1.
Framingham, Massachusetts
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Framingham is a town in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 68,318 as of the United States 2010 Census, founded in 1700, Framingham was placed at #36 on Best Places to Live in US by CNN Money magazine in 2012. Framingham, sited on the ancient trail known as the Old Connecticut Path, was first settled when John Stone settled on the west bank of the Sudbury River in 1647. In 1660, Thomas Danforth, an official of the Bay Colony, formerly of Framlingham, Suffolk, received a grant of land at Danforths Farms and he strenuously resisted petitions for incorporation of the town, which was officially incorporated in 1700, following his death the previous year. Why the L was dropped from the new name is not known. The first church was organized in 1701, the first teacher was hired in 1706, on February 22,1775, the British general Thomas Gage sent two officers and an enlisted man out of Boston to survey the route to Worcester, Massachusetts. In Framingham, those spies stopped at Buckminsters Tavern and they watched the town militia muster outside the building, impressed with the mens numbers but not their discipline. Though the whole company came into the tavern after their drill, Gage did not order a march along that route, instead ordering troops to Concord, Massachusetts, on April 18–19. Framingham sent two companies totaling about 130 men into the Battles of Lexington and Concord that followed. In the years prior to the American Civil War, Framingham was an annual gathering-spot for members of the abolitionist movement, each Independence Day from 1854 to 1865, the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society held a rally in a picnic area called Harmony Grove near what is now downtown Framingham. At the 1854 rally, William Lloyd Garrison burned copies of the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, judicial decisions enforcing it, other prominent abolitionists present that day included William Cooper Nell, Sojourner Truth, Wendell Phillips, Lucy Stone, and Henry David Thoreau. During the post–World War II baby boom, Framingham, like many suburban areas, experienced a large increase in population. Much of the housing constructed during that time consisted of split-level, in 2000, Framingham celebrated its Tercentennial. Framingham is located at 42°17′59″N 71°25′35″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 26.4 square miles. 25.1 square miles of it is land and 1.3 square miles of it is water, Framingham is located in eastern Massachusetts,20 miles west of Boston, midway between Boston and Worcester. It is bordered by Southborough and Marlborough on the west, Sherborn and Ashland on the south, Natick on the east, Wayland on the northeast, the town of Framingham is divided by Route 9, which passes east-to-west through the middle of the town. South Framingham includes Downtown Framingham, and the villages of Coburnville, Lokerville, North Framingham includes the villages of Nobscot, Pinefield, Ridgefield, and Saxonville plus Framingham Center. As of the census of 2010, there were 68,318 people,27,529 households, the population density was 2,663.6 people per square mile
2.
Province of Massachusetts Bay
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The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a crown colony in British North America and, from 1776, one of the thirteen original states of the United States. It was chartered on October 7,1691, by William and Mary, the joint monarchs of the kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland. The charter took effect on May 14,1692, and included the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the Plymouth Colony, the Province of Maine, Marthas Vineyard, Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. The modern Commonwealth of Massachusetts is the successor, Maine has been a separate U. S. state since 1820. The name Massachusetts comes from the Massachusett, an Algonquian tribe, the name has been translated as at the great hill, at the place of large hills, or at the range of hills, with reference to the Blue Hills, and in particular, Great Blue Hill. Colonial settlement of the shores of Massachusetts Bay began in 1620 with the founding of the Plymouth Colony, over the next ten years there was a major migration of Puritans to the area, leading to the founding of a number of new colonies in New England. By the 1680s the number of colonies had stabilized at five, in addition to Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts Bay was the most populous and economically significant, housing a sizable merchant fleet. The colonies at times struggled against the Indian population, which had suffered a decline in population prior to the arrival of the first permanent settlers. In the 1630s the Pequot tribe was destroyed, and King Philips War in the 1670s resulted in the expulsion, pacification. The latter war was costly to the colonists of New England. Massachusetts and Plymouth were both somewhat politically independent from England in their days, but this situation changed after the restoration of Charles II to the English throne in 1660. Charles sought closer oversight of the colonies, and to introduce and enforce economic control over their activities, the Navigation Acts passed in the 1660s were widely disliked in Massachusetts, where merchants often found themselves trapped and at odds with the rules. These issues and others led to the revocation of the first Massachusetts Charter in 1684, when James was deposed in the 1688 Glorious Revolution, Massachusetts political leaders conspired against Andros, arresting him and other English authorities in April 1689. This led to the collapse of the Dominion, as the other colonies then quickly reasserted their old forms of government, the Plymouth colony had never had a royal charter, so its governance had always been on a somewhat precarious footing. Massachusetts, however, was placed into constitutional anarchy by the uprising, provincial agents traveled to London where Increase Mather, representing the old colony leaders, petitioned new rulers William and Mary to restore the old colonial charter. When King William learned that this result in a return to the predominantly entrenched religious rule. Instead, the Lords of Trade decided to solve two problems at once by combining the two colonies, accordingly, on October 7,1691, they issued a charter for the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and appointed Sir William Phips its governor. Although the effect of change has been subject to debate among historians
3.
British America
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English America, and later British America, were the English, and later British, territories in North America, Central America, the Caribbean, and Guyana from 1607 to 1783. After that, British North America was used to describe the remainder of Britains continental North American possessions, the term British North America was first used informally in 1783, but it was uncommon before the Report on the Affairs of British North America, called the Durham Report. British America gained large amounts of new territory following the Treaty of Paris which ended Britains involvement in the Seven Years War, at the start of the American War of Independence in 1775, the British Empire included 20 colonies north and east of New Spain. East and West Florida were ceded to Spain in the Treaty of Paris which ended the American Revolution, all but one of the remaining colonies of British North America apart from the British West Indies united together from 1867 to 1873 forming the Dominion of Canada. The first such permanent settlement was founded at Jamestown by the Virginia Company whose investors expected to reap rewards from their speculative investments, Virginia Native Americans had established settlements long before the English settlers arrived, and there were an estimated 14,000 natives in the region. Native American political leadership sought to resettle the English colonizers from Jamestown to another location, other colonizers, both English and German, did join the Powhatans. The first colonizers were welcomed by the Indians with dancing, feasting, there were twenty British colonies in North America in 1775
4.
Boston
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Boston is the capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. Boston is also the seat of Suffolk County, although the county government was disbanded on July 1,1999. The city proper covers 48 square miles with a population of 667,137 in 2015, making it the largest city in New England. Alternately, as a Combined Statistical Area, this wider commuting region is home to some 8.1 million people, One of the oldest cities in the United States, Boston was founded on the Shawmut Peninsula in 1630 by Puritan settlers from England. It was the scene of several key events of the American Revolution, such as the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battle of Bunker Hill, and the Siege of Boston. Upon U. S. independence from Great Britain, it continued to be an important port and manufacturing hub as well as a center for education, through land reclamation and municipal annexation, Boston has expanded beyond the original peninsula. Its rich history attracts many tourists, with Faneuil Hall alone drawing over 20 million visitors per year, Bostons many firsts include the United States first public school, Boston Latin School, first subway system, the Tremont Street Subway, and first public park, Boston Common. Bostons economic base also includes finance, professional and business services, biotechnology, information technology, the city has one of the highest costs of living in the United States as it has undergone gentrification, though it remains high on world livability rankings. Bostons early European settlers had first called the area Trimountaine but later renamed it Boston after Boston, Lincolnshire, England, the renaming on September 7,1630 was by Puritan colonists from England who had moved over from Charlestown earlier that year in quest of fresh water. Their settlement was limited to the Shawmut Peninsula, at that time surrounded by the Massachusetts Bay and Charles River. The peninsula is thought to have been inhabited as early as 5000 BC, in 1629, the Massachusetts Bay Colonys first governor John Winthrop led the signing of the Cambridge Agreement, a key founding document of the city. Puritan ethics and their focus on education influenced its early history, over the next 130 years, the city participated in four French and Indian Wars, until the British defeated the French and their Indian allies in North America. Boston was the largest town in British America until Philadelphia grew larger in the mid-18th century, Bostons harbor activity was significantly curtailed by the Embargo Act of 1807 and the War of 1812. Foreign trade returned after these hostilities, but Bostons merchants had found alternatives for their investments in the interim. Manufacturing became an important component of the economy, and the citys industrial manufacturing overtook international trade in economic importance by the mid-19th century. Boston remained one of the nations largest manufacturing centers until the early 20th century, a network of small rivers bordering the city and connecting it to the surrounding region facilitated shipment of goods and led to a proliferation of mills and factories. Later, a network of railroads furthered the regions industry. Boston was a port of the Atlantic triangular slave trade in the New England colonies
5.
Stevedore
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A stevedore, dockworker, docker, dock laborer, wharfie, wharf rat, lumper, whombler, and/or longshoreman is a waterfront manual laborer who is involved in loading and unloading ships. The word stevedore originated in Portugal or Spain, and entered the English language through its use by sailors. In Canada, the term stevedore has also used, for example, in the name of the Western Stevedoring Company, Ltd. based in Vancouver. Loading and unloading ships requires knowledge of the operation of loading equipment, the techniques for lifting and stowing cargo. In addition, workers must be strong and be able to follow orders attentively. In order to unload a ship successfully, many longshoreman are needed, there is only a limited amount of time that a ship can be at a port, so they need to get their jobs done quickly. In earlier days before the introduction of containerization, men who loaded and unloaded ships had to tie down cargoes with rope, a type of stopper knot is called the stevedore knot. The methods of tying up parcels of goods is called stevedore lashing or stevedore knotting. Today, the vast majority of cargo is transported in intermodal containers. The containers arrive at a port by truck, rail or another ship and are stacked in the storage area. When the ship that will be transporting them arrives, the containers that it is offloading are unloaded by a crane, the containers either leave the port by truck or rail or are put in the storage area until they are put on another ship. Once the ship is offloaded, the containers it is leaving with are brought to the dock by truck, a crane lifts the containers from the trucks into the ship. As the containers pile up in the ship, the workers connect them to the ship and those workers at the port who handle and move the containers are likely to be considered stevedores or longshoremen. Before containerization, freight was handled with a longshoreman’s hook. Traditionally, stevedores had no fixed job, but would arrive at the docks in the morning seeking employment for the day, London dockers called this practice standing on the stones, while in the United States it was referred to as shaping. In Britain, due to changes in employment laws, such jobs have become permanent or have been converted to temporary jobs. Dock workers have been a prominent part of the labor movement. Container handling in Hong Kong -2005 In Australia, the informal term wharfie, the term stevedore is also sometimes used, as in the company name Patrick Stevedores
6.
