs are met, Social control theory proposes that peoples relationships, commitments, values, norms, and beliefs encourage them not to break the law. Thus, if moral codes are internalized and individuals are tied into and have a stake in their wider community, the theory seeks to understand the ways in which it is possible to reduce the likelihood of criminality developing in individuals. The theory derives from a Hobbesian view of nature as represented in Leviathan. Thus, morality is created in the construction of social order, assigning costs and consequences to choices and defining some as evil. The earliest form of the theory was proposed by Edward A. Hence, the more perfect that the order is. His best-known work, Social Control, deals with the reasons for, another early form of the theory was proposed by Reiss who defined delinquency as. behavior consequent to the failure of personal and social controls. Reiss also wrote extensively on the application of his work to criminology, jackson Toby, argued that the uncommitted adolescent is a candidate for gang socialization. He believed that all could be tempted into delinquency, but most refused because they considered that they had too much to lose, the young who had few stakes or investments in conformity were more likely to be drawn into gang activity. The notion of stakes in conformity fits very well with concepts invoked in later versions of control theory. Ivan Nye not only elaborated a social theory of delinquency. He formulated the theory after interviewing 780 young people in Washington State, the sample was criticized because it did not represent any urban environments, and those selected might have been more apt to describe their families unfavorably. Some were concerned that criminal activity was only mentioned in two of the questions, so the extrapolations to crime in general were considered unsafe, like Reiss, he focused on the family as a source of control. Youth may be controlled through constraints imposed by parents, limiting the opportunity for delinquency, as well as through parental rewards. However, they may be constrained when free from control by their anticipation of parental disapproval, or through the development of a conscience. The focus on the family as a source of control was in marked contrast to the emphasis on economic circumstances as a source of motivation at the time. Walter Reckless developed containment theory by focusing on a youths self-conception or self-image of being a person as an insulator against peer pressure to engage in delinquency. Inner containment = positive sense of self, outer containment = supervision and this inner containment through self-images is developed within the family and is essentially formed by about the age of twelve
15.
Social disorganization theory
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In sociology, the social disorganization theory is one of the most important theories developed by the Chicago School, related to ecological theories. The theory directly links crime rates to neighborhood ecological characteristics, a principle of social disorganization theory is that place matters. In other words, a residential location is a substantial factor shaping the likelihood that that person will become involved in illegal activities. The theory suggests that, among determinants of a persons later illegal activity, larry Gaines and Roger Miller state in their book Criminal Justice in Action that crime is largely a product of unfavorable conditions in certain communities. The theory is not intended to apply to all types of crime, the theory has not been used to explain organized crime, corporate crime, or deviant behavior that takes place outside neighborhood settings. Up to the beginning of 1970s, this took a back seat to the psychological explanation of crime. A recent overview of social theory, including suggestions for refining and extending the theory, is a journal article by Kubrin. Attitudes are not innate, rather, they stem from a process of acculturation and this is based on the four wishes of the Thomas theorem, viz. If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences and these four wishes are the desire for new experiences, the desire for recognition, the desire for domination, and the desire for security. The root of new attitudes arises from the formation of new relationships, for example, the emergence of economics as an independent sphere reflected the tendency to reduce quality to a quantity in barter transactions and led to the development of money. When a city is formed and grows, people and their activities cluster in a particular area, gradually, this central area becomes highly populated, so there is a scattering of people and their activities away from the central city to establish the suburbs. At both a micro and macro level, society was thought to operate as an organism, where change is a natural aspect of the process of growth. Thus, an area is invaded by new elements. This gives rise to competition, and there will either be succession or an accommodation which results in a reorganization. Thus, although a city was an organization, it also had social and moral structures that could be disorganized. They argued that conditions, be they of wealth or poverty, had a much greater determinant effect on criminal behavior than ethnicity, race. Sutherland also believed that such disorganization causes and reinforces the cultural traditions, the systematic quality of the behavior was a reference to repetitive, patterned, or organized offending, as opposed to random events. He depicted the culture as dominant and more extensive than alternative criminogenic cultural views
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Strain theory (sociology)
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In sociology and criminology, strain theory states that social structures within society may pressure citizens to commit crime. Strain theory is a sociology and criminology theory developed in 1957 by Robert K. Merton, the theory states that society puts pressure on individuals to achieve socially accepted goals though they lack the means, this leads to strain which may lead the individuals to commit crimes. Examples being selling drugs or becoming involved in prostitution to gain financial security, Robert King Merton was an American sociologist who argued that society can encourage deviance to a large degree. Merton believed that socially accepted goals put pressure on people to conform, people are forced to work within the system or become members of a deviant subculture to achieve the desired goal. Mertons belief became the known as Strain Theory. Merton continued on to say when individuals are faced with a gap between their goals and their current status, strain occurs, when faced with strain, people have five ways to adapt, Conformity, pursuing