1.
Framingham
–
Framingham is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 68,318 as of the United States 2010 Census, founded in 1700, Framingham was placed at #36 on Best Places to Live in US by CNN Money magazine in 2012. Framingham, sited on the ancient trail known as the Old Connecticut Path, was first settled when John Stone settled on the west bank of the Sudbury River in 1647. In 1660, Thomas Danforth, an official of the Bay Colony, formerly of Framlingham, Suffolk, received a grant of land at Danforths Farms and he strenuously resisted petitions for incorporation of the town, which was officially incorporated in 1700, following his death the previous year. Why the L was dropped from the new name is not known. The first church was organized in 1701, the first teacher was hired in 1706, on February 22,1775, the British general Thomas Gage sent two officers and an enlisted man out of Boston to survey the route to Worcester, Massachusetts. In Framingham, those spies stopped at Buckminsters Tavern and they watched the town militia muster outside the building, impressed with the mens numbers but not their discipline. Though the whole company came into the tavern after their drill, Gage did not order a march along that route, instead ordering troops to Concord, Massachusetts, on April 18–19. Framingham sent two companies totaling about 130 men into the Battles of Lexington and Concord that followed. In the years prior to the American Civil War, Framingham was an annual gathering-spot for members of the abolitionist movement, each Independence Day from 1854 to 1865, the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society held a rally in a picnic area called Harmony Grove near what is now downtown Framingham. At the 1854 rally, William Lloyd Garrison burned copies of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, judicial decisions enforcing it, other prominent abolitionists present that day included William Cooper Nell, Sojourner Truth, Wendell Phillips, Lucy Stone, and Henry David Thoreau. During the post–World War II baby boom, Framingham, like many suburban areas, experienced a large increase in population. Much of the housing constructed during that time consisted of split-level, in 2000, Framingham celebrated its Tercentennial. Framingham is located at 42°17′59″N 71°25′35″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 26.4 square miles. 25.1 square miles of it is land and 1.3 square miles of it is water, Framingham is located in eastern Massachusetts,20 miles west of Boston, midway between Boston and Worcester. It is bordered by Southborough and Marlborough on the west, Sherborn and Ashland on the south, Natick on the east, Wayland on the northeast, the town of Framingham is divided by Route 9, which passes east-to-west through the middle of the town. South Framingham includes Downtown Framingham, and the villages of Coburnville, Lokerville, North Framingham includes the villages of Nobscot, Pinefield, Ridgefield, and Saxonville plus Framingham Center. As of the census of 2010, there were 68,318 people,27,529 households, the population density was 2,663.6 people per square mile
Framingham
–
The Museum at the Framingham History Center
Framingham
–
The Memorial Building, Framingham's town hall
Framingham
–
Framingham Public Library, Lexington St.
Framingham
–
The Common in Framingham Center
2.
Province of Massachusetts Bay
–
The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony in British North America and, from 1776, one of the thirteen original states of the United States. It was chartered on October 7,1691, by William and Mary, the joint monarchs of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The charter took effect on May 14,1692, and included the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, the Province of Maine, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The modern Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the successor, Maine has been a separate U. S. state since 1820. The name Massachusetts comes from the Massachusett, an Algonquian tribe, the name has been translated as at the great hill, at the place of large hills, or at the range of hills, with reference to the Blue Hills, and in particular, Great Blue Hill. Colonial settlement of the shores of Massachusetts Bay began in 1620 with the founding of the Plymouth Colony, over the next ten years there was a major migration of Puritans to the area, leading to the founding of a number of new colonies in New England. By the 1680s the number of colonies had stabilized at five, in addition to Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay was the most populous and economically significant, housing a sizable merchant fleet. The colonies at times struggled against the Indian population, which had suffered a decline in population prior to the arrival of the first permanent settlers. In the 1630s the Pequot tribe was destroyed, and King Philips War in the 1670s resulted in the expulsion, pacification. The latter war was costly to the colonists of New England. Massachusetts and Plymouth were both somewhat politically independent from England in their days, but this situation changed after the restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660. Charles sought closer oversight of the colonies, and to introduce and enforce economic control over their activities, the Navigation Acts passed in the 1660s were widely disliked in Massachusetts, where merchants often found themselves trapped and at odds with the rules. These issues and others led to the revocation of the first Massachusetts Charter in 1684, when James was deposed in the 1688 Glorious Revolution, Massachusetts political leaders conspired against Andros, arresting him and other English authorities in April 1689. This led to the collapse of the Dominion, as the other colonies then quickly reasserted their old forms of government, the Plymouth colony had never had a royal charter, so its governance had always been on a somewhat precarious footing. Massachusetts, however, was placed into constitutional anarchy by the uprising, provincial agents traveled to London where Increase Mather, representing the old colony leaders, petitioned new rulers William and Mary to restore the old colonial charter. When King William learned that this result in a return to the predominantly entrenched religious rule. Instead, the Lords of Trade decided to solve two problems at once by combining the two colonies, accordingly, on October 7,1691, they issued a charter for the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and appointed Sir William Phips its governor. Although the effect of change has been subject to debate among historians
Province of Massachusetts Bay
–
Flag
3.
British America
–
English America, and later British America, were the English, and later British, territories in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. After that, British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britains continental North American possessions, the term British North America was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America, called the Durham Report. British America gained large amounts of new territory following the Treaty of Paris which ended Britains involvement in the Seven Years War, at the start of the American War of Independence in 1775, the British Empire included 20 colonies north and east of New Spain. East and West Florida were ceded to Spain in the Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolution, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America apart from the British West Indies united together from 1867 to 1873 forming the Dominion of Canada. The first such permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown by the Virginia Company whose investors expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments, Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 natives in the region. Native American political leadership sought to resettle the English colonizers from Jamestown to another location, other colonizers, both English and German, did join the Powhatans. The first colonizers were welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, there were twenty British colonies in North America in 1775
British America
–
Flag
4.
Boston
–
Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
Boston
–
From top to bottom, left to right: the
Boston skyline viewed from the
Bunker Hill Monument; the
Museum of Fine Arts;
Faneuil Hall;
Massachusetts State House;
The First Church of Christ, Scientist;
Boston Public Library; the
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum;
South Station;
Boston University and the
Charles River;
Arnold Arboretum;
Fenway Park; and the
Boston Common
Boston
–
State Street, 1801
Boston
–
View of Boston from
Dorchester Heights, 1841
Boston
–
Scollay Square in the 1880s
5.
Stevedore
–
A stevedore, dockworker, docker, dock laborer, wharfie, wharf rat, lumper, whombler, and/or longshoreman is a waterfront manual laborer who is involved in loading and unloading ships. The word stevedore originated in Portugal or Spain, and entered the English language through its use by sailors. In Canada, the term stevedore has also used, for example, in the name of the Western Stevedoring Company, Ltd. based in Vancouver. Loading and unloading ships requires knowledge of the operation of loading equipment, the techniques for lifting and stowing cargo. In addition, workers must be strong and be able to follow orders attentively. In order to unload a ship successfully, many longshoreman are needed, there is only a limited amount of time that a ship can be at a port, so they need to get their jobs done quickly. In earlier days before the introduction of containerization, men who loaded and unloaded ships had to tie down cargoes with rope, a type of stopper knot is called the stevedore knot. The methods of tying up parcels of goods is called stevedore lashing or stevedore knotting. Today, the vast majority of cargo is transported in intermodal containers. The containers arrive at a port by truck, rail or another ship and are stacked in the storage area. When the ship that will be transporting them arrives, the containers that it is offloading are unloaded by a crane, the containers either leave the port by truck or rail or are put in the storage area until they are put on another ship. Once the ship is offloaded, the containers it is leaving with are brought to the dock by truck, a crane lifts the containers from the trucks into the ship. As the containers pile up in the ship, the workers connect them to the ship and those workers at the port who handle and move the containers are likely to be considered stevedores or longshoremen. Before containerization, freight was handled with a longshoreman’s hook. Traditionally, stevedores had no fixed job, but would arrive at the docks in the morning seeking employment for the day, London dockers called this practice standing on the stones, while in the United States it was referred to as shaping. In Britain, due to changes in employment laws, such jobs have become permanent or have been converted to temporary jobs. Dock workers have been a prominent part of the labor movement. Container handling in Hong Kong -2005 In Australia, the informal term wharfie, the term stevedore is also sometimes used, as in the company name Patrick Stevedores
Stevedore
–
Stevedores on a New York dock loading barrels of corn syrup onto a barge on the
Hudson River. Photograph by
Lewis Hine, c. 1912
Stevedore
–
At anchor, two
barges with cranes (floating derricks) at port
Stevedore
–
A container is lifted from the deck
Stevedore
–
Dockworkers in their dangerous work on the containers in the
hatch, working without helmet
6.
Boston massacre
–
The Boston Massacre, known as the Incident on King Street by the British, was an incident on March 5,1770, in which British Army soldiers shot and killed people while under attack by a mob. The incident was publicized by leading Patriots, such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams. Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and he was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and snowballs. Spontaneously they fired into the crowd, instantly killing three demonstrators, two died later. The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder. Defended by lawyer and future American president John Adams, six of the soldiers were acquitted, Boston, the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town, was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s. In 1768, the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists, by which a variety of items that were manufactured in Britain. Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, the Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the governors in America. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. Bostons chief customs officer, Charles Paxton, wrote to Hillsborough, commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty-gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768. On June 10,1768, customs officials seized Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, Bostonians, already angry because the captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection, given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America, to send such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston. On October 1,1768, the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston, two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained. Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider, a lad about eleven Years of Age, was killed by a customs employee on February 22,1770. Seiders death was glorified in the Boston Gazette, and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston, the killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions, with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation. On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White, a British soldier, stood on duty outside the Custom house on King Street
Boston massacre
–
This famous depiction of the event was engraved by
Paul Revere (copied from an engraving by
Henry Pelham), colored by Christian Remick, and printed by
Benjamin Edes. The
Old State House is depicted in the background.
Boston massacre
–
View of the
Old State House, Boston, Massachusetts, the seat of British colonial government from 1713 to 1776. The Boston Massacre took place in front of the balcony, and the site is now marked by a cobblestone circle in the square (photo 2009)
Boston massacre
–
Massacre Site
Boston massacre
–
This 19th-century lithograph is a variation of Revere's famous engraving. Produced soon before the
American Civil War, this image emphasizes
Crispus Attucks, who had by then become an important symbol for abolitionists. (
John Bufford after William L. Champey, circa 1856)
7.
Massachusetts
–
It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
Massachusetts
–
A portion of the north-central
Pioneer Valley in
Sunderland
Massachusetts
–
Flag
Massachusetts
–
Many coastal areas in Massachusetts provide breeding areas for species such as the
piping plover
Massachusetts
–
The
Mayflower in Plymouth Harbor by
William Halsall (1882). The
Pilgrims were a group of
Puritans who founded
Plymouth in 1620.
8.