Whaler
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A whaler or whaling ship is a specialized ship, designed for whaling, the catching and/or processing of whales. The former includes the whale catcher – a steam or diesel-driven vessel with a gun mounted at its bow. The latter includes such vessels as the sail or steam-driven whaleship of the 16th to early 20th century, there have also been vessels which combined the two activities, such as the bottlenose whalers of the late 19th and early 20th century, and catcher/factory ships of the modern era. Whaleships had two or more whaleboats, open rowing boats used in the capture of whales, whaleboats brought the captured whales to the whaleships to be flensed or cut up. Here the blubber was rendered into oil using two or three set in a brick furnace called the tryworks. At first, whale catchers either brought the whales they killed to a station or factory ship anchored in a sheltered bay or inlet. Later, with the development of the slipway at the ships stern, the World War II Flower-class corvettes were based on the design of the whale catcher Southern Pride. The crews of whaling vessels fought small skirmishes for the control of the Spitsbergen whale fishery between 1613 and 1638. In the late 18th and early 19th century the owners of whalerships frequently armed their vessels with cannons to enable the vessels to protect themselves against pirates, and in wartime, privateers. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, British privateers captured several French whaleships, among them Necker and Deux Amis, dutch privateers captured Port de Paix and Penn. At the time, many French whaleships transferred to the American flag, some whaleships also carried letters of marque that authorized them to take enemy vessels should the opportunity arise. In July 1793 the British armed whaleship Liverpool, of 20 guns, however, Chardons crew succeeded in retaking their vessel. In 1793, an armed British whaleship captured the French whaleship Hébé in Walvis Bay, during the War of 1812, the U. S. Navy captured two whaleships, Essex Junior and Seringapatam, and used them as warships. During World War II, the Norwegian and later British Royal Navies hired a number of whalers for use in a variety of such as minesweeping, search and rescue. Ten Allied vessels categorized as whalers were lost in the war, history of whaling Moby-Dick Whaleboat Whaling Demerliac, Alain La Marine De Louis XVI, Nomenclature Des Navires Français De 1774 À1792. ISBN 2-906381-23-3 Jason Southern Actor Hvalur 9 RE399
7.
Boston Massacre
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The Boston Massacre, known as the Incident on King Street by the British, was an incident on March 5,1770, in which British Army soldiers shot and killed people while under attack by a mob. The incident was publicized by leading Patriots, such as Paul Revere and Samuel Adams. Amid ongoing tense relations between the population and the soldiers, a mob formed around a British sentry, who was subjected to verbal abuse and he was eventually supported by eight additional soldiers, who were subjected to verbal threats and snowballs. Spontaneously they fired into the crowd, instantly killing three demonstrators, two died later. The crowd eventually dispersed after Acting Governor Thomas Hutchinson promised an inquiry, eight soldiers, one officer, and four civilians were arrested and charged with murder. Defended by lawyer and future American president John Adams, six of the soldiers were acquitted, Boston, the capital of the Province of Massachusetts Bay and an important shipping town, was a major center of resistance to unpopular acts of taxation by the British Parliament in the 1760s. In 1768, the Townshend Acts were placed upon the colonists, by which a variety of items that were manufactured in Britain. Colonists objected that the Townshend Acts were a violation of the natural, charter, the Massachusetts House of Representatives began a campaign against the Townshend Acts by sending a petition to King George III asking for the repeal of the Townshend Revenue Act. In Great Britain, Lord Hillsborough, who had recently appointed to the newly created office of Colonial Secretary, was alarmed by the actions of the Massachusetts House. In April 1768 he sent a letter to the governors in America. He also ordered Massachusetts Governor Francis Bernard to direct the Massachusetts House to rescind the letter. Bostons chief customs officer, Charles Paxton, wrote to Hillsborough, commodore Samuel Hood responded by sending the fifty-gun warship HMS Romney, which arrived in Boston Harbor in May 1768. On June 10,1768, customs officials seized Liberty, a sloop owned by leading Boston merchant John Hancock, Bostonians, already angry because the captain of Romney had been impressing local sailors, began to riot. Customs officials fled to Castle William for protection, given the unstable state of affairs in Massachusetts, Hillsborough instructed General Thomas Gage, Commander-in-Chief, North America, to send such Force as You shall think necessary to Boston. On October 1,1768, the first of four British Army regiments began disembarking in Boston, two regiments were removed from Boston in 1769, but the 14th and the 29th Regiments of Foot remained. Tensions rose markedly after Christopher Seider, a lad about eleven Years of Age, was killed by a customs employee on February 22,1770. Seiders death was glorified in the Boston Gazette, and his funeral was described as one of the largest of the time in Boston, the killing and subsequent propaganda inflamed tensions, with gangs of colonists looking for soldiers to harass, and soldiers also on occasion looking for confrontation. On the evening of March 5, Private Hugh White, a British soldier, stood on duty outside the Custom house on King Street
8.
American Revolution
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The British responded by imposing punitive laws on Massachusetts in 1774 known as the Coercive Acts, following which Patriots in the other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts. Tensions escalated to the outbreak of fighting between Patriot militia and British regulars at Lexington and Concord in April 1775, the conflict then developed into a global war, during which the Patriots fought the British and Loyalists in what became known as the American Revolutionary War. The Continental Congress determined King George IIIs rule to be tyrannical and infringing the rights as Englishmen. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject monarchy and aristocracy, Congress rejected British proposals requiring allegiance to the monarchy and abandonment of independence. The British were forced out of Boston in 1776, but then captured and they blockaded the ports and captured other cities for brief periods, but failed to defeat Washingtons forces. After a failed Patriot invasion of Canada, a British army was captured at the Battle of Saratoga in late 1777, a combined American–French force captured a second British army at Yorktown in 1781, effectively ending the war in the United States. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 formally ended the conflict, confirming the new nations complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of Canada. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a new Constitution of the United States. Historians typically begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British victory in the French and Indian War in 1763, the lands west of Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny mountains became Indian territory, temporarily barred to settlement. For the prior history, see Thirteen Colonies, in 1764, Parliament passed the Currency Act to restrain the use of paper money which British merchants saw as a means to evade debt payments. Parliament also passed the Sugar Act, imposing customs duties on a number of articles, none did and Parliament passed the Stamp Act in March 1765 which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets—even decks of playing cards—were required to have the stamps, the colonists did not object that the taxes were high, but because they had no representation in the Parliament. Benjamin Franklin testified in Parliament in 1766 that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire, stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable. London had to deal with 1,500 politically well-connected British officers who became redundant, in 1765, the Sons of Liberty formed. They used public demonstrations, boycott, violence, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable, in Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October 1765, moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen. Colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise, the Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout all British possessions and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval
9.
Slavery
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A slave is unable to withdraw unilaterally from such an arrangement and works without remuneration. Many scholars now use the chattel slavery to refer to this specific sense of legalised. In a broader sense, however, the word slavery may also refer to any situation in which an individual is de facto forced to work against his or her will. Scholars also use the generic terms such as unfree labour or forced labour. However – and especially under slavery in broader senses of the word – slaves may have some rights and/or protections, Slavery began to exist before written history, in many cultures. A person could become a slave from the time of their birth, capture, while slavery was institutionally recognized by most societies, it has now been outlawed in all recognized countries, the last being Mauritania in 2007. Nevertheless, there are still more slaves today than at any point in history. The most common form of the trade is now commonly referred to as human trafficking. Chattel slavery is still practiced by the Islamic State of Iraq. An older interpretation connected it to the Greek verb skyleúo to strip a slain enemy, there is a dispute among historians about whether terms such as unfree labourer or enslaved person, rather than slave, should be used when describing the victims of slavery. Chattel slavery, also called traditional slavery, is so named because people are treated as the chattel of the owner and are bought, although it dominated many societies in the past, this form of slavery has been formally abolished and is very rare today. Even when it can be said to survive, it is not upheld by the system of any internationally recognized government. Indenture, otherwise known as bonded labour or debt bondage is a form of labour under which a person pledges himself or herself against a loan. The services required to repay the debt, and their duration, debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children required to pay off their parents debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery today, debt bondage is most prevalent in South Asia. This may also include institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom, conscription, Human trafficking primarily involves women and children forced into prostitution. And is the fastest growing form of forced labour, with Thailand, Cambodia, India, Brazil, in 2007, Human Rights Watch estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 children served as soldiers in current conflicts. A forced marriage may be regarded as a form of slavery by one or more of the involved in the marriage
10.
Pennsylvania Gazette
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The Pennsylvania Gazette was one of the United States most prominent newspapers from 1728, before the time period of the American Revolution, until 1800. On October 2,1729, Benjamin Franklin and Hugh Meredith bought the paper and shortened its name, Franklin not only printed the paper but also often contributed pieces to the paper under aliases. His newspaper soon became the most successful in the colonies, on August 6,1741 Franklin published an editorial about deceased Andrew Hamilton, a lawyer and public figure in Philadelphia who had been a friend. The editorial praised the man highly and showed Franklin had held the man in high esteem, in 1752, Franklin published a third-person account of his pioneering kite experiment in The Pennsylvania Gazette, without mentioning that he himself had performed it. Primarily a publication for classified ads, merchants and individuals listed notices of employment, lost and found goods and items for sale, most entries involved stories of travel. In the July 31,1776 edition the front page lists military movements announced by John Hancock alongside the sale of a plantation in Chester County, Pa. This newspaper, among other firsts, would print the first political cartoon in America, Join, or Die and it ceased publication in 1800, ten years after Franklins death. It is claimed that the publication later reemerged as the Saturday Evening Post in 1821, there are three known copies of the original issue, which are held by the Historical Society of Pennsylvania, the Library Company of Philadelphia, and the Wisconsin State Historical Society. Today, The Pennsylvania Gazette moniker is used by an unrelated bi-monthly alumni magazine of the University of Pennsylvania, archives are available online for a fee. Pennsylvania Chronicle The Constitutional Post Benjamin Franklin Join, or Die Libertys Kids The Drinkers Dictionary
11.