cultural goals through socially approved means. Innovation, using socially unapproved or unconventional means to obtain culturally approved goals, example, dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security. Ritualism, using the same socially approved means to achieve less elusive goals, retreatism, to reject both the cultural goals and the means to obtain it, then find a way to escape it. Rebellion, to reject the cultural goals and means, then work to replace them, General strain theory is a sociology and criminology theory developed in the 1992 by Robert Agnew. The core idea of general theory is that people who experience strain or stress become distressed or upset which may lead them to commit crime in order to cope. One of the key principle of theory is emotion as the motivator for crime. The theory was developed to conceptualize the range of sources in society where strain possibly comes from. The theory also focuses on the perspective of goals for status, expectations, examples of General Strain Theory are people who use illegal drugs to make themselves feel better, or a student assaulting his peers to end the harassment they caused. GST introduces 3 main sources of such as, Loss of positive stimuli Presentation of negative stimuli The inability to reach a desired goal. Institutional anomie theory is a theory developed in 1994 in by Steven Messner. Derived from Mertons Strain Theory, IAT expands on the levels of the theory. IATs focus centers on the influences of varied social institutions. Illegitimate opportunities is a theory developed in 1960 by Richard Cloward
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Subcultural theory
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Some of the theories are functionalist assuming that criminal activity is motivated by economic needs, while others posit a social class rationale for deviance. Frederic M. Thrasher studied gangs in a way, analyzing gang activity. He defined gangs by the process go through to form a group, The gang is an interstitial group originally formed spontaneously. It is characterized by the types of behavior, meeting face to face, milling, movement through space as a unit, conflict. The result of collective behavior is the development of tradition, unreflective internal structure, esprit de corps, solidarity, morale, group awareness. In the earliest stages of the Chicago School and their investigation of human ecology, miller agreed with Cohen that there was a delinquency subculture, but argued that it arose entirely from the lower class way of life. David Matza argued that, rather than being committed to delinquency, Phil Cohen studied the youth of East London in the early 1970s. He examined the immediate and the context to determine how two different youth subcultures reacted to the changes occurring in their community. He suggested that the Mod reaction was to the new ideology of affluence and they wanted to show that they had money and knew how to spend it. In contrast, skinheads looked back to the traditional working class community. Each generation tries to find employment or adapts to unemployment, but the 1920s had very different economic circumstances to later decades. Cohen argued that youth develop a style as a means of coping with their particular circumstances. This casts working class youth as the bearers of class struggle. Cohen argued that these styles are not meaningless, but are deeply layered in meaning and this is an application of Marxist Subcultural Theory which synthesised the structuralism of Marxism with the Labelling Theory. The approach matched that of the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at Birmingham University and this approach places emphasis on the contents of youth culture and on the differences produced by class background. The assumption is that a capitalist society attempts to achieve hegemony by using the values of society for their own benefit. The domination of the adults is enforced through the system of mortgages, credit cards, and family commitments, and they are seduced into accepting the relative security of capitalism. But the youth are relatively free of long term commitment or responsibility for a family and, with many unemployed, Cohen, Albert K. Delinquent Boys, The Culture of the Gang, Glencoe
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Symbolic interactionism
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Symbolic interactionism is a sociological perspective which developed around the middle of the twentieth century and that continues to be influential in some areas of the discipline. It is particularly important in microsociology and social psychology, Symbolic interactionism is derived from the American philosophy of pragmatism and particularly from the work of George Herbert Mead. Sociologists working in this tradition have researched a wide range of topics using a variety of research methods, however, the majority of interactionist research uses qualitative research techniques, like participant observation, to study aspects of social interaction and/or individual selves. Symbolic interaction was conceived by George Herbert Mead and Charles Horton Cooley, Meads influence was said to be so powerful that sociologists regard him as the one true founder of the symbolic interactionism tradition. Although Mead taught in a department, he is best known by sociologists as the teacher who trained a generation of the best minds in their field. Strangely, he never set forth his ideas in a book or systematic treatise. After his death in 1931, his students pulled together class notes and conversations with their mentor and published Mind, Self, Herbert Blumer was a social constructionist, and was influenced by Dewey, as such, this theory is very phenomenologically based. He believed that the Most human and humanizing activity that people engage in is talking to each other, two other theorists who have influenced Symbolic interaction theory are Yrjö Engeström and David Middleton. Other scholars credited for their contribution to the theory are Thomas, Park, James, Horton Cooley, Znaniecki, Baldwin, Redfield, the term symbolic interactionism has come into use as a label for a relatively distinctive approach to the study of human life and human conduct. This viewpoint sees people as active in shaping their world, rather than as entities who are acted upon by society, with symbolic interactionism, reality is seen as social, developed interaction with others. Most symbolic interactionists believe a physical reality does indeed exist by an individuals social definitions, and this means that humans exist not in the physical space composed of realities, but in the world composed only of objects. According to Blumer, the objects can be divided into three types, physical objects, social objects, and abstract objects, both individuals and society cannot be separated far from each other for two reasons. One, being that they are created through social interaction, and two, one cannot be understood without the other. Herbert Blumer set out three basic premises of the perspective, Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things. The meaning of things is derived from, or arises out of, the social interaction that one has with others. These meanings are handled in, and modified through, a process used by the person in dealing with the things he/she encounters. The first premise includes everything that a human being may note in their world, including objects, actions. Essentially, individuals behave towards objects and others based on the meanings that the individual has already given these items