American Revolution
–
The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
American Revolution
–
John Trumbull 's
Declaration of Independence, showing the
Committee of Five presenting its work to Congress
American Revolution
–
Notice of Stamp Act of 1765 in newspaper
American Revolution
–
Burning of the
Gaspee
American Revolution
–
This 1846
lithograph by
Nathaniel Currier was entitled "The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor"; the phrase "
Boston Tea Party " had not yet become standard.
9.
Wampanoag
–
The Wampanoag /ˈwɑːmpənɔːɡ/, also called joto and also rendered Wôpanâak, is a Native American people in North America. They were a loose confederacy made up of several tribes, many Wampanoag people today are enrolled in two federally recognized tribes, the Mashpee Wampanoag Tribe and the Wampanoag Tribe of Gay Head, or four state-recognized tribes in Massachusetts. Their population numbered in the due to the richness of the environment and their cultivation of corn, beans. Three thousand Wampanoag lived on Marthas Vineyard alone, from 1615 to 1619 the Wampanoag suffered an epidemic, long suspected to be smallpox. Early twenty-first century research has suggested that it was leptospirosis, a bacterial infection known as Weils syndrome or 7-day fever. It caused a fatality rate and nearly destroyed the society. Researchers say that the losses from the epidemic were so large that English colonists were more able to found their settlements in the Massachusetts Bay Colony in later years. More than 50 years later, the King Philips War of Indian allies against the English colonists resulted in the deaths of 40 percent of the surviving tribe, most of the male Wampanoag were sold into slavery in Bermuda or the West Indies. Many women and children were enslaved by colonists in New England, while the tribe largely disappeared from historical records from the late 18th century, its people and descendants persisted. The project is working on curriculum and teacher development. Wampanoag means Easterners or literally People of the Dawn, the word Wapanoos was first documented on Adriaen Blocks 1614 map, which was the earliest-known European representation of Wampanoag territory. Other interpretations include Wapenock, Massasoit and exonym Philips Indians, in 1616, John Smith erroneously referred to the entire Wampanoag confederacy as the Pakanoket, one of the tribes. Pokanoket was used in the earliest colonial records and reports, the Pokanoket tribal seat was located near present-day Bristol, Rhode Island. Traditionally Wampanoag people have been semi-sedentary, with seasonal movements between fixed sites in present-day southern New England, the men often traveled far north and south along the Eastern seaboard for seasonal fishing expeditions, and sometimes stayed in those distant locations for weeks and months at a time. The women cultivated varieties of the three sisters as the staples of their diet, supplemented by fish and game caught by the men. Each community had authority over a territory from which the people derived their livelihood through a seasonal round of fishing, planting, harvesting. Because southern New England was thickly populated by peoples, hunting grounds had strictly defined boundaries. The Wampanoag, like many indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands, have a system, in which women controlled property
Wampanoag
–
Block's map of his 1614 voyage, with the first appearance of the term "New Netherland"
Wampanoag
Wampanoag
–
Title page of first known Bible printed in what is now the United States, translated in the Massachusett language by
John Eliot
Wampanoag
–
Seal of Plymouth Colony
10.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Collection box for
Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society. Circa 1850.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Uncle Tom's Cabin inflamed public opinion in the North and in Britain against the personified evils of slavery.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
Thomas Paine (1737–1805), whose 1775 article "African Slavery in America" was one of the first articles in the United States which advocated abolishing slavery and freeing the slaves.
Abolitionism in the United States
–
John Jay (1745–1829), who founded the
New York Manumission Society in 1785.
11.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
12.
Slave
–
A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced in the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
Slave
–
Photograph of a slave boy in
Zanzibar. 'An Arab master's punishment for a slight offence.' c. 1890.
Slave
–
Slavery
Slave
–
Thousands of children work as bonded labourers in
Asia, particularly in the Indian subcontinent.
Slave
–
A world map showing countries by prevalence of female trafficking
13.
Pennsylvania Gazette
–
The Pennsylvania Gazette was one of the United States most prominent newspapers from 1728, before the time period of the American Revolution, until 1800. On October 2,1729, Benjamin Franklin and Hugh Meredith bought the paper and shortened its name, Franklin not only printed the paper but also often contributed pieces to the paper under aliases. His newspaper soon became the most successful in the colonies, on August 6,1741 Franklin published an editorial about deceased Andrew Hamilton, a lawyer and public figure in Philadelphia who had been a friend. The editorial praised the man highly and showed Franklin had held the man in high esteem, in 1752, Franklin published a third-person account of his pioneering kite experiment in The Pennsylvania Gazette, without mentioning that he himself had performed it. Primarily a publication for classified ads, merchants and individuals listed notices of employment, lost and found goods and items for sale, most entries involved stories of travel. In the July 31,1776 edition the front page lists military movements announced by John Hancock alongside the sale of a plantation in Chester County, Pa. This newspaper, among other firsts, would print the first political cartoon in America, Join, or Die and it ceased publication in 1800, ten years after Franklins death. It is claimed that the publication later reemerged as the Saturday Evening Post in 1821, there are three known copies of the original issue, which are held by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the Library Company of Philadelphia, and the Wisconsin State Historical Society. Today, The Pennsylvania Gazette moniker is used by an unrelated bi-monthly alumni magazine of the University of Pennsylvania, archives are available online for a fee. Pennsylvania Chronicle The Constitutional Post Benjamin Franklin Join, or Die Libertys Kids The Drinkers Dictionary
Pennsylvania Gazette
–
Benjamin Franklin statue holding a copy of The Pennsylvania Gazette
Pennsylvania Gazette
14.
Mulattoe
–
Mulatto is a term used to refer to persons born of one white parent and one black parent or to persons born of a mulatto parent or parents. In English, the term is generally confined to historical contexts. English speakers of mixed white and black ancestry seldom choose to identify themselves as mulatto. Some residents of Latin America, Spain America, the Caribbean, in Latin America, most mulattoes have descended from multi-ethnic relationships dating to the slavery period, rather than from recent ethnic mixing. This is especially true in Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Cape Verde, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The etymology of the term is believed to derive from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato, which comes from mula, meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse. Some dictionaries and scholarly works trace the origins to the Arabic term muwallad. Muwallad literally means born, begotten, produced, generated, brought up, with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD, and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means, descendant, offspring, scion, child, son, boy, young animal, in al-Andalus, Muwallad referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Notable examples of this include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. Thus, in context, the term Muwalad has a meaning close to the adopted. According to the source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood. In English, printed usage of mulatto dates to at least the 16th century and this earliest usage regarded black and white as discrete species, with the mulatto constituting a third separate species. According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado, the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources muwallad is the origin of mulato. The Real Academia Española casts doubt on the muwallad theory, Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and they projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollers points out that this etymology is anachronistic, The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word Mulatto. Of São Tomé and Príncipes 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço. or mixed race, 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such
Mulattoe
–
Juan de Pareja by
Diego Velázquez, 1650
Mulattoe
–
The Christmas Bands are a popular Cape Coloured cultural tradition in
Cape Town
Mulattoe
–
Don Miguel Enríquez, a
Puerto Rican privateer, is the only known mulatto knighted by the
Monarchy of Spain. After being born illegitimate, he became a shoemaker and privateer, ultimately one of the wealthiest men of the New World.
Mulattoe
–
Portrait "A Redenção de Cam" (1895), showing a Brazilian family.
15.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Quechua women in
Peru
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Pai Tavytera Indians in
Amambay Department,
Paraguay, 2012
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
–
Drawing accompanying text in Book XII of the 16th-century
Florentine Codex (compiled 1540–1585), showing
Nahuas of conquest-era central Mexico suffering from smallpox
16.
Free black
–
In United States history, a free negro or free black was the legal status, in the geographic area of the United States, of blacks who were not slaves. Slavery was legal and practiced in each of the Thirteen Colonies at various times, not all Africans who came to America were slaves, a few came even in the 17th century as free men, sailors working on ships. In the early years, some Africans came as indentured servants. As early as 1619, a class of black people existed in North America. Black labor was of importance in the export-oriented tobacco plantations of Virginia and Maryland. About 287,000 slaves were imported into the Thirteen Colonies, the great majority went to sugar colonies in the Caribbean and to Brazil, where life expectancy was short and the numbers had to be continually replenished. Life expectancy of slaves was much higher in the U. S, combined with a very high birth rate, the numbers grew rapidly as the number of births exceeded deaths, reaching nearly 4 million by the 1860 census. From 1770 until 1860, the rate of growth of North American slaves was much greater than for the population of any nation in Europe. The southern colonies imported more slaves, initially from established English colonies in the West Indies, like them, the mainland colonies rapidly increased restrictions that defined slavery as a racial caste associated with African ethnicity. This meant that children of mothers were also slaves, regardless of their fathers. In some cases, this also could result in a person being legally white under Virginia law of the time and these relationships took place mostly among the working class, reflecting the more fluid societies of the time. Because the mixed-race children were born to women, they were free. In addition, slaveholders manumitted some slaves for various reasons, to long years of service, because heirs did not want to take on slaves. Slaves were sometimes allowed to buy their freedom, they might be permitted to save money from fees paid when they were hired out to work for other parties. In the mid-to-late 18th century, Methodist and Baptist evangelists in the first Great Awakening encouraged slaveholders to free their slaves and they converted many slaves to Christianity and approved black leaders as preachers, blacks developed their own strain of Christianity. Prior to the American Revolutionary War, few slaves were manumitted, the war greatly disrupted the slave societies. Beginning with Lord Dunmore, governor of Virginia, the British colonial governments recruited slaves of rebels to the armed forces, the Continentals gradually also began to allow blacks to fight with a promise of freedom. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped from plantations or other venues during the war, some joined British lines or disappeared in the disruption of war
Free black
–
Free woman of color with
quadroon daughter; late 18th-century collage painting,
New Orleans.
Free black
–
"Learning is wealth". Wilson, Charley, Rebecca, and Rosa. Mixed-race slaves from New Orleans
17.
Runaway slave
–
Runaway Slave is the debut album from Hip Hop duo Showbiz and A. G. members of legendary New York City crew D. I. T. C. The album is now out of print, the effort was a highly praised underground release, but didnt sell strong numbers. Three songs from their debut EP are included here, Party Groove, Soul Clap, the album features an early appearance from late legend Big L, on the posse cut Represent, other guest appearances come from Diamond D, Dres, Lord Finesse and DeShawn. The album includes many interludes between songs that features artists such as The Legion, Freddie Foxxx, Fat Joe, Kid Capri. Producer Showbiz makes frequent rapping appearance on the album, unlike later releases, all tracks produced by Showbiz, except #8 and #14 co-produced by Diamond D
Runaway slave
–
Runaway Slave
18.
Bahamas
–
The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
Bahamas
–
A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the
New World for Spain in
caravels; the
Niña and the
Pinta, on Watling Island, an island of The Bahamas that the natives called
Guanahani and that he named San Salvador, on October 12, 1492.
Bahamas
–
Flag
Bahamas
–
Sign at
Bill Baggs Cape Florida State Park commemorating hundreds of
African-American slaves who escaped to freedom in the early 1820s in the Bahamas.