Mulatto
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Mulatto is a term used to refer to persons born of one white parent and one black parent or to persons born of a mulatto parent or parents. In English, the term is generally confined to historical contexts. English speakers of mixed white and black ancestry seldom choose to identify themselves as mulatto. Some residents of Latin America, Spain America, the Caribbean, in Latin America, most mulattoes have descended from multi-ethnic relationships dating to the slavery period, rather than from recent ethnic mixing. This is especially true in Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Haiti, Cape Verde, Puerto Rico and Venezuela. The etymology of the term is believed to derive from the Spanish and Portuguese mulato, which comes from mula, meaning mule, the hybrid offspring of a horse. Some dictionaries and scholarly works trace the origins to the Arabic term muwallad. Muwallad literally means born, begotten, produced, generated, brought up, with the implication of being born and raised among Arabs, Muwallad is derived from the root word WaLaD, and colloquial Arabic pronunciation can vary greatly. Walad means, descendant, offspring, scion, child, son, boy, young animal, in al-Andalus, Muwallad referred to the offspring of non-Arab/Muslim people who adopted the Islamic religion and manners. Notable examples of this include the famous Muslim scholar Ibn Hazm. Thus, in context, the term Muwalad has a meaning close to the adopted. According to the source, the term does not denote being of mixed-race but rather being of foreign-blood. In English, printed usage of mulatto dates to at least the 16th century and this earliest usage regarded black and white as discrete species, with the mulatto constituting a third separate species. According to Julio Izquierdo Labrado, the 19th-century linguist Leopoldo Eguilaz y Yanguas, as well as some Arabic sources muwallad is the origin of mulato. The Real Academia Española casts doubt on the muwallad theory, Scholars such as Werner Sollors cast doubt on the mule etymology for mulatto. In the 18th and 19th centuries, racialists such as Edward Long and they projected this belief back onto the etymology of the word mulatto. Sollers points out that this etymology is anachronistic, The Mulatto sterility hypothesis that has much to do with the rejection of the term by some writers is only half as old as the word Mulatto. Of São Tomé and Príncipes 193,413 inhabitants, the largest segment is classified as mestiço. or mixed race, 71% of the population of Cape Verde is also classified as such
12.
Indigenous peoples of the Americas
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The indigenous peoples of the Americas are the pre-Columbian peoples of the Americas and their descendants. The term Amerindian is used in Quebec, the Guianas, Indigenous peoples of the United States are commonly known as Native Americans or American Indians, and Alaska Natives. Application of the term Indian originated with Christopher Columbus, who, in his search for Asia, eventually, the Americas came to be known as the West Indies, a name still used to refer to the islands of the Caribbean Sea. This led to the blanket term Indies and Indians for the indigenous inhabitants, although some indigenous peoples of the Americas were traditionally hunter-gatherers—and many, especially in the Amazon basin, still are—many groups practiced aquaculture and agriculture. The impact of their agricultural endowment to the world is a testament to their time, although some societies depended heavily on agriculture, others practiced a mix of farming, hunting, and gathering. In some regions the indigenous peoples created monumental architecture, large-scale organized cities, chiefdoms, states, and empires. Many parts of the Americas are still populated by peoples, some countries have sizable populations, especially Belize, Bolivia, Chile, Ecuador, Greenland, Guatemala, Mexico. At least a different indigenous languages are spoken in the Americas. Some, such as the Quechuan languages, Aymara, Guaraní, Mayan languages, many also maintain aspects of indigenous cultural practices to varying degrees, including religion, social organization, and subsistence practices. Like most cultures, over time, cultures specific to many indigenous peoples have evolved to incorporate traditional aspects, some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western culture and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples. The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the dates and routes traveled, are the subject of ongoing research. According to archaeological and genetic evidence, North and South America were the last continents in the world with human habitation. During the Wisconsin glaciation, 50–17,000 years ago, falling sea levels allowed people to move across the bridge of Beringia that joined Siberia to northwest North America. Alaska was a glacial refugium because it had low snowfall, allowing a small population to exist, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of North America, blocking nomadic inhabitants and confining them to Alaska for thousands of years. Indigenous genetic studies suggest that the first inhabitants of the Americas share a single population, one that developed in isolation. The isolation of these peoples in Beringia might have lasted 10–20,000 years, around 16,500 years ago, the glaciers began melting, allowing people to move south and east into Canada and beyond. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Another route proposed involves migration - either on foot or using primitive boats - along the Pacific Northwest coast to the south, archeological evidence of the latter would have been covered by the sea level rise of more than 120 meters since the last ice age
13.
African Americans
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African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
14.
Abolitionism in the United States
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Abolitionism in the United States was the movement before and during the American Civil War to end slavery in the United States. In the Americas and western Europe, abolitionism was a movement to end the Atlantic slave trade, in the 17th century, English Quakers and Evangelicals condemned slavery as un-Christian. At that time, most slaves were Africans, but thousands of Native Americans were also enslaved, in the 18th century, as many as six million Africans were transported to the Americas as slaves, at least a third of them on British ships to North America. Abolition was part of the message of the First Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s in the Thirteen Colonies, in the same period, rationalist thinkers of the Enlightenment criticized slavery for violating human rights. A member of the British Parliament, James Edward Oglethorpe, was among the first to articulate the Enlightenment case against slavery, founder of the Province of Georgia, Oglethorpe banned slavery on humanistic grounds. He argued against it in Parliament and eventually encouraged his friends Granville Sharp, soon after his death in 1785, Sharp and More joined with William Wilberforce and others in forming the Clapham Sect. Although anti-slavery sentiments were widespread by the late 18th century, colonies and emerging nations, notably in the southern United States, continued to use and uphold traditions of slavery. Massachusetts ratified a constitution that declared all men equal, freedom suits challenging slavery based on this principle brought an end to slavery in the state, in other states, such as Virginia, similar declarations of rights were interpreted by the courts as not applicable to Africans. During the ensuing decades, the abolitionist movement grew in Northern states, britain banned the importation of African slaves in its colonies in 1807 and abolished slavery in the British Empire in 1833. The United States criminalized the international trade in 1808 and made slavery unconstitutional in 1865 as a result of the American Civil War. Historian James M. McPherson defines an abolitionist as one who before the Civil War had agitated for the immediate, unconditional and total abolition of slavery in the United States. He does not include antislavery activists such as Abraham Lincoln, U. S. President during the Civil War, or the Republican Party, the first Americans who made a public protest against slavery were the Mennonites of Germantown, Pennsylvania. Soon after, in April 1688, Quakers in the town wrote a two-page condemnation of the practice and sent it to the governing bodies of their Quaker church. The Quaker establishment never took action, the Quaker Quarterly Meeting of Chester, Pennsylvania, made its first protest in 1711. Within a few decades the entire slave trade was under attack, being opposed by leaders as William Burling, Benjamin Lay, Ralph Sandiford, William Southby. Slavery was banned in the Province of Georgia soon after its founding in 1733, the colonys founder, James Edward Oglethorpe, fended off repeated attempts by South Carolina merchants and land speculators to introduce slavery to the colony. In 1739, he wrote to the Georgia Trustees urging them to hold firm, If we allow slaves we act against the principles by which we associated together. Whereas, now we should occasion the misery of thousands in Africa, by setting men upon using arts to buy, the struggle between Georgia and South Carolina led to the first debates in Parliament over the issue of slavery, occurring between 1740 and 1742
15.
Massachusetts
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It is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the states of Connecticut and Rhode Island to the south, New Hampshire and Vermont to the north, and New York to the west. The state is named for the Massachusett tribe, which inhabited the area. The capital of Massachusetts and the most populous city in New England is Boston, over 80% of Massachusetts population lives in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, a region influential upon American history, academia, and industry. Originally dependent on agriculture, fishing and trade, Massachusetts was transformed into a manufacturing center during the Industrial Revolution, during the 20th century, Massachusetts economy shifted from manufacturing to services. Modern Massachusetts is a leader in biotechnology, engineering, higher education, finance. Plymouth was the site of the first colony in New England, founded in 1620 by the Pilgrims, in 1692, the town of Salem and surrounding areas experienced one of Americas most infamous cases of mass hysteria, the Salem witch trials. In 1777, General Henry Knox founded the Springfield Armory, which during the Industrial Revolution catalyzed numerous important technological advances, in 1786, Shays Rebellion, a populist revolt led by disaffected American Revolutionary War veterans, influenced the United States Constitutional Convention. In the 18th century, the Protestant First Great Awakening, which swept the Atlantic World, in the late 18th century, Boston became known as the Cradle of Liberty for the agitation there that led to the American Revolution. The entire Commonwealth of Massachusetts has played a commercial and cultural role in the history of the United States. Before the American Civil War, Massachusetts was a center for the abolitionist, temperance, in the late 19th century, the sports of basketball and volleyball were invented in the western Massachusetts cities of Springfield and Holyoke, respectively. Many prominent American political dynasties have hailed from the state, including the Adams, both Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, also in Cambridge, have been ranked among the most highly regarded academic institutions in the world. Massachusetts public school students place among the top nations in the world in academic performance, the official name of the state is the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. While this designation is part of the official name, it has no practical implications. Massachusetts has the position and powers within the United States as other states. Massachusetts was originally inhabited by tribes of the Algonquian language family such as the Wampanoag, Narragansett, Nipmuc, Pocomtuc, Mahican, and Massachusett. While cultivation of crops like squash and corn supplemented their diets, villages consisted of lodges called wigwams as well as longhouses, and tribes were led by male or female elders known as sachems. Between 1617 and 1619, smallpox killed approximately 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans, the first English settlers in Massachusetts, the Pilgrims, arrived via the Mayflower at Plymouth in 1620, and developed friendly relations with the native Wampanoag people. This was the second successful permanent English colony in the part of North America that later became the United States, the event known as the First Thanksgiving was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first harvest in the New World which lasted for three days
16.