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Victimology
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Victimology is, however, not restricted to the study of victims of crime alone but may include other forms of human rights violations. In criminology and criminal law, a victim of a crime is a person who has been harmed individually and directly by the perpetrator. However, this may not always be the case, as victims of white collar crime. Victims of white collar crime are often denied their status as victims by the construction of the concept. The concept also remains a topic within womens studies. Emotional distress as the result of crime is a theme for all victims of crime. The most common problems, affecting three quarters of victims, were problems, including, fear, anxiety, nervousness, self-blame, anger, shame. These problems often result in the development of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder, post crime distress is also linked to pre-existing emotional problems and sociodemographic variables. This has been known to become a case of the elderly to be more adversely affected. Victims may experience the psychological reactions, Increase in the realization of personal vulnerability. The perception of the world as meaningless and incomprehensible, the view of themselves in a negative light. The experience of victimization may result in increasing fear on the part of the victim, the environmental theory posits that the location and context of the crime bring the victim of the crime and its perpetrator together. Studies in the early 2010s showed that crimes are negatively correlated to trees in urban environments and this relationship was established by studies in 2010 in Portland, Oregon and in 2012 in Baltimore, Maryland. Geoffrey Donovan of the United States Forest Service, one of the researchers, said, trees, which provide a range of other benefits, could improve quality of life in Portland by reducing crime. Because We believe that large trees can reduce crime by signaling to a potential criminal that a neighborhood is better cared for and, therefore. Note that the presence of street trees especially indicated a reduction in crime. We found that the relationship continued in both contexts, but the magnitude was 40% greater for public than for private lands. There have been some studies recently to quantify the real existence of victim-proneness, contrary to the popular belief that more women are repeat victims, and thus more victim-prone than men, actually men in their prime are more likely to be victims of repeated crimes
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Crime
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In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority. The term crime does not, in criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition. The most popular view is that crime is a created by law, in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant. One proposed definition is that a crime or offence is an act not only to some individual. Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law, the notion that acts such as murder, rape and theft are to be prohibited exists worldwide. What precisely is an offence is defined by criminal law of each country. While many have a catalogue of crimes called the criminal code, the state has the power to severely restrict ones liberty for committing a crime. In modern societies, there are procedures to which investigations and trials must adhere, usually, to be classified as a crime, the act of doing something criminal must – with certain exceptions – be accompanied by the intention to do something criminal. While every crime violates the law, not every violation of the law counts as a crime, breaches of private law are not automatically punished by the state, but can be enforced through civil procedure. With institutional and legal machinery at their disposal, agents of the State can compel populations to conform to codes, authorities employ various mechanisms to regulate certain behaviors in general. In addition, authorities provide remedies and sanctions, and collectively these constitute a criminal justice system, Legal sanctions vary widely in their severity, they may include incarceration of temporary character aimed at reforming the convict. Some jurisdictions have penal codes written to inflict permanent harsh punishments, legal mutilation, usually a natural person perpetrates a crime, but legal persons may also commit crimes. Conversely, at least under U. S. law, nonpersons such as animals cannot commit crimes, the sociologist Richard Quinney has written about the relationship between society and crime. When Quinney states crime is a phenomenon he envisages both how individuals conceive crime and how populations perceive it, based on societal norms. The word crime is derived from the Latin root cernō, meaning I decide, originally the Latin word crīmen meant charge or cry of distress. The Ancient Greek word krima, from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to a mistake or an offense against the community. In 13th century English crime meant sinfulness, according to etymonline. com and it was probably brought to England as Old French crimne, from Latin crimen. In Latin, crimen could have signified any one of the following, charge, indictment, accusation, crime, fault, the word may derive from the Latin cernere – to decide, to sift
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Crimes against humanity