Bahamas
–
Edward VIII, the
Duke of Windsor and
Governor of the Bahamas from 1940 to 1945.
19.
Province of North Carolina
–
The Province of North Carolina was originally part of the Province of Carolina, which was chartered by eight Lords Proprietor. The province later became the U. S. states of North Carolina and Tennessee, and parts of the province combined with other territory to form the states of Georgia, Alabama, for history prior to 1729, see Province of Carolina. King Charles II of England granted the Carolina charter in 1663 for land south of Virginia Colony, Charles II granted the land to eight Lords Proprietors in return for their financial and political assistance in restoring him to the throne in 1660. The first Governor of the separate North Carolina Province was Edward Hyde, in 1729, after nearly a decade-long attempt by the British government to locate and buy out seven of the eight Lords Proprietors, both Carolinas became royal colonies. The remaining one-eighth share of the Province was retained by members of the Carteret family until 1776 and this included several North Carolina rivers, including the French Broad and Watauga. Settlers continued to flow westwards in smaller numbers, despite the prohibition against doing so, most prominently, the Watauga Association formed in 1772 as an ostensibly-independent territory within the bounds of North Carolina, which adopted its own written constitution. Two important maps of the province were reproduced, one by Edward Moseley in 1733, and another by John Collet in 1770. Other maps exist dating to the period of the Age of Discovery that depict portions of the province, or, more specifically. The Court Act of 1746 established a court, initially known as the General Court. List of Chief Justices for 1818 onwards see List of Justices of the North Carolina Supreme Court History of North Carolina A Complete map of North-Carolina from an actual survey, John Collets 1770 map of the colony of North Carolina
Province of North Carolina
–
The dividing line showing the area managed by the descendants of
George Carteret
Province of North Carolina
–
Flag
Province of North Carolina
–
New Bern courthouse
20.
Boston Massacre
–
The Boston Massacre, known as the Incident on King Street by the British, was an incident on March 5,1770, in which British Army soldiers shot and killed people while under attack by a mob. The incident was publicized by leading Patriots, such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams. Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and he was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and snowballs. Spontaneously they fired into the crowd, instantly killing three demonstrators, two died later. The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder. Defended by lawyer and future American president John Adams, six of the soldiers were acquitted, Boston, the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town, was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s. In 1768, the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists, by which a variety of items that were manufactured in Britain. Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, the Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the governors in America. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. Bostons chief customs officer, Charles Paxton, wrote to Hillsborough, commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty-gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768. On June 10,1768, customs officials seized Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, Bostonians, already angry because the captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection, given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America, to send such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston. On October 1,1768, the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston, two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained. Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider, a lad about eleven Years of Age, was killed by a customs employee on February 22,1770. Seiders death was glorified in the Boston Gazette, and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston, the killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions, with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation. On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White, a British soldier, stood on duty outside the Custom house on King Street
Boston Massacre
–
This famous depiction of the event was engraved by
Paul Revere (copied from an engraving by
Henry Pelham), colored by Christian Remick, and printed by
Benjamin Edes. The
Old State House is depicted in the background.
Boston Massacre
–
View of the
Old State House, Boston, Massachusetts, the seat of British colonial government from 1713 to 1776. The Boston Massacre took place in front of the balcony, and the site is now marked by a cobblestone circle in the square (photo 2009)
Boston Massacre
–
Massacre Site
Boston Massacre
–
This 19th-century lithograph is a variation of Revere's famous engraving. Produced soon before the
American Civil War, this image emphasizes
Crispus Attucks, who had by then become an important symbol for abolitionists. (
John Bufford after William L. Champey, circa 1856)
21.
Lithograph
–
Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
Lithograph
–
Charles Marion Russell 's The Custer Fight (1903), with the range of tones fading toward the edges
Lithograph
–
Lithography stone and
mirror image print of a map of Munich
Lithograph
–
A 1902 lithograph map (original size 33×24 cm)
22.
American Civil War
–
The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
American Civil War
–
New Orleans the largest cotton exporting port for New England and Great Britain textile mills, shipping Mississippi River Valley goods from North, South and Border states.
American Civil War
–
Clockwise from top:
Battle of Gettysburg,
Union Captain John Tidball's artillery,
Confederate prisoners,
ironclad USS Atlanta, ruins of
Richmond, Virginia,
Battle of Franklin
American Civil War
–
Sen. Stephen Douglas, author of the
Kansas–Nebraska Act of 1854
American Civil War
–
Sen. John J. Crittenden, of the 1860
Crittenden Compromise
23.
John Henry Bufford
–
John Henry Bufford was a lithographer in 19th-century Boston, Massachusetts. Bufford trained in the Pendleton shop in Boston from 1829 to 1831, according to one historian, Buffords work as a lithographer represented a mediocre sort of craftmanship at best. He had no very special skills as original artist and gravitated to management. In 1835 he moved to New York, where he worked independently for five years while accepting commissions from George Endicott, Bufford returned to Boston in 1839, and became chief artist in the print shop owned by Benjamin W. Thayer. By 1844, the name changed to J. H. Bufford & Co. lithographic portraits copied from daguerreotypes. Artists who worked for Bufford included Francis DAvignon, Winslow Homer, clients included music publisher William H. Oakes. In the 1840s-1860s Bufford lived in Roxbury and worked on Washington Street, J. H. Bufford & Co. 204-206 Washington St. J. H. Bufford,260 Washington St. Buffords Lithographic & Publishing House, after Buffords death in 1870, his sons Frank G. Bufford and John Henry Bufford, Jr. continued the business. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, works by or about John Henry Bufford at Internet Archive James Otto Lewis. The history of Temple, N. H, were done by John H. Bufford, from sketches by himself. Boston Public Library, Norman B. Leventhal Map Center, owns several maps printed by Bufford, prints & Photographs Division owns materiala related to Bufford. Boston Athenaeum owns numerous works by J. H. Bufford & Co, Boston, Buffords Print Publishing House,1863
John Henry Bufford
–
Lithograph issued from Bufford's Print Publishing House, Boston, 1864
John Henry Bufford
–
Mastodon, 1852
John Henry Bufford
–
Jamaica Pond, 1859
John Henry Bufford
–
Masonic Temple, Boston, 1865 (designed by
M.G. Wheelock)
24.
British soldiers
–
The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
British soldiers
–
Men of the
Welsh Guards Trooping the Colour 2007.
British soldiers
British soldiers
–
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, was one of the first generals in the British Army, fighting campaigns in the
War of the Spanish Succession.
British soldiers
–
The extinction of the
Scottish clan system came with the defeat of the clansmen at the
Battle of Culloden in 1746
25.
Stamp Act (1765)
–
Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the tax had to be paid in valid British currency. The purpose of the tax was to pay for troops stationed in North America after the British victory in the Seven Years War and its North American theater of the French. The Americans said that there was no military need for the soldiers there were no foreign enemies on the continent. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers, the Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A consensus considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent—consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant and their slogan was No taxation without representation. Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests, the Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure, it petitioned Parliament and the King. Local protest groups led by merchants and landowners established connections through Committees of Correspondence. Protests and demonstrations initiated by a new organization called the Sons of Liberty often turned violent. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers, whose exports to the colonies were threatened by colonial boycotts, the Act was repealed on March 18,1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies in all cases whatsoever by also passing the Declaratory Act. There followed a series of new taxes and regulations, likewise opposed by the colonists, the British victory in the Seven Years War, known in America as the French and Indian War, had been won only at a great financial cost. During the war, the British national debt increased more than fourfold, the primary reason for retaining such a large force was that demobilizing the army would put 1,500 officers out of work, many of whom were well-connected in Parliament. Stationing 10,000 troops to separate American Indians and frontiersmen was one role, the outbreak of Pontiacs Rebellion in May 1763 apparently reinforced the logic of this decision, as it was an American Indian uprising against the British expansion. The main reason to send 10,000 troops deep into the wilderness was to provide billets for the officers who were part of the British patronage system. John Adams said, Revenue is still demanded from America, and appropriated to the maintenance of swarms of officers and pensioners in idleness and luxury. George Grenville became prime minister in April 1763 after the failure of the short-lived Bute Ministry, raising taxes in Britain was out of the question, since there had been virulent protests in England against the Bute ministrys 1763 cider tax, with Bute being hanged in effigy. The Grenville ministry therefore decided that Parliament would raise revenue by taxing the American colonists without their consent
Stamp Act (1765)
–
Notice of Stamp Act of 1765 in a newspaper
Stamp Act (1765)
–
American newspapers reacted to the Stamp Act with anger and predictions of the demise of
journalism.
Stamp Act (1765)
–
Benjamin Franklin represented Pennsylvania in discussions about the act
Stamp Act (1765)
–
Samuel Adams opposed the act
26.
Townshend Acts
–
The Townshend Acts were a series of acts passed – beginning in 1767 – by of Great Britain relating to the British colonies in North America. The acts are named after Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Townshend Acts were met with resistance in the colonies, prompting the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1768, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770. As a result of widespread protest in the American colonies, Parliament began to repeal the Townshend duties. Most of the new taxes were repealed, but the tax on tea was retained, the British government continued in its attempt to tax the colonists without their consent and the American Revolution followed. Following the Seven Years War, the British Empire was deep in debt, to help pay some of the costs of the newly expanded empire, the British Parliament decided to levy new taxes on the colonies of British America. Previously, through the Trade and Navigation Acts, Parliament had used taxation to regulate the trade of the empire, but with the Sugar Act of 1764, Parliament sought, for the first time, to tax the colonies for the specific purpose of raising revenue. American colonists argued that there were constitutional issues involved, the Americans claimed they were not represented in Parliament but the British government retorted they had virtual representation, a concept the Americans rejected. This issue, only briefly debated following the Sugar Act, became a point of contention following Parliaments passage of the 1765 Stamp Act. The Stamp Act proved to be unpopular in the colonies, contributing to its repeal the following year. Implicit in the Stamp Act dispute was a more fundamental than taxation and representation. The first of the Townshend Acts, sometimes known as the Townshend Act, was the Revenue Act of 1767. This act represented the Chatham ministrys new approach for generating tax revenue in the American colonies after the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. With this in mind, Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, devised a plan that placed new duties on paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea that were imported into the colonies. These were items that were not produced in North America and that the colonists were allowed to buy from Great Britain. The Townshend Revenue Act received the royal assent on 29 June 1767, there was little opposition expressed in Parliament at the time. Never could a fateful measure have had a quiet passage. The Revenue Act was passed in conjunction with the Indemnity Act of 1767, the Indemnity Act repealed taxes on tea imported to England, allowing it to be re-exported more cheaply to the colonies. This tax cut in England would be offset by the new Revenue Act taxes on tea in the colonies
Townshend Acts
–
Charles Townshend spearheaded the Townshend Acts, but died before their detrimental effects became apparent.
Townshend Acts
–
Dickinson's Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania
Townshend Acts
–
Non-importation agreement, dated October 1767, signed by Bostonians including
Paul Revere
Townshend Acts
–
Paul Revere 's engraving of British troops landing in
Boston in 1768.