Fugitive slaves in the United States
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The phenomenon of slaves running away and seeking to gain freedom is as old as the institution of slavery itself. Most slave law tried to control slave travel by requiring them to carry official passes if traveling without a master, passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 increased penalties against fugitive slaves and people who aided them. Because of this, fugitive slaves tried to leave the United States altogether, during the time slavery was legal in the United States, approximately 100,000 slaves escaped to freedom. The United States Constitution included language to protect slavery, and the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 implemented rules requiring citizens to aid in the return of escaped slaves to their owners, in practice, both citizens and governments of free states often supported the escape of fugitive slaves. Fugitive slaves early in U. S. were sought out just as they were through the Fugitive slave law years, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 strengthened provisions for the recapture of slaves, and offered them no protection in the justice system. Bounty hunters and civilians could lawfully capture escaped slaves in the North, or any place, using little more than an affidavit. Many escaped slaves upon return were to face harsh punishments such as amputation of limbs, whippings, branding, individuals who aided fugitive slaves were charged and punished under this law. In the case of Ableman v. Booth, Booth was charged with aiding Glovers escape in Wisconsin by preventing his capture by Federal Marshals. The Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled that the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was unconstitutional for requiring states to go against their own laws in protecting slavery, Ableman v. Booth was appealed by the federal government to the US Supreme Court, which upheld the constitutionality of the Act. Many states tried to nullify the new slave act or prevent capture of escaped slaves by setting up new laws to protect their rights, one of the most notable is the Massachusetts Liberty Act. This Act was passed in order to keep escaped slaves from being returned to their masters through abduction by Federal Marshals or bounty hunters, the Underground Railroad had developed as a way in which free blacks and whites aided fugitive slaves to reach freedom in northern states. Stations were set up in homes, churches, caves, barns and hidden places. People who maintained the stations provided food, clothing and shelter to the fugitives and this is probably one of the most well known ways that abolitionists aided slaves out of the south and into northern states. In this manner the slaves would go from house to house of either whites or freed blacks where they would receive shelter, food, clothing etc. Now when the slaves were found gone, most masters did everything they could to find their lost “property. ”Flyers would be put up, posses to find him/her would be sent out, and under the new Fugitive Slave Act they could now send federal marshals into the north to extract them. In 1851 there was a case of a black coffeehouse waiter who was snatched by federal marshals on behalf of John Debree, even though the man had escaped earlier, his case was brought before the Massachusetts supreme court to be tried. The Underground Railroad was a network of black and white abolitionists between 1816 and the end of the Civil War who helped slaves escape to freedom. Members of the Religious Society of Friends, Baptists, Methodists, Canada was a Safe-haven for African American slaves because Canada had already abolished slavery by the year 1783
17.
George Robert Twelves Hewes
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Later he fought in the American Revolutionary War as a militiaman and privateer. Shortly before his death at the age of 98, Hewes was the subject of two biographies and much public commemoration, Hewes joined the crowd in support of the apprentice who was trying to collect on a debt from British Captain John Goldfinch. Hewes was unarmed during the riot that ensued, but nonetheless he suffered injury when British Private Kilroy struck him in the shoulder with his rifle. On his way home that night Hewes had a confrontation with two British soldiers, which he related in an official deposition the next day. On December 16,1773, Hewes joined the band of Bostonians who protested the Tea Act by dumping tea into Boston Harbor, the protesters divided themselves into three boarding parties, each going aboard one of the three tea ships, Dartmouth, Eleanor and Beaver. Hewes was appointed boatswain of his party that boarded Dartmouth, mostly on account of his whistling talent, in his capacity as boatswain, Hewes went to the captain of the boarded ship to demand the keys to the tea chests. He also fought with Captain OConnor, a protester who was trying to take some of the tea for himself. According to Hewes, it took three hours to empty every tea chest and throw the content into the Boston Harbor, like the other protesters, Hewes then quietly returned to his place of residence. In January, Hewes was at the center of the surrounding the tarring and feathering of John Malcolm. Malcolm was what would later be known as a Loyalist, a supporter of royal authority, a Bostonian, he worked for the British customs service, and pursued his duties with a zeal that made him unpopular. Commoners often hooted at Malcolm in the streets, and sailors in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, on January 25,1774, according to the account in the Massachusetts Gazette, Hewes saw Malcolm threatening to strike a boy with his cane. When Hewes intervened to stop Malcolm, the two arguing, with Malcolm insisting that Hewes should not interfere in the business of a gentleman. When Hewes replied that at least he had never been tarred and feathered, Malcolm struck Hewes hard on the forehead with the cane, Hewes was treated by the noted Patriot doctor, Joseph Warren. The cane left a scar which would be visible on Hewess forehead for the rest of his life and he went to a magistrates office to swear out a warrant for John Malcolms arrest. That night, a mob seized Malcolm in his house and dragged him into King Street, where, over the objections of Hewes, he was stripped to the waist and covered with tar and feathers. They then took him to the Liberty Tree, where they first threatened to hang him and then threatened to cut off his ears if he did not apologize for his behavior, Malcolm relented and was sent home. The event was reported in newspapers on both sides of the Atlantic, in 1775 Boston was put under martial law. Like many Patriots, Hewes fled the city and he sent his family to Wrentham, his fathers hometown
18.
The Bahamas
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The Bahamas, known officially as the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, is an archipelagic state within the Lucayan Archipelago. The capital is Nassau on the island of New Providence, the designation of the Bahamas can refer either to the country or to the larger island chain that it shares with the Turks and Caicos Islands. As stated in the mandate/manifesto of the Royal Bahamas Defence Force, the Bahamas is the site of Columbus first landfall in the New World in 1492. At that time, the islands were inhabited by the Lucayan, although the Spanish never colonised the Bahamas, they shipped the native Lucayans to slavery in Hispaniola. The islands were mostly deserted from 1513 until 1648, when English colonists from Bermuda settled on the island of Eleuthera, the Bahamas became a British Crown colony in 1718, when the British clamped down on piracy. After the American War of Independence, the Crown resettled thousands of American Loyalists in the Bahamas, they brought their slaves with them, Africans constituted the majority of the population from this period. Slavery in the Bahamas was abolished in 1834, Today the descendants of slaves and free Africans make up nearly 90% of the population, issues related to the slavery years are part of society. The Bahamas became an independent Commonwealth realm in 1973, retaining Queen Elizabeth II as its monarch, in terms of gross domestic product per capita, the Bahamas is one of the richest countries in the Americas, with an economy based on tourism and finance. The name Bahamas is derived from either the Taino ba ha ma, alternatively, it may originate from Guanahani, a local name of unclear meaning. In English, the Bahamas is one of two countries whose self-standing short name begins with the word the, along with The Gambia. Taino people moved into the uninhabited southern Bahamas from Hispaniola and Cuba around the 11th century and they came to be known as the Lucayan people. An estimated 30,000 Lucayan inhabited the Bahamas at the time of Christopher Columbus arrival in 1492, Columbuss first landfall in the New World was on an island he named San Salvador. Some researchers believe this site to be present-day San Salvador Island, an alternative theory holds that Columbus landed to the southeast on Samana Cay, according to calculations made in 1986 by National Geographic writer and editor Joseph Judge, based on Columbuss log. Evidence in support of this remains inconclusive, on the landfall island, Columbus made first contact with the Lucayan and exchanged goods with them. The Spanish forced much of the Lucayan population to Hispaniola for use as forced labour, the slaves suffered from harsh conditions and most died from contracting diseases to which they had no immunity, half of the Taino died from smallpox alone. The population of the Bahamas was severely diminished, in 1648, the Eleutherian Adventurers, led by William Sayle, migrated from Bermuda. These English Puritans established the first permanent European settlement on an island which they named Eleuthera—the name derives from the Greek word for freedom and they later settled New Providence, naming it Sayles Island after one of their leaders. To survive, the settlers salvaged goods from wrecks, in 1670 King Charles II granted the islands to the Lords Proprietors of the Carolinas in North America
19.
Province of North Carolina
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The Province of North Carolina was originally part of the Province of Carolina, which was chartered by eight Lords Proprietor. The province later became the U. S. states of North Carolina and Tennessee, and parts of the province combined with other territory to form the states of Georgia, Alabama, for history prior to 1729, see Province of Carolina. King Charles II of England granted the Carolina charter in 1663 for land south of Virginia Colony, Charles II granted the land to eight Lords Proprietors in return for their financial and political assistance in restoring him to the throne in 1660. The first Governor of the separate North Carolina Province was Edward Hyde, in 1729, after nearly a decade-long attempt by the British government to locate and buy out seven of the eight Lords Proprietors, both Carolinas became royal colonies. The remaining one-eighth share of the Province was retained by members of the Carteret family until 1776 and this included several North Carolina rivers, including the French Broad and Watauga. Settlers continued to flow westwards in smaller numbers, despite the prohibition against doing so, most prominently, the Watauga Association formed in 1772 as an ostensibly-independent territory within the bounds of North Carolina, which adopted its own written constitution. Two important maps of the province were reproduced, one by Edward Moseley in 1733, and another by John Collet in 1770. Other maps exist dating to the period of the Age of Discovery that depict portions of the province, or, more specifically. The Court Act of 1746 established a court, initially known as the General Court. List of Chief Justices for 1818 onwards see List of Justices of the North Carolina Supreme Court History of North Carolina A Complete map of North-Carolina from an actual survey, John Collets 1770 map of the colony of North Carolina
20.
Narragansett people
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The Narragansett tribe are an Algonquian Native American tribe from Rhode Island. For a long time, the tribe was nearly landless, but it worked to regain federal recognition and it is officially the Narragansett Indian Tribe of Rhode Island and re-established sovereignty. It is made up of descendants of members who were identified in an 1880 treaty with the state. In 2009, the United States Supreme Court ruled against the Narragansett request that the Department of the Interior take land into trust which they had acquired in 1991. The Narragansett tribe was recognized by the government in 1983 and controls the Narragansett Indian Reservation,1,800 acres of trust lands in Charlestown. A small portion of the tribe resides on or near the reservation, additionally, they own several hundred acres in Westerly. In 1991, the Narragansetts purchased 31 acres in Charlestown for development of elderly housing, in 1998, they requested that the Department of the Interior take the property into trust on behalf of the tribe, to remove it from state and local control. The case went to the United States Supreme Court, as the state challenged the removal of new lands from state oversight by a recognized by the US after the 1934 Indian Reorganization Act. Rhode Island was joined in its appeal by 21 other states and their determination was based on four words in the act, referring to its definition of Indian as all persons of Indian descent who are members of any recognized tribe now under federal jurisdiction. The tribe is led by a tribal council, a chief sachem, a medicine man. The entire tribal population must approve major decisions, the current administration is as follows, Chief Sachem, Matthew Thomas Medicine Man, John Brown First Councilman, Cassius Spears, Jr. Traditionally, the tribe spoke the Narragansett language, a member of the Algonquian languages family, the point referred to may be on the Salt Pond in Washington County, identified as RI Site 110. The language became almost entirely extinct during the Narragansetts centuries of living within the larger English-majority society, the tribe has begun language revival efforts, based on early 20th century books and manuscripts, and new teaching programs. The Narragansetts spoke a Y-dialect, similar enough to the N-dialects of the Massachusett, other Y-dialects include the Shinnecock and Pequot languages spoken historically by tribes on Long Island and in Connecticut, respectively. In the 17th century, Providence founder Roger Williams learned the tribes language and he documented it in his 1643 work A Key Into the Language of America. Williams gave the name as Nanhigganeuck. American English has absorbed a number of words from Narragansett and other closely related languages, such as Wampanoag. Such words include quahog, moose, papoose, powwow, squash, the Narragansett culture has existed in the region for centuries
21.