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The first prosecution for crimes against humanity took place at the Nuremberg trials. The law of crimes against humanity has developed through the evolution of customary international law. Crimes against humanity are not codified in a convention, although there is currently an international effort to establish such a treaty. Unlike war crimes, crimes against humanity can be committed during peace or war and they are not isolated or sporadic events, but are part either of a government policy or of a wide practice of atrocities tolerated or condoned by a government or a de facto authority. The term crimes against humanity is potentially ambiguous because of the ambiguity of the word humanity, the history of the term shows that the latter sense is intended. The term crimes against humanity was used by George Washington Williams, in a pamphlet published in 1890, the preamble of the two Conventions referenced the “laws of humanity” as an expression of underlying inarticulated humanistic values. The term is part of what is known as the Martens Clause, on May 24,1915, the Allied Powers, Britain, France, and Russia, jointly issued a statement explicitly charging for the first time ever another government of committing a crime against humanity. At the conclusion of the war, a war crimes commission recommended the creation of a tribunal to try violations of the laws of humanity. However, the US representative objected to references to law of humanity as being imprecise and insufficiently developed at that time, the drafters of this document were faced with the problem of how to respond to the Holocaust and grave crimes committed by the Nazi regime. A traditional understanding of war crimes gave no provision for crimes committed by a power on its own citizens, the legal basis for the trial was established by the Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East that was proclaimed on 19 January 1946. The tribunal convened on May 3,1946, and was adjourned on November 12,1948, in the Tokyo Trial, Crimes against Humanity was not applied for any suspect. This was because the values of lives of Asian civilians were considered to be less than the lives of Caucasian or Jewish civilians. Prosecutions related to the Nanking Massacre were categorised as infringements upon the Laws of War, War crimes charges against more junior personnel were dealt with separately, in other cities throughout Far East Asia, such as the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal and the Khabarovsk War Crimes Trials. A panel of eleven judges presided over the IMTFE, one each from victorious Allied powers, the different types of crimes which may constitute crimes against humanity differs between definitions both internationally and on the domestic level. The Charter of the United Nations makes actions of the General Assembly advisory to the Security Council, in regard to apartheid in particular, the UN General Assembly has not made any findings, nor have apartheid-related trials for crimes against humanity been conducted. The statutes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, there are eleven international texts defining crimes against humanity, but they all differ slightly as to their definition of that crime and its legal elements. In 2008, the Crimes Against Humanity Initiative was launched to address this gap in international law, the Initiative represents the first concerted effort to address the gap that exists in international criminal law by enumerating a comprehensive international convention on crimes against humanity. On July 30,2013, the United Nations International Law Commission voted to include the topic of crimes against humanity in its program of work
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Blue-collar crime
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While blue-collar crime has no official legal classification, it holds to a general net group of crimes. These crimes are primarily small scale, for immediate beneficial gain to the individual or group involved in them and this can also include personal related crimes that can be driven by immediate reaction, such as during fights or confrontations. These crimes include but are not limited to, Narcotic production or distribution, sexual assault, theft, burglary, assault or murder. Blue-collar crime is a used to identify crime, normally of a small scale nature in contrast to “white-collar crime”. During the 1910s through to the 1920s in America, manual labourers often opted for blue shirts and this has carried on to the modern day, therefore meaning crime committed by lower classes. It is important to note that blue-collar crime does not exclusively address low income earners in work, the process of industrialisation encouraged working-class incorporation into society with greater social mobility being achieved during the twentieth century. A perennial source of conflict has therefore involved working-class youth but, as structural unemployment emerged. Ralf Dahrendorf argues that the majority class did not need the unemployed to maintain and even increase its standard of living, box sums up the research into crime and unemployment at pp96–7, The relationship between overall unemployment and crime is inconsistent. On balance the weight of existing research supports there being a weak, however, properly targeted research on young males, particularly those from disadvantaged ethnic groups, which considers both the meaning and duration of unemployment, has yet to be done. What this and other empirical research demonstrates is that crime-rates, especially for property offences, were higher during periods of unemployment than of employment and this suggests that holding constant other variables, the same youths commit more crimes while unemployed. This is not surprising since unemployment provides an incentive to commit offences and erodes the social controls which would otherwise encourage conformity, but crime also rose during the so-called period of affluence, prompting the Right Realism of James Q. More generally, the growth of anomie, predicted a strong correlation between unemployment and property crime, but Cantor and Land found a negative association for unemployment and property crime in the United States. They argued that unemployment decreases the opportunity for property crime since it reflects a general slowdown in, however, there is an explanation for this correlation between unemployment and tendencies towards crime. A study found that both social standing in the classes and the employment status of offenders found them likely to be detained, arrested and prosecuted by Law Enforcement. Further it came to the conclusion that unemployed persons were more likely to be dealt harsher punishments, the evidence that there are new affluent criminals allows populist politicians to deny any link between inner-city deprivation and crime. As Durkheim asserted, moral education cannot be effective in an economically unjust society, a further factor currently being researched is the role of the media in the social construction of hot spots or dangerous places within a city. Crime is an element in media news reporting. In Australia a study undertaken, focusing on Aboriginal Australians, researched into the crime rates between similar communities
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