27.
Patriot (American Revolution)
–
Patriots were those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Their rebellion was based on the philosophy of republicanism, as expressed by spokesmen such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams. They were opposed by the Loyalists who instead supported continued British rule, as a group, Patriots represented a wide array of social, economic and ethnic backgrounds. The critics of British rule called themselves Whigs after 1768, identifying members of the British Whig party. The Oxford English Dictionary third definition of Patriot is A person actively opposing enemy forces occupying his or her country, a member of a resistance movement, originally used of those who opposed and fought the British in the American War of Independence. The earliest citation is a 1773 letter by Benjamin Franklin, in Britain at the time, patriot had a negative connotation, and was used, says Samuel Johnson as a negative epithet for a factious disturber of the government. During the Revolution these persons became known primarily as Loyalists, afterward, many emigrated north to the remaining British territories in what is now modern Canada. There they called themselves the United Empire Loyalists, many Patriots were active before 1775 in groups such as the Sons of Liberty. The most prominent leaders of the Patriots are referred to today by Americans as the Founding Fathers, the Patriots came from many different backgrounds. Among the most active of the Patriots group were highly educated, however, without the support of the ordinary men and women, such as farmers, lawyers, merchants, seamstresses, homemakers, shopkeepers, and ministers, the struggle for independence would have failed. With a white population of about 2.5 million, that makes about 380,000 to 500,000 Loyalists, the great majority of them remained in America, since only about 80,000 Loyalists left the United States 1775–1783. They went to Canada, Britain, Florida or the West Indies, to understand how people made the choice between being a Patriot or a Loyalist, historians have compared the motivations and personalities of leading men on each side. Labaree has identified eight characteristics that differentiated the two groups, psychologically, Loyalists were older, better established, and more likely to resist innovation than the Patriots. Men who were alienated by physical attacks on Royal officials took the Loyalist position, most men who wanted to find a compromise solution wound up on the Loyalist side, while the proponents of immediate action became Patriots. Some Loyalists were procrastinators who believed that independence was bound to some day, but wanted to postpone the moment. Loyalists were cautious and afraid of anarchy or tyranny that might come from mob rule, Patriots made an effort to use. Finally, Labaree argues that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the Patriots confidence that independence lay ahead, the Patriot faction came to reject taxes imposed by legislatures in which the tax-payer was not represented. No taxation without representation, was their slogan, referring to the lack of representation in the British Parliament, the British countered there was virtual representation, that is, all members of Parliament represented the interests of all the citizens of the British Empire
Patriot (American Revolution)
–
The Spirit of '76, originally entitled
Yankee Doodle, painted by
Archibald Willard in the late nineteenth century, an iconic image relating to the
patriotic sentiment surrounding the
American Revolutionary War
28.
Dock (maritime)
–
The exact meaning varies among different variants of the English language. Dock may also refer to a dockyard or shipyard where the loading, unloading, building, the earliest known docks were those discovered in Wadi al-Jarf, an ancient Egyptian harbor dating from 2500 BCE located on the Red Sea coast. Archaeologists also discovered anchors and storage jars near the site, a dock from Lothal in India dates from 2400 BCE and was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and it is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks. The engineers built a structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres. In British English, a dock is an area of water used for loading, unloading, building or repairing ships. Such a dock may be created by building enclosing harbour walls into a natural water space. The level of water in the dock is maintained despite the raising and lowering of the tide and this makes transfer of cargo easier. It works like a lock which controls the level and allows passage of ships. The worlds first enclosed wet dock with lock gates to maintain a constant water level irrespective of tidal conditions was the Howland Great Dock on the River Thames, the dock was merely a haven surrounded by trees, with no unloading facilities. The worlds first commercial enclosed wet dock, with quays and unloading warehouses, was the Old Dock at Liverpool, built in 1715, the dock reduced ship waiting giving quick turn arounds, greatly improving the throughput of cargo. A drydock is another variant, also with dock gates, which can be emptied of water to allow investigation, where the water level is not controlled berths may be, Floating where there is always sufficient water to float the ship. NAABSA where ships settle on the bottom at low tide, ships using NAABSA facilities have to be designed for them. A dockyard consists of one or more docks, usually with other structures, in American English, a dock is technically synonymous with pier or wharf—any human-made structure in the water intended for people to be on. In American English, the term for the area between piers is slip. In the cottage country of Canada and the United States, a dock is a platform built over water. The platform is used for the boarding and offloading of small boats, R. Lothal, a Harappan Port Town. New Delhi, Archaeological Survey of India
Dock (maritime)
–
Docks in
St. Petersburg, Russia.
Dock (maritime)
–
A small
dry dock in
Gloucester,
England
Dock (maritime)
–
A boat dock on
Lake Michigan in
Chicago.
Dock (maritime)
–
Docks along
San Francisco Bay in
Tiburon,
California
29.
Barber
–
A barber is a person whose occupation is mainly to cut, dress, groom, style and shave mens and boys hair. A barbers place of work is known as a shop or a barbers. Barber shops are also places of social interaction and public discourse, in some instances, barbershops are also public forums. They are the locations of open debates, voicing public concerns and they were also influential in helping shape male identity. In previous times, barbers performed surgery and dentistry. With the development of safety razors and the prevalence of beards, in English-speaking cultures. In modern times, the barber is used both as a professional title and to refer to hairdressers who specialize in mens hair. Historically, all hairdressers were considered barbers, in the 20th century, the profession of cosmetology branched off from barbering, and today hairdressers may be licensed as either barbers or cosmetologists. Barbers differ with respect to where they work, which services they are licensed to provide, part of this terminology difference depends on the regulations in a given location. Different states in the US vary on their labor and licensing laws, for example, in Maryland, a cosmetologist cannot use a straight razor, strictly reserved for barbers. In Australia, the term for a barber is hairdresser, barber is only a popular title for mens hairdressers. Most would work in a hairdressing salon, the barbers trade has a long history, razors have been found among relics of the Bronze Age in Egypt. In ancient Egyptian culture, barbers were highly respected individuals, priests and men of medicine are the earliest recorded examples of barbers. Men in Ancient Greece would have their beards, hair, and fingernails trimmed and styled by the κουρεύς, in an agora which also served as a gathering for debates. Barbering was introduced to Rome by the Greek colonies in Sicily in 296 BC, starting from the Middle Ages, barbers often served as surgeons and dentists. In addition to haircutting, hairdressing, and shaving, barbers performed surgery, bloodletting and leeching, fire cupping, enemas, the barber pole, featuring red and white spiraling stripes, symbolized different aspects of the craft. Barbers received higher pay than surgeons until surgeons were entered into British warships during naval wars, some of the duties of the barber included neck manipulation, cleansing of ears and scalp, draining of boils, fistula and lancing of cysts with wicks. Barbershops were influential at the turn of the 19th century as African American businesses that helped to develop African American culture and economy
Barber
–
Edwin Lord Weeks, "The Barber"
Barber
–
A street barber in
Shiraz
Barber
–
Barbershop in
Bucharest around 1842. Woodcut. As shown in this image, the barbershop also provides an opportunity for social contacts.
Barber
–
The barbershop in Fluvanna, Texas, has been restored as part of a pioneer village in
Snyder in
Scurry County in
West Texas.
30.
29th Regiment of Foot
–
The 29th Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, raised in 1694. Under the Childers Reforms it amalgamated with the 36th Regiment of Foot to become the 1st Battalion, the regiment was first raised by Colonel Thomas Farrington as Thomas Farringtons Regiment of Foot on 16 February 1694. It was disbanded after the Treaty of Ryswick in December 1698, the regiment served under John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough at the victory at the Battle of Ramillies in May 1706 against the French and in the siege of Ostend in June 1706. In June 1727 the regiment saw action defending Gibraltar from a Spanish attack, in October 1745, the Regiment was sent to Fortress Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. The following year, the regiment was in the Port-la-Joye Massacre during King Georges War, the Canadiens and Mikmaq warriors massacred a significant portion of the regiment, in part, because they were unarmed. In 1749, the regiment was at the site of Halifax, Nova Scotia, until the middle of the eighteenth century British Army regiments were known by their colonels name. This led to frequent changes of title, in 1747 regiments were required to establish their precedence, with each unit taking a numerical rank. The process was completed in 1751 when a royal warrant formally substituted numbers for the names of colonels, accordingly, Colonel Peregrine Hopsons Regiment became the 29th Regiment of Foot. In 1759 Admiral Edward Boscawen gave to his brother Colonel George Boscawen 10 black youths he acquired in the capture of Guadeloupe from the French in the same year and these young men were released from slavery and joined the regiment as drummers, a tradition the regiment continued until 1843. Due to the incident, the regiment earned the nickname the Vein Openers for drawing first blood in the American Revolution, the soldiers involved were tried for murder and were defended by John Adams. Two men of the regiment, Hugh Montgomery and Matthew Kilroy, were guilty of manslaughter. Captain Thomas Preston and the men involved were found not guilty. The regiment left Boston in 1771 for British controlled Florida before returning to England in 1773, in 1777, the Light Infantry Company and the Grenadier Company were with Lieutenant General John Burgoyne as he headed down from Montreal to Saratoga. Both the Light Infantry Company and Grenadier Company saw action at the Battle of Hubbardton under the command of Brigadier Simon Fraser, both companies surrendered with the rest of Burgoynes Army after the defeats at Battle of Freemans Farm and Battle of Bemis Heights in September and October 1777. On 31 August 1782 a royal warrant was issued conferring county titles on all regiments of foot that did not already have a special title, the regiment was retitled as the 29th Regiment of Foot. The change was an attempt to improve recruitment, but no depot was established in the county, the regiment returned to England in 1787. During the winter of 1791 Princess Augusta presented the regiment with the music of a march of her own composing, which received the name of The Royal Windsor. The march, with its impressive drum cadence recalling later American marches and it appears that the Princess used material of Russian origin
29th Regiment of Foot
–
29th (Worcestershire) Regiment of Foot
29th Regiment of Foot
–
Engraving by
Paul Revere
31.