King Philip's War
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King Philips War was an armed conflict between American Indian inhabitants of present-day New England and English colonists and their Indian allies in 1675–78. The war is named for Metacomet, the Wampanoag chief who adopted the English name Philip due to the relations between his father and the Mayflower Pilgrims. The war continued in the most northern reaches of New England until the signing of the Treaty of Casco Bay in April 1678, Metacom was the second son of Wampanoag chief Massasoit, who had coexisted peacefully with the Pilgrims. Metacom succeeded his brother in 1662 and reacted against the European settlers continued encroaching onto Wampanoag lands, at Taunton in 1671, he was humiliated when colonists forced him to sign a new peace agreement that included the surrender of Indian guns. Officials in Plymouth Colony hanged three Wampanoags in 1675 for the murder of an Indian, and Metacoms followers and allies launched an assault on colonial towns throughout the region. Metacoms forces gained initial victories in the first year, but then the Indian alliance began to unravel, by the end of the conflict, the Wampanoags and their Narragansett allies were almost completely destroyed. Metacom anticipated their defeat and returned to his home at Mt. Hope. More than half of New Englands towns were attacked by Indians, King Philips War began the development of a greater European-American identity. The colonists trials, without significant English government support, gave them an identity separate. The Pilgrims who arrived on the Mayflower and founded Plymouth Plantation expended great effort in forging friendship and they traveled long distances to make peace with Chief Massasoit, and Governor William Bradford made a gift of his magnificent and prized red horse coat upon seeing that the chief admired it. By 1675, the efforts at friendship failed. Plymouth, Massachusetts was established in 1620 with significant early help from local Indians, particularly Squanto and Massasoit, the colonists progressively expanded throughout the territories of the several Algonquian-speaking tribes in the region. Prior to King Philips War, tensions fluctuated between Indian tribes and the colonists, but relations were generally peaceful, many of the neighboring tribes had been traditional competitors and enemies. As the colonial population increased, the New Englanders expanded their settlements along the coastal plain. By 1675, they had established a few towns in the interior between Boston and the Connecticut River settlements. The Wampanoag tribe under Metacomets leadership had entered into an agreement with the Plymouth Colony, however, in the decades preceding the war it, became clear to them that the treaty did not mean that the Colonists were not allowed to settle in new territories. Metacomet became sachem of the Pokanoket and Grand Sachem of the Wampanoag Confederacy after the death in 1662 of his older brother, the latter had succeeded their father Massasoit as chief. Well known to the English before his ascension as paramount chief to the Wampanoag, the Plymouth colonists had put in place laws making it illegal to do commerce with the Wampanoags
22.
Leicester, Massachusetts
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Leicester /ˈlɛstər/ is a village in Worcester County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 10,970 at the 2010 census, Leicester was first settled in 1713 and was officially incorporated in 1714. The town was named after Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, one of the early settlers in town was a Dr. Samuel Green. He lived at 2 Charlton St. in Greenville, Samuel Green lived in a house at 2 Charlton Street. He was a doctor who trained other doctors in the early 1700s. This constituted the first medical school in Massachusetts, the Green family was involved in the creation of both Worcesters Green Hill Park and New York Citys Central Park. Although no significant battles of the American Revolution were fought in the area, Henshaw would later become an adjutant general to Artemas Ward, who was second in command to George Washington in the Continental Army. Green built at 2 Charlton Street and this information can be found in books held on reserve in the Leicester Public Library. When they heard that the British had attacked, Leicesters own Minutemen gathered on Leicester Common and they marched quickly to join with other Minutemen on April 19,1775, to fight at the first conflict between Massachusetts residents and British troops, the Battles of Lexington and Concord. A few months later on June 17,1775, a slave and Leicester resident named Peter Salem fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill. Both men are memorialized in Leicester street names, as is Colonel Henshaw, General Knox brought cannons from New York through the town of Leicester, delivering them to General Washington at Dorchester Heights. There is a monument near the Leicester Library to mark that route and these cannons caused the British to evacuate their troops from Boston, after they woke up one morning to find cannons facing them from above them. Leicester also held a role in Massachusetts second great revolution. As early as the 1780s, Leicesters mills churned out one-third of American hand cards, by the 1890s when Leicester industry began to fade, the town was producing one-third of all hand and machine cards in North America. Eli Whitney, the man who invented the cotton gin and devised the idea of interchangeable parts, went to school at Leicester Academy, which eventually became Leicester High School. Ebenezer Adams, who would later be the first mathematics and natural philosophy professor at the Phillips Exeter Academy in New Hampshire, was the preceptor in Leicester in 1792. Leicesters Pliny Earle helped Samuel Slater build the first American mill in Pawtucket, Rhode Island and this began the American Industrial Revolution. Leicester today is one of the most northernmost communities within the Blackstone River Valley, as with most Massachusetts cities and towns, local history can be found and researched in the local public library
23.
The Liberator (newspaper)
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The Liberator was an abolitionist newspaper founded by William Lloyd Garrison and Isaac Knapp in 1831. Garrison co-published weekly issues of The Liberator from Boston continuously for 35 years, from January 1,1831, the Liberator continued for three decades from its founding through the end of the American Civil War. It had black columnists and reporters, Garrison ended the newspapers run with a valedictory column at the end of 1865, when the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment abolished slavery throughout the United States. It was succeeded by The Nation, the Liberators printers, Isaac Knapp, James Brown Yerrinton and James Manning Winchell Yerrinton, and Robert Folger Wallcut, printed many of the woman’s rights tracts used in the 1850s. The Liberator full online archives at Fair Use Repository, including archives of full-page scans of all issues from 1831–1865. Internet Archive, Liberator v.28, no.30,1858 Liberator v.31, no.1, no.15, no.16, no.27,1861 Liberator v.32, no.1, no.27,1862 The Liberator Files collection maintained by Horace Seldon. All of the articles were written by Garrison. To the Public, Garrisons introductory column for The Liberator, January 1,1831, the Insurrection, Garrisons reaction to the news of Nat Turners slave rebellion in Virginia, September 3,1831. December 29,1832, one of Garrisons first explicit condemnations of the Constitution, declaration of Sentiments, adopted by the Boston Peace Convention September 18,1838, reprinted in The Liberator, September 28,1838. Abolition at the Ballot Box, June 28,1839, the American Union, January 10,1845. On the Dissolution of the Union, June 15,1855, the Tragedy at Harpers Ferry, Garrisons first public comments on John Browns raid on Harpers Ferry, October 28,1859. The War—Its Cause and Cure, May 3,1861, valedictory, The Final Number of The Liberator, Garrisons closing column for The Liberator, December 29,1865. Abolitionist publications North Star, a newspaper owned and run by Frederick Douglass. The Liberator Files, Horace Seldons collection and summary of research of The Liberator original copies at the Boston Public Library, Boston, Works by or about The Liberator at Internet Archive Works by The Liberator at LibriVox The Liberator at Newspapers. com
24.
Squaw
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Some indigenous North Americans consider the term to be offensive. The words for woman in the various Algonquian languages derive from Proto-Algonquian *, in the daughter languages, the first consonant sound has variously changed to /s/, /x/, or been lost. The pronunciation squaw or skwa is found in the northerly Eastern Algonquian languages in New England, one of its earliest appearances in print is the squa sachim, or Massachusets queen in Mourts Relation, one of the first chronicles of the Plymouth colony. William Wood similarly defined Squaw - a woman in his list, A Small Nomenclature of the Indian Language, the Saint Francis Abenaki Chief Joseph Laurent illustrated the neutral usage of the term among Abenaki speakers to refer to both Native and non-Native women. As a suffix it means wife, as in Sôgmò, —skua, translated as A chief, other examples are Nôkskuasis – A young little girl. Kuibekiskua – A lady from Quebec, the Abenakis word for a queen, Kinjamesiskua, recorded as Kinjamesisqua by another Abenaki author, literally translates as King James wife. In 1940, the anthropologist Frank Speck noted the appearance of this morpheme in various terms in the Penobscot language, some authors, such as Jonathan Periam describing American Indian corn-growing practices of the early 19th century in Illinois, used the word repeatedly, and nonchalantly. Who have taken it from the whites, the adjective form of squaw has been widely applied to indigenous plants used by Native peoples as medicine specific to female complaints. Also squaw-bush, -carpet, -flower, -grass, -mint, -vine, the Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico lists several such plants that are still prized by both traditional herbalists and modern pharmaceutical companies. After the squaw have been named, Squawberry, squaw bush, in some 19th- and 20th-century texts squaw is used or perceived as derogatory. Most of these uses are not sexual, one author, for example, referred to the universal squaw - squat, angular, pig-eyed, ragged, wretched, and insect-haunted. Squaw also became a derogatory adjective used against some men, in squaw man, meaning either a man who does womans work or a man married to an Indian woman. In a western novel by Max Brand, a character asks a female character about her intentions. Like a squaw, she answered steadily, if you choose to use that word, perhaps in view of such uses as those above, one early-20th-century dictionary of American usage called squaw a contemptuous term. The children said that they felt humiliated almost every day by calling them squaws. In this case the term seems to have been applied to girls in the lower grades of the elementary school. Some but not all Native American condemnation of squaw results from claims that it comes from a word for the vagina, an early comment in which squaw appears to have a sexual meaning is from the Canadian writer Pauline Johnson, whose father was a Mohawk chief. She wrote about the character in An Algonquin Maiden by G. Mercer Adam and A. Ethelwyn Wetherald
25.
Lithography
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Lithography is a method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone or a plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by German author and actor Alois Senefelder as a method of publishing theatrical works. Lithography can be used to print text or artwork onto paper or other suitable material, Lithography originally used an image drawn with oil, fat, or wax onto the surface of a smooth, level lithographic limestone plate. The stone was treated with a mixture of acid and gum arabic, when the stone was subsequently moistened, these etched areas retained water, an oil-based ink could then be applied and would be repelled by the water, sticking only to the original drawing. The ink would finally be transferred to a paper sheet. This traditional technique is used in some fine art printmaking applications. In modern lithography, the image is made of a coating applied to a flexible aluminum plate. The image can be printed directly from the plate, or it can be offset, by transferring the image onto a sheet for printing. In fact, photolithography is used synonymously with offset printing, the technique as well as the term were introduced in Europe in the 1850s. Beginning in the 1960s, photolithography has played an important role in the fabrication, Lithography uses simple chemical processes to create an image. For instance, the part of an image is a water-repelling substance. Thus, when the plate is introduced to a printing ink and water mixture, the ink will adhere to the positive image. This allows a flat print plate to be used, enabling much longer, Lithography was invented by Alois Senefelder in the Kingdom of Bavaria in 1796. In the early days of lithography, a piece of limestone was used. After the oil-based image was put on the surface, a solution of gum arabic in water was applied, during printing, water adhered to the gum arabic surfaces and was repelled by the oily parts, while the oily ink used for printing did the opposite. Lithography works because of the repulsion of oil and water. The image is drawn on the surface of the print plate with a fat or oil-based medium such as a wax crayon, which may be pigmented to make the drawing visible
26.
American Civil War
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The American Civil War was an internal conflict fought in the United States from 1861 to 1865. The Union faced secessionists in eleven Southern states grouped together as the Confederate States of America, the Union won the war, which remains the bloodiest in U. S. history. Among the 34 U. S. states in February 1861, War broke out in April 1861 when Confederates attacked the U. S. fortress of Fort Sumter. The Confederacy grew to eleven states, it claimed two more states, the Indian Territory, and the southern portions of the western territories of Arizona. The Confederacy was never recognized by the United States government nor by any foreign country. The states that remained loyal, including border states where slavery was legal, were known as the Union or the North, the war ended with the surrender of all the Confederate armies and the dissolution of the Confederate government in the spring of 1865. The war had its origin in the issue of slavery. The Confederacy collapsed and 4 million slaves were freed, but before his inauguration, seven slave states with cotton-based economies formed the Confederacy. The first six to declare secession had the highest proportions of slaves in their populations, the first seven with state legislatures to resolve for secession included split majorities for unionists Douglas and Bell in Georgia with 51% and Louisiana with 55%. Alabama had voted 46% for those unionists, Mississippi with 40%, Florida with 38%, Texas with 25%, of these, only Texas held a referendum on secession. Eight remaining slave states continued to reject calls for secession, outgoing Democratic President James Buchanan and the incoming Republicans rejected secession as illegal. Lincolns March 4,1861 inaugural address declared that his administration would not initiate a civil war, speaking directly to the Southern States, he reaffirmed, I have no purpose, directly or indirectly to interfere with the institution of slavery in the United States where it exists. I believe I have no right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so. After Confederate forces seized numerous federal forts within territory claimed by the Confederacy, efforts at compromise failed, the Confederates assumed that European countries were so dependent on King Cotton that they would intervene, but none did, and none recognized the new Confederate States of America. Hostilities began on April 12,1861, when Confederate forces fired upon Fort Sumter, while in the Western Theater the Union made significant permanent gains, in the Eastern Theater, the battle was inconclusive in 1861–62. The autumn 1862 Confederate campaigns into Maryland and Kentucky failed, dissuading British intervention, Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which made ending slavery a war goal. To the west, by summer 1862 the Union destroyed the Confederate river navy, then much of their western armies, the 1863 Union siege of Vicksburg split the Confederacy in two at the Mississippi River. In 1863, Robert E. Lees Confederate incursion north ended at the Battle of Gettysburg, Western successes led to Ulysses S. Grants command of all Union armies in 1864
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John Henry Bufford
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John Henry Bufford was a lithographer in 19th-century Boston, Massachusetts. Bufford trained in the Pendleton shop in Boston from 1829 to 1831, according to one historian, Buffords work as a lithographer represented a mediocre sort of craftmanship at best. He had no very special skills as original artist and gravitated to management. In 1835 he moved to New York, where he worked independently for five years while accepting commissions from George Endicott, Bufford returned to Boston in 1839, and became chief artist in the print shop owned by Benjamin W. Thayer. By 1844, the name changed to J. H. Bufford & Co. lithographic portraits copied from daguerreotypes. Artists who worked for Bufford included Francis DAvignon, Winslow Homer, clients included music publisher William H. Oakes. In the 1840s-1860s Bufford lived in Roxbury and worked on Washington Street, J. H. Bufford & Co. 204-206 Washington St. J. H. Bufford,260 Washington St. Buffords Lithographic & Publishing House, after Buffords death in 1870, his sons Frank G. Bufford and John Henry Bufford, Jr. continued the business. Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society, works by or about John Henry Bufford at Internet Archive James Otto Lewis. The history of Temple, N. H, were done by John H. Bufford, from sketches by himself. Boston Public Library, Norman B. Leventhal Map Center, owns several maps printed by Bufford, prints & Photographs Division owns materiala related to Bufford. Boston Athenaeum owns numerous works by J. H. Bufford & Co, Boston, Buffords Print Publishing House,1863
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British Army
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The British Army is the principal land warfare force of the United Kingdom. As of 2017 the British Army comprises just over 80,000 trained Regular, or full-time, personnel and just over 26,500 trained Reserve, or part-time personnel. Therefore, the UK Parliament approves the continued existence of the Army by passing an Armed Forces Act at least once every five years, day to day the Army comes under administration of the Ministry of Defence and is commanded by the Chief of the General Staff. Repeatedly emerging victorious from these decisive wars allowed Britain to influence world events with its policies and establish itself as one of the leading military. In 1660 the English, Scottish and Irish monarchies were restored under Charles II, Charles favoured the foundation of a new army under royal control and began work towards its establishment by August 1660. The Royal Scots Army and the Irish Army were financed by the Parliament of Scotland, the order of seniority of the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons, after William and Marys accession to the throne, England involved itself in the War of the Grand Alliance, primarily to prevent a French invasion restoring Marys father, James II. Spain, in the two centuries, had been the dominant global power, and the chief threat to Englands early transatlantic ambitions. The territorial ambitions of the French, however, led to the War of the Spanish Succession and the Napoleonic Wars. From the time of the end of the Seven Years War in 1763, Great Britain was the naval power. As had its predecessor, the English Army, the British Army fought the Kingdoms of Spain, France, and the Netherlands for supremacy in North America and the West Indies. With native and provincial assistance, the Army conquered New France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years War, the British Army suffered defeat in the American War of Independence, losing the Thirteen Colonies but holding on to Canada. The British Army was heavily involved in the Napoleonic Wars and served in campaigns across Europe. The war between the British and the First French Empire of Napoleon Bonaparte stretched around the world and at its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. A Coalition of Anglo-Dutch and Prussian Armies under the Duke of Wellington, the English had been involved, both politically and militarily, in Ireland since being given the Lordship of Ireland by the Pope in 1171. The campaign of the English republican Protector, Oliver Cromwell, involved uncompromising treatment of the Irish towns that had supported the Royalists during the English Civil War, the English Army stayed in Ireland primarily to suppress numerous Irish revolts and campaigns for independence. Having learnt from their experience in America, the British government sought a political solution, the British Army found itself fighting Irish rebels, both Protestant and Catholic, primarily in Ulster and Leinster in the 1798 rebellion. The Haldane Reforms of 1907 formally created the Territorial Force as the Armys volunteer reserve component by merging and reorganising the Volunteer Force, Militia, Great Britains dominance of the world had been challenged by numerous other powers, in the 20th century, most notably Germany
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Stamp Act (1765)
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Printed materials included legal documents, magazines, playing cards, newspapers, and many other types of paper used throughout the colonies. Like previous taxes, the tax had to be paid in valid British currency. The purpose of the tax was to pay for troops stationed in North America after the British victory in the Seven Years War and its North American theater of the French. The Americans said that there was no military need for the soldiers there were no foreign enemies on the continent. They suggested that it was actually a matter of British patronage to surplus British officers, the Stamp Act was very unpopular among colonists. A consensus considered it a violation of their rights as Englishmen to be taxed without their consent—consent that only the colonial legislatures could grant and their slogan was No taxation without representation. Colonial assemblies sent petitions and protests, the Stamp Act Congress held in New York City was the first significant joint colonial response to any British measure, it petitioned Parliament and the King. Local protest groups led by merchants and landowners established connections through Committees of Correspondence. Protests and demonstrations initiated by a new organization called the Sons of Liberty often turned violent. Very soon, all stamp tax distributors were intimidated into resigning their commissions, opposition to the Stamp Act was not limited to the colonies. British merchants and manufacturers, whose exports to the colonies were threatened by colonial boycotts, the Act was repealed on March 18,1766 as a matter of expedience, but Parliament affirmed its power to legislate for the colonies in all cases whatsoever by also passing the Declaratory Act. There followed a series of new taxes and regulations, likewise opposed by the colonists, the British victory in the Seven Years War, known in America as the French and Indian War, had been won only at a great financial cost. During the war, the British national debt increased more than fourfold, the primary reason for retaining such a large force was that demobilizing the army would put 1,500 officers out of work, many of whom were well-connected in Parliament. Stationing 10,000 troops to separate American Indians and frontiersmen was one role, the outbreak of Pontiacs Rebellion in May 1763 apparently reinforced the logic of this decision, as it was an American Indian uprising against the British expansion. The main reason to send 10,000 troops deep into the wilderness was to provide billets for the officers who were part of the British patronage system. John Adams said, Revenue is still demanded from America, and appropriated to the maintenance of swarms of officers and pensioners in idleness and luxury. George Grenville became prime minister in April 1763 after the failure of the short-lived Bute Ministry, raising taxes in Britain was out of the question, since there had been virulent protests in England against the Bute ministrys 1763 cider tax, with Bute being hanged in effigy. The Grenville ministry therefore decided that Parliament would raise revenue by taxing the American colonists without their consent
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Townshend Acts