Old State House (Boston)
–
The Old State House is an historic building in Boston, Massachusetts, at the intersection of Washington and State Streets. Built in 1713, it was the seat of the Massachusetts General Court until 1798, one of the landmarks on Bostons Freedom Trail, it is the oldest surviving public building in Boston, and now serves as a history museum operated by the Bostonian Society. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission in 1994. Todays brick Old State House was built in 1712–13, possibly designed by Robert Twelves, the previous building, a notable feature was the pair of seven-foot tall wooden figures depicting a lion and unicorn, symbols of the British monarchy. The building housed a Merchants Exchange on the first floor and warehouses in the basement, the central portion contained the chambers for the elected Massachusetts Assembly. This chamber is notable for including public galleries, the first known example of such a feature being included in a chamber for elected officials in the English-speaking world, the interior was rebuilt in 1748, after a fire in 1747. In 1761, James Otis argued against the Writs of Assistance in the Royal Council Chamber, though he lost the case, Otis influenced public opinion in a way that contributed to the American Revolution, John Adams later wrote of that speech, Then and there. On March 5,1770, The Boston Massacre occurred in front of the building on Devonshire Street, lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson stood on the buildings balcony to speak to the people, ordering the crowd to return to their homes. On July 18,1776, the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from the east side balcony to jubilant crowds by Col. Thomas Crafts, at one oclock Col. Crafts rose in the Council Chamber and read it to the members. Then, fellow patriot Sheriff William Greenleaf attempted to read it from the balcony, Col. Crafts then stood next to the sheriff and read it from the balcony in a stentorian tone. For most people, it was an occasion, as about two-thirds of Boston residents supported the revolution. The lion and the unicorn on top of the building were removed and burned in a bonfire in King street, after the American Revolution, the building served as the seat of the Massachusetts state government before its move to the present Massachusetts State House in 1798. From 1830 to 1841, the building was Bostons city hall, previously, the citys offices had been in the County Court House. In 1830, Isaiah Rogers altered the interior in a Greek Revival style. The building was damaged by fire in 1832, during this period of time, City Hall shared the building with the Boston Post Office and several private businesses. On October 21,1835, Mayor Theodore Lyman, Jr. gave temporary refuge to William Lloyd Garrison, the editor of the abolitionist paper The Liberator, who was being chased by a violent mob. Garrison was kept safe in the Old State House until being driven to the Leverett Street Jail, in 1841, City Hall moved to the former Suffolk County Courthouse, on School Street. After Bostons city hall left, the building was rented out for commercial use
Old State House (Boston)
–
Old State House
Old State House (Boston)
–
This engraving by Paul Revere, portraying the Boston Massacre with a patriot's bias, shows the Old State House sitting prominently behind the action.
Old State House (Boston)
–
The Old State House
32.
Club (weapon)
–
A club is among the simplest of all weapons, a short staff or stick, usually made of wood, wielded as a weapon since prehistoric times. In popular culture, clubs are associated with cultures, especially cavemen. Most clubs are small enough to be swung with one hand, Various specialized clubs are used in martial arts and other fields, including the law-enforcement baton. The military mace is a more sophisticated descendant of the club, typically made of metal, the wounds inflicted by a club are generally known as bludgeoning or blunt-force trauma injuries. Police forces and their predecessors have traditionally favored the use, whenever possible, of weapons than guns or blades to impose public order or to subdue. Short, flexible clubs are often used, especially by plainclothes officers who need to avoid notice. These are known colloquially as blackjacks, saps, or coshes, in addition, Shaolin monks and members of other religious orders around the world have employed cudgels from time to time as defensive weapons. Though perhaps the simplest of all weapons, there are varieties of club, including. Aklys – a club with a leather thong, used to return it to the hand after snapping it at an opponent. Used by the legions of the Roman Empire, ball club – These clubs were used by the Native Americans. There are two types, the stone clubs that were used mostly by early Plains, Plateau and Southwest Native Indians. These consisted of a relatively free-moving head of rounded stone or wood attached to a wooden handle, baseball, cricket and T-ball bats – The baseball bat is often used as an improvised weapon, much like the pickaxe handle. In countries where baseball is not commonly played, baseball bats are often first thought of as weapons, tee ball bats are also used in this manner. Their smaller size and lighter weight make the bat easier to handle in one hand than a baseball bat, clava – a traditional stone hand-club used by Mapuche Indians in Chile, featuring a long flat body. In Spanish, it is known as clava cefalomorfa and it has some ritual importance as a special sign of distinction carried by the tribal chief. Cosh, A weapon made of covered metal similar to a blackjack, any of various sorts of blunt instrument such as bludgeon, truncheon or the like. Cudgel – A stout stick carried by peasants during the Middle Ages and it functioned as a walking staff and a weapon for both self-defence and wartime. Regiments of clubmen were raised as late as the English Civil War, the cudgel is also known as the singlestick
Club (weapon)
–
Baton
Club (weapon)
–
Ball-headed War Club with Spike, Menominee (Native American),early 19th century,
Brooklyn Museum
Club (weapon)
–
Japanese
Jutte with an iron shaft "boshin" and an iron hook "kagi", the handle "tuska" is wrapped with cord and it has an iron end piece "kan" which swivels.
Club (weapon)
–
Antique Japanese Ararebo wood club. A small
kanabo type weapon.
33.
Faneuil Hall
–
Faneuil Hall, located near the waterfront and todays Government Center, in Boston, Massachusetts, has been a marketplace and a meeting hall since 1743. It was the site of speeches by Samuel Adams, James Otis. Now it is part of Boston National Historical Park and a stop on the Freedom Trail. It is sometimes referred to as the Cradle of Liberty, in 2008, Faneuil Hall was rated number 4 in Americas 25 Most Visited Tourist Sites by Forbes Traveler. There was an opposition to market houses, and although a vote of thanks was passed unanimously. Funded in part by profits from trading, the building was begun in Dock Square in September of the same year. It was built by artist John Smibert in 1740–1742 in the style of an English country market, with a ground floor serving as the market house. According to Sean Hennessey, a National Park Service spokesman, some of Bostons early slave auctions were located near Faneuil Hall, in 1761 the hall was destroyed by fire, nothing but the brick walls remaining. It was rebuilt by the town in 1762, in 1775, during the British occupation of Boston, it was used for a theatre. In 1806, the hall was expanded by Charles Bulfinch, doubling its height and width. Four new bays were added, to seven in all, the open arcades were enclosed. Bulfinch applied Doric brick pilasters to the two floors, with Ionic pilasters on the third floor. This renovation added galleries around the hall and increased its height. Neighboring Quincy Market was constructed in 1824-26, Faneuil Hall was entirely rebuilt of noncombustible materials in 1898–1899. On October 9,1960 the building was designated a National Historic Landmark, the ground floor and basement were altered in 1979. The Hall was restored again in 1992 and in 1994 designated as a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission. It was designed by Benjamin Thompson and Associates and managed by Ashkenazy Acquisition Corp. its success in the late 1970s led to the emergence of similar marketplaces in other U. S. cities, chappelle was a Boston legislator from 1883-1886. On the front page of The New York Age newspaper on Saturday, on November 7,1979, Faneuil Hall was the site of Sen. Edward M. Kennedys speech declaring his candidacy for president
Faneuil Hall
–
Faneuil Hall
Faneuil Hall
–
Samuel Adams, described on the 1880 statue by
Anne Whitney at Faneuil Hall as "A Stateman: Incorruptible and Fearless"
Faneuil Hall
–
Faneuil Hall sign
Faneuil Hall
–
Faneuil Hall in 1830
34.
Lay in state
–
Lying in state is the tradition in which the body of a dead official is placed in a state building, either outside or inside a coffin, to allow the public to pay their respects. It traditionally takes place in the government building of a country, state. While the practice differs among countries, a viewing in a other than the principal government building may be referred to as lying in repose. In Canada, official lying in state is a part of a state funeral and it is held in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill, in the national capital, Ottawa. Ex-governors general lie in state in the Senate Chamber while former prime ministers lie in the Hall of Honour, guards stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted with their backs turned towards the casket. Provinces may also mount state funerals and have a lying in state for a former resident. For instance, Maurice Richard, nationally known player, was given a state funeral by the province of Quebec when he died in 2000. This process was repeated for fellow Canadiens legend Jean Béliveau in December 2014, municipalities may offer civic funerals to prominent deceased current or former politicians. An honor guard armed with an AK-47 was present, jong-ils father Kim Il-sung, the founding president, is on display elsewhere in the palace. They took place in Moscow, beginning with a lying in state of the deceased in the House of the Unions. For the lying in state at the House of the Unions, the coffin would be placed on display in the Column Hall, the mourners, which usually would be brought in by the thousands, shuffled up a marble staircase beneath chandeliers draped in black gauze. On the stage at the side of the Column Hall. A small guard of honour would be in attendance in the background, at the right side of the hall, seats were placed for guests of honour, with the front row reserved for the dead leaders family. On the day of the funeral, a military funeral parade would take place during which the coffin would be conveyed from the House of the Unions to Red Square where burial would take place. Lenin and Stalin were placed inside the Lenin Mausoleum, while Brezhnev, Andropov, at state funerals in Singapore, the national flag is put on the coffin. The vigil guard may be deployed during the lying in state of the deceased person at Parliament House. The deployment of the guard is the highest form of respect accorded by the nation to the deceased. One of the five officers stands facing outward at each of the four corners of the casket, while the fifth and most senior one stands in front and their heads are bowed and their ceremonial swords are inverted
Lay in state
–
Philip IV of France lying in state
Lay in state
–
Mahatma Gandhi lying in state
Lay in state
–
John J. Pershing saluting the
Unknown Soldier of
World War I who lay in state in the Capitol rotunda on November 9, 1921.
Lay in state
–
Richard Nixon and members of Congress honor Lyndon B. Johnson who lay in state in the Capitol rotunda on January 24, 1973.
35.
Granary Burying Ground
–
The Old Granary Burial Ground in Massachusetts is the city of Bostons third-oldest cemetery, founded in 1660 and located on Tremont Street. The cemetery has 2,345 grave-markers, but historians estimate that as many as 5,000 people are buried in it, the cemetery is adjacent to Park Street Church and immediately across from Suffolk University Law School. The cemeterys Egyptian revival gate and fence were designed by architect Isaiah Rogers, the Burying Ground was the third cemetery established in the city of Boston and dates to 1660. The need for the site arose because the set aside for the citys first cemetery—Kings Chapel Burying Ground. The area was known as the South Burying Ground until 1737, in May 1830, trees were planted in the area and an attempt was made to change the name to “Franklin Cemetery” to honor the family of Benjamin Franklin, but the effort failed. The Burying Ground was originally part of the Boston Common, which encompassed the entire block. Tombs were initially placed near the back of the property, on May 15,1717, a vote was passed by the town to enlarge the Burying Ground by taking part of the highway on the eastern side. The enlargement was carried out in 1720 when 15 tombs were created and assigned to a number of Boston families, eleven large European elms fronted it on Tremont Street. The elms were planted in 1762 by Major Adino Paddock and John Ballard, the walk under the elms was known as Paddocks Mall, while the rest of the grounds were devoid of any trees at all. The first major improvement was undertaken in 1830, when a number of trees were planted around the grounds, the property was improved again in 1840 by the construction of an iron fence on Tremont Street. The fence was designed by Boston architect Isaiah Rogers at a cost of $5,000, half paid by the city, Rogers designed an identical Egyptian revival gateway for Newports Touro Cemetery. In January 2009, a previously unknown crypt was discovered when a tourist on a tour through the cemetery fell through the ground into what appeared to be a stairway leading to a crypt. The stairway had been covered with a piece of slate which eventually gave way due to advanced age, the crypt is reported to be 8 by 12 feet and is structurally intact. It is possibly the place of Jonathan Armitage, a Boston selectman from 1732 to 1733. $125,000 will be provided by the Freedom Trail Foundation, prominently displayed in the Burying Ground is an obelisk erected in 1827 to the parents and relatives of Benjamin Franklin who was born in Boston and is buried in Philadelphia. Franklins father was Josiah Franklin, originally from Ecton, Northamptonshire, England, and his mother was Abiah, constructed of granite from the Bunker Hill Monument quarry, the obelisk was constructed to replace the original Franklin family gravestones which had been in poor condition. The new memorial was dedicated on 15 June 1827, the oldest memorial in the yard lies near the Franklin monument memorializing John Wakefield, aged 52 who died 18 June 1667. The reason for the gap between the establishment of the burying ground and the oldest memorial are unknown
Granary Burying Ground
–
Granary Burying Ground (2006)
Granary Burying Ground
–
Entrance to the Granary Burying Ground as it appeared circa 1881 with the now missing European Elms present
Granary Burying Ground
–
Granary Burying Ground with
Suffolk Law School across the street (2008)
Granary Burying Ground
–
Granary Burying Ground
36.