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The Townshend Acts were a series of acts passed – beginning in 1767 – by of Great Britain relating to the British colonies in North America. The acts are named after Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Townshend Acts were met with resistance in the colonies, prompting the occupation of Boston by British troops in 1768, which eventually resulted in the Boston Massacre of 1770. As a result of widespread protest in the American colonies, Parliament began to repeal the Townshend duties. Most of the new taxes were repealed, but the tax on tea was retained, the British government continued in its attempt to tax the colonists without their consent and the American Revolution followed. Following the Seven Years War, the British Empire was deep in debt, to help pay some of the costs of the newly expanded empire, the British Parliament decided to levy new taxes on the colonies of British America. Previously, through the Trade and Navigation Acts, Parliament had used taxation to regulate the trade of the empire, but with the Sugar Act of 1764, Parliament sought, for the first time, to tax the colonies for the specific purpose of raising revenue. American colonists argued that there were constitutional issues involved, the Americans claimed they were not represented in Parliament but the British government retorted they had virtual representation, a concept the Americans rejected. This issue, only briefly debated following the Sugar Act, became a point of contention following Parliaments passage of the 1765 Stamp Act. The Stamp Act proved to be unpopular in the colonies, contributing to its repeal the following year. Implicit in the Stamp Act dispute was a more fundamental than taxation and representation. The first of the Townshend Acts, sometimes known as the Townshend Act, was the Revenue Act of 1767. This act represented the Chatham ministrys new approach for generating tax revenue in the American colonies after the repeal of the Stamp Act in 1766. With this in mind, Charles Townshend, the Chancellor of the Exchequer, devised a plan that placed new duties on paper, paint, lead, glass, and tea that were imported into the colonies. These were items that were not produced in North America and that the colonists were allowed to buy from Great Britain. The Townshend Revenue Act received the royal assent on 29 June 1767, there was little opposition expressed in Parliament at the time. Never could a fateful measure have had a quiet passage. The Revenue Act was passed in conjunction with the Indemnity Act of 1767, the Indemnity Act repealed taxes on tea imported to England, allowing it to be re-exported more cheaply to the colonies. This tax cut in England would be offset by the new Revenue Act taxes on tea in the colonies
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Patriot (American Revolution)
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Patriots were those colonists of the Thirteen Colonies who rebelled against British control during the American Revolution and in July 1776 declared the United States of America an independent nation. Their rebellion was based on the philosophy of republicanism, as expressed by spokesmen such as Thomas Jefferson, John Adams. They were opposed by the Loyalists who instead supported continued British rule, as a group, Patriots represented a wide array of social, economic and ethnic backgrounds. The critics of British rule called themselves Whigs after 1768, identifying members of the British Whig party. The Oxford English Dictionary third definition of Patriot is A person actively opposing enemy forces occupying his or her country, a member of a resistance movement, originally used of those who opposed and fought the British in the American War of Independence. The earliest citation is a 1773 letter by Benjamin Franklin, in Britain at the time, patriot had a negative connotation, and was used, says Samuel Johnson as a negative epithet for a factious disturber of the government. During the Revolution these persons became known primarily as Loyalists, afterward, many emigrated north to the remaining British territories in what is now modern Canada. There they called themselves the United Empire Loyalists, many Patriots were active before 1775 in groups such as the Sons of Liberty. The most prominent leaders of the Patriots are referred to today by Americans as the Founding Fathers, the Patriots came from many different backgrounds. Among the most active of the Patriots group were highly educated, however, without the support of the ordinary men and women, such as farmers, lawyers, merchants, seamstresses, homemakers, shopkeepers, and ministers, the struggle for independence would have failed. With a white population of about 2.5 million, that makes about 380,000 to 500,000 Loyalists, the great majority of them remained in America, since only about 80,000 Loyalists left the United States 1775–1783. They went to Canada, Britain, Florida or the West Indies, to understand how people made the choice between being a Patriot or a Loyalist, historians have compared the motivations and personalities of leading men on each side. Labaree has identified eight characteristics that differentiated the two groups, psychologically, Loyalists were older, better established, and more likely to resist innovation than the Patriots. Men who were alienated by physical attacks on Royal officials took the Loyalist position, most men who wanted to find a compromise solution wound up on the Loyalist side, while the proponents of immediate action became Patriots. Some Loyalists were procrastinators who believed that independence was bound to some day, but wanted to postpone the moment. Loyalists were cautious and afraid of anarchy or tyranny that might come from mob rule, Patriots made an effort to use. Finally, Labaree argues that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the Patriots confidence that independence lay ahead, the Patriot faction came to reject taxes imposed by legislatures in which the tax-payer was not represented. No taxation without representation, was their slogan, referring to the lack of representation in the British Parliament, the British countered there was virtual representation, that is, all members of Parliament represented the interests of all the citizens of the British Empire
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Dock (maritime)
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The exact meaning varies among different variants of the English language. Dock may also refer to a dockyard or shipyard where the loading, unloading, building, the earliest known docks were those discovered in Wadi al-Jarf, an ancient Egyptian harbor dating from 2500 BCE located on the Red Sea coast. Archaeologists also discovered anchors and storage jars near the site, a dock from Lothal in India dates from 2400 BCE and was located away from the main current to avoid deposition of silt. This was the earliest known dock found in the world, equipped to berth and it is speculated that Lothal engineers studied tidal movements, and their effects on brick-built structures, since the walls are of kiln-burnt bricks. The engineers built a structure, with north-south arms of average 21.8 metres. In British English, a dock is an area of water used for loading, unloading, building or repairing ships. Such a dock may be created by building enclosing harbour walls into a natural water space. The level of water in the dock is maintained despite the raising and lowering of the tide and this makes transfer of cargo easier. It works like a lock which controls the level and allows passage of ships. The worlds first enclosed wet dock with lock gates to maintain a constant water level irrespective of tidal conditions was the Howland Great Dock on the River Thames, the dock was merely a haven surrounded by trees, with no unloading facilities. The worlds first commercial enclosed wet dock, with quays and unloading warehouses, was the Old Dock at Liverpool, built in 1715, the dock reduced ship waiting giving quick turn arounds, greatly improving the throughput of cargo. A drydock is another variant, also with dock gates, which can be emptied of water to allow investigation, where the water level is not controlled berths may be, Floating where there is always sufficient water to float the ship. NAABSA where ships settle on the bottom at low tide, ships using NAABSA facilities have to be designed for them. A dockyard consists of one or more docks, usually with other structures, in American English, a dock is technically synonymous with pier or wharf—any human-made structure in the water intended for people to be on. In American English, the term for the area between piers is slip. In the cottage country of Canada and the United States, a dock is a platform built over water. The platform is used for the boarding and offloading of small boats, R. Lothal, a Harappan Port Town. New Delhi, Archaeological Survey of India
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Barber
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A barber is a person whose occupation is mainly to cut, dress, groom, style and shave mens and boys hair. A barbers place of work is known as a shop or a barbers. Barber shops are also places of social interaction and public discourse, in some instances, barbershops are also public forums. They are the locations of open debates, voicing public concerns and they were also influential in helping shape male identity. In previous times, barbers performed surgery and dentistry. With the development of safety razors and the prevalence of beards, in English-speaking cultures. In modern times, the barber is used both as a professional title and to refer to hairdressers who specialize in mens hair. Historically, all hairdressers were considered barbers, in the 20th century, the profession of cosmetology branched off from barbering, and today hairdressers may be licensed as either barbers or cosmetologists. Barbers differ with respect to where they work, which services they are licensed to provide, part of this terminology difference depends on the regulations in a given location. Different states in the US vary on their labor and licensing laws, for example, in Maryland, a cosmetologist cannot use a straight razor, strictly reserved for barbers. In Australia, the term for a barber is hairdresser, barber is only a popular title for mens hairdressers. Most would work in a hairdressing salon, the barbers trade has a long history, razors have been found among relics of the Bronze Age in Egypt. In ancient Egyptian culture, barbers were highly respected individuals, priests and men of medicine are the earliest recorded examples of barbers. Men in Ancient Greece would have their beards, hair, and fingernails trimmed and styled by the κουρεύς, in an agora which also served as a gathering for debates. Barbering was introduced to Rome by the Greek colonies in Sicily in 296 BC, starting from the Middle Ages, barbers often served as surgeons and dentists. In addition to haircutting, hairdressing, and shaving, barbers performed surgery, bloodletting and leeching, fire cupping, enemas, the barber pole, featuring red and white spiraling stripes, symbolized different aspects of the craft. Barbers received higher pay than surgeons until surgeons were entered into British warships during naval wars, some of the duties of the barber included neck manipulation, cleansing of ears and scalp, draining of boils, fistula and lancing of cysts with wicks. Barbershops were influential at the turn of the 19th century as African American businesses that helped to develop African American culture and economy
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29th (Worcestershire) Regiment of Foot
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The 29th Regiment of Foot was an infantry regiment of the British Army, raised in 1694. Under the Childers Reforms it amalgamated with the 36th Regiment of Foot to become the 1st Battalion, the regiment was first raised by Colonel Thomas Farrington as Thomas Farringtons Regiment of Foot on 16 February 1694. It was disbanded after the Treaty of Ryswick in December 1698, the regiment served under John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough at the victory at the Battle of Ramillies in May 1706 against the French and in the siege of Ostend in June 1706. In June 1727 the regiment saw action defending Gibraltar from a Spanish attack, in October 1745, the Regiment was sent to Fortress Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island. The following year, the regiment was in the Port-la-Joye Massacre during King Georges War, the Canadiens and Mikmaq warriors massacred a significant portion of the regiment, in part, because they were unarmed. In 1749, the regiment was at the site of Halifax, Nova Scotia, until the middle of the eighteenth century British Army regiments were known by their colonels name. This led to frequent changes of title, in 1747 regiments were required to establish their precedence, with each unit taking a numerical rank. The process was completed in 1751 when a royal warrant formally substituted numbers for the names of colonels, accordingly, Colonel Peregrine Hopsons Regiment became the 29th Regiment of Foot. In 1759 Admiral Edward Boscawen gave to his brother Colonel George Boscawen 10 black youths he acquired in the capture of Guadeloupe from the French in the same year and these young men were released from slavery and joined the regiment as drummers, a tradition the regiment continued until 1843. Due to the incident, the regiment earned the nickname the Vein Openers for drawing first blood in the American Revolution, the soldiers involved were tried for murder and were defended by John Adams. Two men of the regiment, Hugh Montgomery and Matthew Kilroy, were guilty of manslaughter. Captain Thomas Preston and the men involved were found not guilty. The regiment left Boston in 1771 for British controlled Florida before returning to England in 1773, in 1777, the Light Infantry Company and the Grenadier Company were with Lieutenant General John Burgoyne as he headed down from Montreal to Saratoga. Both the Light Infantry Company and Grenadier Company saw action at the Battle of Hubbardton under the command of Brigadier Simon Fraser, both companies surrendered with the rest of Burgoynes Army after the defeats at Battle of Freemans Farm and Battle of Bemis Heights in September and October 1777. On 31 August 1782 a royal warrant was issued conferring county titles on all regiments of foot that did not already have a special title, the regiment was retitled as the 29th Regiment of Foot. The change was an attempt to improve recruitment, but no depot was established in the county, the regiment returned to England in 1787. During the winter of 1791 Princess Augusta presented the regiment with the music of a march of her own composing, which received the name of The Royal Windsor. The march, with its impressive drum cadence recalling later American marches and it appears that the Princess used material of Russian origin
35.