John Adams
–
John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
John Adams
–
John Adams
John Adams
–
Adams' birthplace in
Quincy, Massachusetts
John Adams
–
Mrs. Abigail Smith Adams – 1766 Portrait by Benjamin Blythe
John Adams
–
John Adams – 1766 Portrait by Benjamin Blyth
37.
Branding persons
–
This is performed using a hot or very cold branding iron. It may also be practiced as a rite of passage, e. g. within a tribe, in Dutch, branden mean to burn, brandmerk a branded mark, similarly, in German, Brandzeichen means a brand and brandmarken, to brand. Sometimes, the word cauterize is used, however cauterization is now generally understood to mean a medical process – specifically to stop bleeding. The origin may be the ancient treatment of a slave as livestock, european, American and other colonial slavers branded millions of slaves during the period of trans-Atlantic enslavement. Sometimes there were several brandings, e. g. for the Portuguese crown and the private owner, to a slave owner it would be logical to mark such property just like cattle, more so since humans are more able to escape. Ancient Romans marked runaway slaves with the letters FGV, in criminal law, branding with a hot iron was a mode of punishment consisting of marking the subject as if goods or animals, sometimes concurrently with their reduction of status in life. Under Constantine I the face was not permitted to be so disfigured, in the 16th century, German Anabaptists were branded with a cross on their foreheads for refusing to recant their faith and join the Roman Catholic church. The mark in later times was often chosen as a code for the crime. Branding was used for a time by the Union Army during the American Civil War, surgeon and Oxford English Dictionary contributor William Chester Minor was required to brand deserters at around the time of the Battle of the Wilderness. In Germany however, branding was illegal, following the Conspiracy of the Slaves of 1749 in Malta, some slaves were branded with the letter R on their forehead and condemned to the galleys for life. In Louisiana, there was a code, or Code Noir, which allowed the cropping of ears, shoulder branding. Slave owners used extreme punishments to stop flight, or escape and they would often brand the slaves palms, shoulders, buttocks, or cheeks with a branding iron. Branding was sometimes used to mark recaptured runaway slaves to help the locals easily identify the runaway. Mr. Micajah Ricks, in Raleigh, North Carolina, was looking for his slave and described, I burnt her with a hot iron, on the side of her face. Most slave owners would use whipping as their method. Another testimony explains how a slave owner in Kentucky around 1848 was looking for his runaway slave and he described her having a brand mark on the breast something like L blotched. In South Carolina, there were many laws which permitted the punishments slaves would receive, when a slave ran away, if it was the first offense, the slave would receive no more than forty lashes. Then the second offense would be branding, the slave would have been marked with the letter R on their forehead signifying that they were a criminal, and a runaway
Branding persons
–
Modern strike branding
Branding persons
–
A replica of a slave branding iron which would have originally been used in the Atlantic slave trade. On display at The Museum of Liverpool, England.
38.
Taig
–
Tadhg, is an Irish and Scottish Gaelic masculine name that was very common when the Gaelic languages predominated, to the extent that it is a synecdoche for Irish Gaelic man. The name signifies poet or philosopher and this was also the name of many Gaelic Irish kings from the 10th to the 16th centuries, particularly in Connacht and Munster. Tadhg is most common in south-west Ireland, particularly in County Cork, the name has enjoyed a surge in popularity recently, in 2005 it was the 69th most common name for baby boys and in 2010 the 40th, according to the Central Statistics Office in Ireland. In the form Taig the name is used as a term of abuse for an Irish Catholic. The commonly accepted meaning of Tadhg is poet or storyteller, the ultimate derivation is from the Celtic *tazgo-, who were poets in early Celtic society. In any case, the name element Tasgo-, Tasco-, or Taxo- is widely attested in Gaulish. When the whole of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, due to similarity in sound, Tadhg is often listed as an Irish equivalent of the Judeo-Christian names Thaddeus, Timothy or sometimes Thomas, but these names are not actually related. The name is also spelled Taḋg in the Irish uncial alphabet with an overdot over the d to indicate it is lenited, Tadhg has been popularly anglicized as Tighe and Teague. Alternative spellings are Tadgh, Taigh, Taidgh, the name is found once in an Old Norse Viking source spelled as Taðkr. Tadhg is also a synecdoche and was once so common as an Irish name that it became synonymous with the typical Irishman in the way that Paddy or Mick might be today. In 1698, John Dunton wrote an account of Ireland. Thereafter, the use of the term was frequent. However, there is evidence from this era of the name continued to be used as a source of pride for assertive Gaelic Irish people. Most probably a motley rabble of saucy boys, negros and molattoes, Irish Teagues, extremist loyalists have also used in graffiti slogans such as Kill All Taigs and All Taigs Are Targets. Keanes 1965 play The Field, has a character named Tadhg McCabe, list of Irish-language given names Dictionary definition of Taig
Taig
–
KAT (Kill All Taigs) and
Ulster Defence Association graffiti in the
loyalist Fountain area of
Derry
39.
Jack Tar
–
Jack Tar was a common English term originally used to refer to seamen of the Merchant or Royal Navy, particularly during the period of the British Empire. By World War I the term was used as a nickname for those in the U. S. Navy, both members of the public, and seafarers themselves, made use of the name in identifying those who went to sea. It was not used as a pejorative and sailors were happy to use the term to label themselves, there are several plausible etymologies for the reference to tar. In the age of sailing vessels, a ships rigging was rope made of hemp. To avoid this, the ropes and cables of the rig were soaked in tar. Seamen were known to tar their clothes before departing on voyages, in order to make them waterproof, later they frequently wore coats and hats made from a waterproof fabric called tarpaulin. This may have been shortened to tar at some point and it was common amongst seamen to plait their long hair into a ponytail and smear it with high grade tar to prevent it getting caught in the ships equipment. Pinafore, subtitled The Lass That Loved a Sailor, uses the synonym tar frequently in its dialogue, including the songs The Merry Maiden and the Tar and A British Tar. One of John Philip Sousas lesser known works was his Jack Tar March, written in 1903, Jack Tar, Life in Nelson’s Navy, best-selling non-fiction book written by Roy and Lesley Adkins about the real lives of sailors in Nelsons age. The traditional English folk song Go to Sea Once More tells the tale of a sailor by the name of Jack Tarr who loses everything after a drunken escapade while ashore in Liverpool. The traditional English folk song Jacky Tar, sung by Eliza Carthy, Roud 511, Laws K40, John Adams called the crowd involved with the Boston Massacre a motley rabble of saucy boys, negros and molattoes, Irish teagues and outlandish jack tarrs. Heart of Oak, the march of the Royal Navy, features the line Heart of oak are our ships. Rollins College of Winter Park, Florida chose the Tar as its mascot, people born in Swansea, UK are known as Jacks or Swansea Jacks. One explanation for the name is that the people of Swansea had a reputation as skilled sailors, in Anthony Shaffers comedy/thriller play Sleuth, the most prominent of Andrew Wykes automata is Jolly Jack Tarr, the Jovial Sailor. This life-sized figure laughs, and his body shakes appropriately, with the pressing of a control button. He is in several scenes, including one where a clue to a murder is hidden on Jolly Jack Tarrs person, a Better Berth for Jack Tar. —Article by an Able Seaman describing the Seamens Act of 1915 and conditions for seafarers Jack Tar
Jack Tar
–
Recruitment poster from the Napoleonic Wars
40.
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of the The Federalist Papers, Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris that would end the American Revolutionary War. Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention, according to the CIA, Washington, Jay and Franklin helped define the powers of the Executive Branch All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States. The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used narrowly, referring specifically to the those who signed the engrossed version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 signed the Constitution, a further subset of Founders includes those who signed the Continental Association or the Articles of Confederation. During much of the 19th century, they were referred to as either the Founders or the Fathers, the First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774 and consisted of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies that became the United States of America. On the list of attendees was George Washington, who would soon be out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Also in attendance was Patrick Henry, and John Adams, who were elected by their respective colonial assemblies, other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New Yorks John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, when the Second Continental Congress came together on May 10,1775, it was, in effect, a reconvening of the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second, notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses, Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, the newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The Americans adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a government which was made up of a one-house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name, the Congress of the Confederation, later, the Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention, the result of the Convention was the United States Constitution. The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th-century American leadership, almost all of them were well-educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs, virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution, at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
Declaration of Independence, a painting by
John Trumbull depicting the
Committee of Five presenting their draft of the
Declaration of Independence to the Congress on June 28, 1776. Trumbull's painting appears on the reverse of the
United States two-dollar bill.
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
The
Albany Congress of 1754 was a conference attended by seven colonies, which presaged later efforts at cooperation. The
Stamp Act Congress of 1765 included representatives from nine colonies.
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States, by
Howard Chandler Christy
Founding Fathers of the United States
–
Portrait of
George Washington and his valet slave
William Lee.
41.
Samuel Adams
–
Samuel Adams was an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was a cousin to fellow Founding Father, President John Adams. Adams was born in Boston, brought up in a religious, a graduate of Harvard College, he was an unsuccessful businessman and tax collector before concentrating on politics. His 1768 Massachusetts Circular Letter calling for colonial non-cooperation prompted the occupation of Boston by British soldiers, continued resistance to British policy resulted in the 1773 Boston Tea Party and the coming of the American Revolution. Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774, at which time Adams attended the Continental Congress in Philadelphia which was convened to coordinate a colonial response, Adams returned to Massachusetts after the American Revolution, where he served in the state senate and was eventually elected governor. Samuel Adams later became a figure in American history. Accounts written in the 19th century praised him as someone who had been steering his fellow colonists towards independence long before the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. This view gave way to negative assessments of Adams in the first half of the 20th century, both of these interpretations have been challenged by some modern scholars, who argue that these traditional depictions of Adams are myths contradicted by the historical record. Samuel Adams was born in Boston in the British colony of Massachusetts on September 16,1722, an Old Style date that is sometimes converted to the New Style date of September 27. Adams was one of children born to Samuel Adams, Sr. and Mary Adams in an age of high infant mortality. Adamss parents were devout Puritans and members of the Old South Congregational Church, the family lived on Purchase Street in Boston. Adams was proud of his Puritan heritage, and emphasized Puritan values in his political career, Samuel Adams, Sr. was a prosperous merchant and church deacon. Deacon Adams became a figure in Boston politics through an organization that became known as the Boston Caucus. The Boston Caucus helped shape the agenda of the Boston Town Meeting, Deacon Adams rose through the political ranks, becoming a justice of the peace, a selectman, and a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. In the coming years, members of the party became known as Whigs or Patriots. The younger Samuel Adams attended Boston Latin School and then entered Harvard College in 1736 and his parents hoped that his schooling would prepare him for the ministry, but Adams gradually shifted his interest to politics. After graduating in 1740, Adams continued his studies, earning a degree in 1743. Adamss life was affected by his fathers involvement in a banking controversy
Samuel Adams
–
In this c. 1772 portrait by
John Singleton Copley, Adams points at the
Massachusetts Charter, which he viewed as a constitution that protected the peoples' rights.
Samuel Adams
–
While at Harvard, Adams boarded at
Massachusetts Hall.
Samuel Adams
–
The
Old South Meeting House (1968 photo shown) was Adams's church. During the crisis with Great Britain, mass meetings that were too large for
Faneuil Hall were held here.
Samuel Adams
–
Statue of Samuel Adams in front of
Faneuil Hall, which was the home of the
Boston Town Meeting
42.
Henry Pelham (engraver)
–
A small tobacco shop run by his mother provided support for the family until Copley brought prosperity to them all through his portrait painting. Their home was in Lindall Street, at the intersection of Exchange Place. From there Henry attended the Boston Latin School and he is assumed to have studied drawing and painting with his half-brother. It was a likeness of Henry Pelham, then aged fifteen or sixteen, that featured in The Boy with the Squirrel, Henry Pelhams many letters reveal a naïve, boyish young man, devoted to his mother and half-brother, an efficient assistant to the latter in practical affairs. He himself painted miniatures at this time, several of which are preserved, Pelham created an engraving titled, The Fruits of Arbitrary Power, or The Bloody Massacre which depicted the incident on March 5,1770. He lent a copy to Paul Revere, who copied it, a much more ardent Loyalist than Copley, he expressed himself vigorously against his neighbors, whom he held to be misguided and rebellious. In the winter of 1775, while making a journey on horseback to Philadelphia and his sketch of the redoubts on Bunker Hill is reproduced with the Copley-Pelham letters. His Plan of Boston was engraved in aquatint in London in 1777 and his illuminating letters shed important light on events of the American Revolution. Pelham left Boston with other Loyalists in August 1776, having arrived in London, where the Copleys were settled, he supported himself by teaching drawing, perspective, geography, and astronomy. In 1777 he contributed to the Royal Academy The Finding of Moses, the following year he exhibited some enamels and miniatures. Having married Catherine Butler, daughter of William Butler of Castle Crine, County Clare, Ireland and his wife, however, died while bearing twin sons, Peter and William, and the father returned with them to London. He and Copley shared in the estate of their mother, who died in Boston on April 29,1789, soon after this Pelham was named agent for Lord Lansdownes Irish estates, a work which he followed with energy and ability. He was a engineer and cartographer, and his county. He was drowned from a boat while superintending the erection of a tower in the River Kenmare. American Council of Learned Societies, 1928–1936, john Singleton Copley in America, a full text exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which contains material on Henry Pelham
Henry Pelham (engraver)
–
Henry Pelham as painted by his half-brother
John Singleton Copley in The Boy with the Squirrel
Henry Pelham (engraver)
–
Henry Pelham's engraving copied by Paul Revere
43.
John Singleton Copley
–
John Singleton Copley RA was an American painter, active in both colonial America and England. He was probably born in Boston, Massachusetts, to Richard and Mary Singleton Copley and he is famous for his portrait paintings of important figures in colonial New England, depicting in particular middle-class subjects. His portraits were innovative in their tendency to depict artifacts relating to these individuals lives, Copleys mother owned a tobacco shop on Long Wharf. His father was from Limerick, his mother, of the Singletons of County Clare, Letters from John Singleton, Mrs. Copleys father, are in the Copley-Pelham collection. Richard Copley, described as a tobacconist, is said by biographers to have arrived in Boston in ill health and to have gone, about the time of Johns birth, to the West Indies. William H. Whitmore gives his death as of 1748, the year of Mrs. Copleys remarriage, james Bernard Cullen says, Richard Copley was in poor health on his arrival in America and went to the West Indies to improve his failing strength. No contemporary evidence has been located for either year, except for a family tradition that speaks of his precocity in drawing, nothing is known of Copleys schooling or of the other activities of his boyhood. His letters, the earliest of which is dated September 30,1762, in such a household young Copley may have learned to use the paintbrush and the engravers tools. The family lived next to the occupied by japanner Thomas Johnston and his family. His son, Lord Lyndhurst, wrote that he was entirely self taught, variants of this thesis are found almost everywhere in his earlier letters. They suggest that, while Copley was industrious and an executant, he was physically unadventurous and temperamentally inclined toward brooding. He could have seen at least a few paintings and many good prints in the Boston of his youth. The excellence of his own portraits was not accidental or miraculous and it is a remarkable work to have come from so young a hand. No other engraving has been attributed to Copley, such painting would obviously advertise itself anywhere. Without going after business, for his letters do not indicate that he was ever aggressive or pushy, besides painting portraits in oil, doubtless after a formula learned from Peter Pelham, Copley was a pioneer American pastellist. He wrote, on September 30,1762, to the Swiss painter Jean-Étienne Liotard, the requested pastels were duly received and used by Copley in making many portraits in a medium suited to his talent. By this time he had begun to demonstrate his genius for rendering surface textures and capturing emotional immediacy. Copleys fame was established in England by the exhibition, in 1766, of A Boy with a Squirrel, which depicted his half-brother, Henry Pelham, seated at a table and playing with a pet squirrel
John Singleton Copley
–
Self-portrait
John Singleton Copley
–
Portrait of Ann Fairchild Bowler (1758)
John Singleton Copley
–
Portrait of the Copley family (1776)
John Singleton Copley
–
Mars, Venus and Vulcan (1754)
44.
Paul Revere
–
Paul Revere was an American silversmith, engraver, early industrialist, and a Patriot in the American Revolution. He is best known for alerting the colonial militia to the approach of British forces before the battles of Lexington and Concord, as dramatized in Henry Wadsworth Longfellows poem, Paul Reveres Ride. Revere was a prosperous and prominent Boston silversmith, who helped organize an intelligence, finally in 1800 he became the first American to successfully roll copper into sheets for use as sheathing on naval vessels. Revere was born in the North End of Boston on December 21,1734, according to the Old Style calendar then in use, or January 1,1735, in the modern calendar. His father, a French Huguenot born Apollos Rivoire, came to Boston at the age of 13 and was apprenticed to the silversmith John Coney. By the time he married Deborah Hitchborn, a member of a long-standing Boston family that owned a shipping wharf, in 1729. Their son, Paul Revere, was the third of 12 children, Revere grew up in the environment of the extended Hitchborn family, and never learned his fathers native language. At 13 he left school and became an apprentice to his father, the silversmith trade afforded him connections with a cross-section of Boston society, which would serve him well when he became active in the American Revolution. As for religion, although his father attended Puritan services, Revere was drawn to the Church of England, Revere eventually began attending the services of the political and provocative Jonathan Mayhew at the West Church. His father did not approve, and as a result father, Revere relented and returned to his fathers church, although he did become friends with Mayhew, and returned to the West Church in the late 1760s. Reveres father died in 1754, when Paul was legally too young to officially be the master of the silver shop. In February 1756, during the French and Indian War, he enlisted in the provincial army, possibly he made this decision because of the weak economy, since army service promised consistent pay. He did not stay long in the army, but returned to Boston, on August 4,1757, he married Sarah Orne, their first child was born eight months later. He and Sarah had eight children, but two died young, and only one, Mary, survived her father, business was so poor that an attempt was made to attach his property in late 1765. To help make ends meet he took up dentistry, a skill set he was taught by a practicing surgeon who lodged at a friends house. One client was Doctor Joseph Warren, a physician and political opposition leader with whom Revere formed a close friendship. Revere and Warren, in addition to having common political views, were both active in the same local Masonic lodges. Although Revere was not one of the Loyal Nine—organizers of the earliest protests against the Stamp Act—he was well connected with its members, Revere did not participate in some of the more raucous protests, such as the attack on the home of Lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson
Paul Revere
–
John Singleton Copley, Portrait of Paul Revere. c. 1768–70
Paul Revere
–
Revere's dentistry tools
Paul Revere
–
" The Bloody Massacre Perpetrated in King Street Boston on March 5th, 1770 ". Copper engraving by Paul Revere modeled on a drawing by Henry Pelham, 1770.
Paul Revere
–
20th century depiction of Revere's ride
45.
John Hancock
–
John Hancock was an American merchant, statesman, and prominent Patriot of the American Revolution. He served as president of the Second Continental Congress and was the first, before the American Revolution, Hancock was one of the wealthiest men in the Thirteen Colonies, having inherited a profitable mercantile business from his uncle. Hancock began his career in Boston as a protégé of Samuel Adams. As tensions between colonists and Great Britain increased in the 1760s, Hancock used his wealth to support the colonial cause and he became very popular in Massachusetts, especially after British officials seized his sloop Liberty in 1768 and charged him with smuggling. Although the charges against Hancock were eventually dropped, he has often described as a smuggler in historical accounts. Hancock was one of Bostons leaders during the crisis led to the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775. He served more than two years in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia, and as president of Congress, was the first to sign the Declaration of Independence, Hancock returned to Massachusetts and was elected governor of the Commonwealth, serving in that role for most of his remaining years. He used his influence to ensure that Massachusetts ratified the United States Constitution in 1788, according to the Gregorian calendar, John Hancock was born on January 23,1737, according to the Julian calendar then in use, the date was January 12,1736. He was born in Braintree, Massachusetts, in a part of town eventually became the separate city of Quincy. He was the son of the Reverend John Hancock of Braintree and Mary Hawke Thaxter, as a child, Hancock became a casual acquaintance of young John Adams, whom the Reverend Hancock had baptized in 1735. The Hancocks lived a life, and owned one slave to help with household work. After Hancocks father died in 1744, John was sent to live with his uncle and aunt, Thomas Hancock, Thomas Hancock was the proprietor of a firm known as the House of Hancock, which imported manufactured goods from Britain and exported rum, whale oil, and fish. Thomas Hancocks highly successful business made him one of Bostons richest and he and Lydia, along with several servants and slaves, lived in Hancock Manor on Beacon Hill. The couple, who did not have any children of their own, after graduating from the Boston Latin School in 1750, Hancock enrolled in Harvard College and received a bachelors degree in 1754. Upon graduation, he began to work for his uncle, just as the French, Thomas Hancock had close relations with the royal governors of Massachusetts and secured profitable government contracts during the war. John Hancock learned much about his uncles business during these years and was trained for eventual partnership in the firm, Hancock worked hard, but he also enjoyed playing the role of a wealthy aristocrat and developed a fondness for expensive clothes. From 1760 to 1761, Hancock lived in England while building relationships with customers and suppliers, upon returning to Boston, Hancock gradually took over the House of Hancock as his uncles health failed, becoming a full partner in January 1763. He became a member of the Masonic Lodge of St. Andrew in October 1762, which connected him with many of Bostons most influential citizens
John Hancock
–
Portrait by
John Singleton Copley, c. 1770–72
John Hancock
–
Around 1772, Hancock commissioned John Singleton Copley to paint this portrait of Samuel Adams, Hancock's early political mentor.
John Hancock
–
Portrait of Hancock by John Singleton Copley, c. 1765
John Hancock
–
Paul Revere's 1768 engraving of British troops arriving in Boston was reprinted throughout the colonies.
46.
Prince Hall
–
Prince Hall was an African American noted as an abolitionist for his leadership in the free black community in Boston and as the founder of Prince Hall Freemasonry. He lobbied for education rights for children and was active in the back-to-Africa movement. Hall tried to gain New England’s enslaved and free blacks a place in Freemasonry, education and the military, Hall is considered the founder of “Black Freemasonry” in the United States, known today as Prince Hall Freemasonry. Hall formed the African Grand Lodge of North America, Prince Hall was unanimously elected its Grand Master and served until his death in 1807. There is confusion about his year of birth, place of birth, parents, Prince Hall was born between 1735 and 1738. His place of birth and parents are also unclear, the Prince Hall Grand Lodge of Massachusetts, in its Proceedings of 1906, opted for 1738, relying on a letter from Reverend Jeremy Belknap, a founder of the Massachusetts Historical Society. Prince Halls birthday is celebrated on September 14. Historian Charles H. Wesley theorized that by age 11 Prince Hall was enslaved to Boston tanner William Hall and it was through William Hall that Prince learned how to process and dress leather. Inside Prince Hall author and historian David L. Gray states that he was unable to find a historical record of the manumission. Hall, identified as able to read and write, may have been self-taught or, like other enslaved people and free blacks in New England, Hall joined the Congregational Church in 1762 at 27 years of age. He married a woman named Sarah Ritchie who died in 1769. Hall married Flora Gibbs of Gloucester in 1770 David Gray, states he was married for a time to Sylvia Ward Hall. An article about Prince for Africans in America by PBS states that Prince Hall married a woman named Delia, a servant outside William Halls household, in Boston, Hall worked as a peddler, caterer and leatherworker, owning his own leather shop. In April 1777, he created five leather drumheads for a regiment of Boston. Hall was a homeowner who voted and paid taxes, Hall encouraged enslaved and freed blacks to serve the American colonial military. He believed that if blacks were involved in the founding of the new nation, Hall proposed that the Massachusetts Committee of Safety allow blacks to join the military. He and fellow supporters petition compared Britain’s colonial rule with the enslavement of blacks, England issued a proclamation that guaranteed freedom to blacks who enlisted in the British army. Once the British Army filled its ranks with troops, the Continental Army reversed its decision
Prince Hall
–
An artistic illustration of Prince Hall
Prince Hall
–
This article is about the biography of Prince Hall. For African Masonic Lodge he established, see
Prince Hall Freemasonry.
Prince Hall
–
Prince Hall Monument in Copp's Hill Burying Ground
Prince Hall
–
Prince Hall's tomb stone in Copp's Hill Burying Ground
47.
North End, Boston, Massachusetts
–
The North End is a neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts, United States. It has the distinction of being the citys oldest residential community, though small, only 0.36 square miles, the neighborhood has nearly one hundred establishments and a variety of tourist attractions. It is known for its Italian American population and fine Italian restaurants, the district is a pending Boston Landmark. The North End as a community of Boston was evident as early as 1646. Three years later, the area had a large population to support its own church. The construction of the building led to the development of the area now known as North Square. Increase Mather, the minister of the North Meeting House, was an influential and his home, the meeting house, and surrounding buildings were destroyed by a fire in 1676. The meeting house was soon afterwards. The Paul Revere House was later constructed on the site of the Mather House, part of Copps Hill was converted to a cemetery, called the North Burying Ground. The earliest grave markers located in the date back to 1661. The North End became a place to live in the 18th century. Wealthy families shared the neighborhood with artisans, journeymen, laborers, servants, two brick townhouses from this period still stand, the Pierce-Hichborn House and the Ebenezer Clough House on Unity Street. The Christ Church, now known as the Old North Church, was constructed during this time and it is the oldest surviving church building in Boston. In 1770, 11-year-old Christopher Seider was part of a crowd that attacked the home of a Customs Office employee. The employee, Ebenezer Richardson, fired a gun into the crowd, hitting, during the Siege of Boston, the North Meeting House was dismantled by the British for use as firewood. In the first half of the 19th century, the North End experienced a significant amount of commercial development and this activity was concentrated on Commercial, Fulton, and Lewis Streets. During this time the neighborhood also developed a red-light district, known as the Black Sea, by the late 1840s, living conditions in the crowded North End were among the worst in the city. Successive waves of immigrants came to Boston and settled in the neighborhood, beginning with the Irish and continuing with Eastern European Jews and Italians
North End, Boston, Massachusetts
–
Aerial view of the North End
North End, Boston, Massachusetts
–
The Clough House, built in 1712
North End, Boston, Massachusetts
–
Hanover Street, 1930
North End, Boston, Massachusetts
–
Hanover Street, 2010
48.
William Cooper Nell
–
Writing for abolitionist newspapers The Liberator and The North Star, he helped publicize the anti-slavery cause. He published the North Star from 1847 to 18xx, moving temporarily to Rochester and he also helped found the New England Freedom Association in the early 1840s, and later the Committee of Vigilance, to aid refugee slaves. The Committee of Vigilance supported resistance to the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, Nells short histories, Services of Colored Americans in the Wars of 1776 and 1812 and The Colored Patriots of the American Revolution, were the first studies published about African Americans. He is noted as the first African American to serve in the civil service. Nell was born in 1816 in Boston, Massachusetts to Louise Cooper, from Brookline and his father was an important figure in the abolitionist movement, having helped to create the Massachusetts General Colored Association in the 1820s. Nell encountered racial discrimination as a student, in 1829 he was passed over for an award given to excellent students upon graduation from the Smith School, apparently because of his ethnicity, and excluded from a celebratory dinner. The award was financially supported by the estate of anti-slavery advocate Benjamin Franklin, the school committee instead gave Nell The Life of Ben Franklin, an autobiography. Inspired by the founding of William Lloyd Garrisons newspaper, The Liberator, Nell decided to challenge race-based discrimination and segregation, Nell was particularly interested in encouraging the intellectual and social well-being of young African Americans. He was dedicated to integration and opposed the separate abolitionist organizations for blacks, in his devotion to integration, he dismantled the abolitionist Massachusetts General Colored Association, which had been organized by his father. Nell studied law in the early 1830s and he was never admitted to the bar because he would not swear allegiance to the Constitution of the United States, as he believed it was a pro-slavery document. He was influenced by the opinions of Garrison and Wendell Phillips, around this time, Nell also began his association with Garrison and The Liberator. This connection would continue until the paper closed in 1865, Nell fought for the ideals of Garrison throughout the abolitionist campaign. In 1855 Nell and his colleagues gained a victory, segregation was ended in Boston schools, Nell also encouraged young African Americans to learn outside of the public school system. Garrison said of him, Perhaps no one has done so much—certainly no one has done more—for the intellectual and moral improvement of our colored youth, in 1843, Nell continued his crusade against segregation within the abolitionist movement by denouncing the Buffalo National Negro Convention. He claimed they served as, and promoted, exactly the type of separate abolitionism he was fighting against, on the other hand, he was influential in beginning the New England Freedom Association, an all-black organization which helped fugitive slaves in the North. In this case, Nell supported an African-American group since he believed its cause was closer to the hearts of blacks than whites, Nell publicized the Freedom Associations direct aid to fugitive slaves as well as the abolitionist cause. He also fought for education and encouraged the improvement of young African Americans, with John T. Hilton, he founded the Adelphia Union. He was a leader in campaigns to desegregate public facilities in Boston, Nell served as publisher to Frederick Douglass The North Star, from late 1847 until 1851, moving temporarily to Rochester, New York, during this period
William Cooper Nell
–
William Cooper Nell
49.
Boston Common (park)
–
Boston Common is a central public park in downtown Boston, Massachusetts. It is sometimes referred to as the Boston Commons. Dating from 1634, it is the oldest city park in the United States, the Boston Common consists of 50 acres of land bounded by Tremont Street, Park Street, Beacon Street, Charles Street, and Boylston Street. The Common is part of the Emerald Necklace of parks and parkways that extend from the Common south to Franklin Park in Jamaica Plain, Roxbury, a visitors center for all of Boston is located on the Tremont Street side of the park. The Central Burying Ground is located on the Boylston Street side of Boston Common and contains the sites of the artist Gilbert Stuart. Also buried there are Samuel Sprague and his son, Charles Sprague, Samuel Sprague was a participant in the Boston Tea Party and fought in the Revolutionary War. The Common was designated as a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission in 1977, the Commons purpose has changed over the years. It was once owned by William Blaxton, the first European settler of Boston, during the 1630s, it was used by many families as a cow pasture. However, this lasted for a few years, as affluent families bought additional cows, which led to overgrazing. After grazing was limited in 1646 to 70 cows at a time, the Common was used as a camp by the British before the American Revolutionary War, from which they left for the Battle of Lexington and Concord. It was used for public hangings up until 1817, most of which were from a large oak which was replaced with a gallows in 1769. On June 1,1660, Quaker Mary Dyer was hanged there by the Puritans for repeatedly defying a law that banned Quakers from the Colony, Dyer was one of the four Quakers executed on the Common and known as the Boston martyrs. On May 19,1713, two hundred citizens rioted on the Common in reaction to a shortage in the city. They later attacked the ships and warehouses of wealthy merchant Andrew Belcher, the lieutenant governor was shot during the riot. True park status seems to have emerged no later than 1830, renaming the bordering Sentry Street to Park Place in 1804 already acknowledged the reality. A hundred people gathered on the Common in early 1965 to protest the Vietnam War, a second protest happened on October 15,1969, this time with 100,000 people protesting. Today, the Common serves as a park for all to use for formal or informal gatherings. Events such as concerts, protests, softball games, and ice skating often take place in the park, famous individuals such as Martin Luther King Jr. and Pope John Paul II have made speeches there
Boston Common (park)
–
Boston Common
Boston Common (park)
–
African-American artist Edward Mitchell Bannister painted this vivid depiction of the street and Boston Common area in 1898-99.
Boston Common (park)
–
Execution of
Ann Hibbins on Boston Common, on charges of witchcraft, June 19, 1656. Sketch by F.T. Merril, 1886
Boston Common (park)
–
Central Burying Ground on Boston Common
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "Attucks, Crispus". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