Old State House (Boston)
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The Old State House is an historic building in Boston, Massachusetts, at the intersection of Washington and State Streets. Built in 1713, it was the seat of the Massachusetts General Court until 1798, one of the landmarks on Bostons Freedom Trail, it is the oldest surviving public building in Boston, and now serves as a history museum operated by the Bostonian Society. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960 and a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission in 1994. Todays brick Old State House was built in 1712–13, possibly designed by Robert Twelves, the previous building, a notable feature was the pair of seven-foot tall wooden figures depicting a lion and unicorn, symbols of the British monarchy. The building housed a Merchants Exchange on the first floor and warehouses in the basement, the central portion contained the chambers for the elected Massachusetts Assembly. This chamber is notable for including public galleries, the first known example of such a feature being included in a chamber for elected officials in the English-speaking world, the interior was rebuilt in 1748, after a fire in 1747. In 1761, James Otis argued against the Writs of Assistance in the Royal Council Chamber, though he lost the case, Otis influenced public opinion in a way that contributed to the American Revolution, John Adams later wrote of that speech, Then and there. On March 5,1770, The Boston Massacre occurred in front of the building on Devonshire Street, lieutenant Governor Thomas Hutchinson stood on the buildings balcony to speak to the people, ordering the crowd to return to their homes. On July 18,1776, the Declaration of Independence was proclaimed from the east side balcony to jubilant crowds by Col. Thomas Crafts, at one oclock Col. Crafts rose in the Council Chamber and read it to the members. Then, fellow patriot Sheriff William Greenleaf attempted to read it from the balcony, Col. Crafts then stood next to the sheriff and read it from the balcony in a stentorian tone. For most people, it was an occasion, as about two-thirds of Boston residents supported the revolution. The lion and the unicorn on top of the building were removed and burned in a bonfire in King street, after the American Revolution, the building served as the seat of the Massachusetts state government before its move to the present Massachusetts State House in 1798. From 1830 to 1841, the building was Bostons city hall, previously, the citys offices had been in the County Court House. In 1830, Isaiah Rogers altered the interior in a Greek Revival style. The building was damaged by fire in 1832, during this period of time, City Hall shared the building with the Boston Post Office and several private businesses. On October 21,1835, Mayor Theodore Lyman, Jr. gave temporary refuge to William Lloyd Garrison, the editor of the abolitionist paper The Liberator, who was being chased by a violent mob. Garrison was kept safe in the Old State House until being driven to the Leverett Street Jail, in 1841, City Hall moved to the former Suffolk County Courthouse, on School Street. After Bostons city hall left, the building was rented out for commercial use
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Club (weapon)
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A club is among the simplest of all weapons, a short staff or stick, usually made of wood, wielded as a weapon since prehistoric times. In popular culture, clubs are associated with cultures, especially cavemen. Most clubs are small enough to be swung with one hand, Various specialized clubs are used in martial arts and other fields, including the law-enforcement baton. The military mace is a more sophisticated descendant of the club, typically made of metal, the wounds inflicted by a club are generally known as bludgeoning or blunt-force trauma injuries. Police forces and their predecessors have traditionally favored the use, whenever possible, of weapons than guns or blades to impose public order or to subdue. Short, flexible clubs are often used, especially by plainclothes officers who need to avoid notice. These are known colloquially as blackjacks, saps, or coshes, in addition, Shaolin monks and members of other religious orders around the world have employed cudgels from time to time as defensive weapons. Though perhaps the simplest of all weapons, there are varieties of club, including. Aklys – a club with a leather thong, used to return it to the hand after snapping it at an opponent. Used by the legions of the Roman Empire, ball club – These clubs were used by the Native Americans. There are two types, the stone clubs that were used mostly by early Plains, Plateau and Southwest Native Indians. These consisted of a relatively free-moving head of rounded stone or wood attached to a wooden handle, baseball, cricket and T-ball bats – The baseball bat is often used as an improvised weapon, much like the pickaxe handle. In countries where baseball is not commonly played, baseball bats are often first thought of as weapons, tee ball bats are also used in this manner. Their smaller size and lighter weight make the bat easier to handle in one hand than a baseball bat, clava – a traditional stone hand-club used by Mapuche Indians in Chile, featuring a long flat body. In Spanish, it is known as clava cefalomorfa and it has some ritual importance as a special sign of distinction carried by the tribal chief. Cosh, A weapon made of covered metal similar to a blackjack, any of various sorts of blunt instrument such as bludgeon, truncheon or the like. Cudgel – A stout stick carried by peasants during the Middle Ages and it functioned as a walking staff and a weapon for both self-defence and wartime. Regiments of clubmen were raised as late as the English Civil War, the cudgel is also known as the singlestick
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Faneuil Hall
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Faneuil Hall, located near the waterfront and todays Government Center, in Boston, Massachusetts, has been a marketplace and a meeting hall since 1743. It was the site of speeches by Samuel Adams, James Otis. Now it is part of Boston National Historical Park and a stop on the Freedom Trail. It is sometimes referred to as the Cradle of Liberty, in 2008, Faneuil Hall was rated number 4 in Americas 25 Most Visited Tourist Sites by Forbes Traveler. There was an opposition to market houses, and although a vote of thanks was passed unanimously. Funded in part by profits from trading, the building was begun in Dock Square in September of the same year. It was built by artist John Smibert in 1740–1742 in the style of an English country market, with a ground floor serving as the market house. According to Sean Hennessey, a National Park Service spokesman, some of Bostons early slave auctions were located near Faneuil Hall, in 1761 the hall was destroyed by fire, nothing but the brick walls remaining. It was rebuilt by the town in 1762, in 1775, during the British occupation of Boston, it was used for a theatre. In 1806, the hall was expanded by Charles Bulfinch, doubling its height and width. Four new bays were added, to seven in all, the open arcades were enclosed. Bulfinch applied Doric brick pilasters to the two floors, with Ionic pilasters on the third floor. This renovation added galleries around the hall and increased its height. Neighboring Quincy Market was constructed in 1824-26, Faneuil Hall was entirely rebuilt of noncombustible materials in 1898–1899. On October 9,1960 the building was designated a National Historic Landmark, the ground floor and basement were altered in 1979. The Hall was restored again in 1992 and in 1994 designated as a Boston Landmark by the Boston Landmarks Commission. It was designed by Benjamin Thompson and Associates and managed by Ashkenazy Acquisition Corp. its success in the late 1970s led to the emergence of similar marketplaces in other U. S. cities, chappelle was a Boston legislator from 1883-1886. On the front page of The New York Age newspaper on Saturday, on November 7,1979, Faneuil Hall was the site of Sen. Edward M. Kennedys speech declaring his candidacy for president
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Lying in state
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Lying in state is the tradition in which the body of a dead official is placed in a state building, either outside or inside a coffin, to allow the public to pay their respects. It traditionally takes place in the government building of a country, state. While the practice differs among countries, a viewing in a other than the principal government building may be referred to as lying in repose. In Canada, official lying in state is a part of a state funeral and it is held in the Centre Block of Parliament Hill, in the national capital, Ottawa. Ex-governors general lie in state in the Senate Chamber while former prime ministers lie in the Hall of Honour, guards stand at each corner with heads bowed and weapons inverted with their backs turned towards the casket. Provinces may also mount state funerals and have a lying in state for a former resident. For instance, Maurice Richard, nationally known player, was given a state funeral by the province of Quebec when he died in 2000. This process was repeated for fellow Canadiens legend Jean Béliveau in December 2014, municipalities may offer civic funerals to prominent deceased current or former politicians. An honor guard armed with an AK-47 was present, jong-ils father Kim Il-sung, the founding president, is on display elsewhere in the palace. They took place in Moscow, beginning with a lying in state of the deceased in the House of the Unions. For the lying in state at the House of the Unions, the coffin would be placed on display in the Column Hall, the mourners, which usually would be brought in by the thousands, shuffled up a marble staircase beneath chandeliers draped in black gauze. On the stage at the side of the Column Hall. A small guard of honour would be in attendance in the background, at the right side of the hall, seats were placed for guests of honour, with the front row reserved for the dead leaders family. On the day of the funeral, a military funeral parade would take place during which the coffin would be conveyed from the House of the Unions to Red Square where burial would take place. Lenin and Stalin were placed inside the Lenin Mausoleum, while Brezhnev, Andropov, at state funerals in Singapore, the national flag is put on the coffin. The vigil guard may be deployed during the lying in state of the deceased person at Parliament House. The deployment of the guard is the highest form of respect accorded by the nation to the deceased. One of the five officers stands facing outward at each of the four corners of the casket, while the fifth and most senior one stands in front and their heads are bowed and their ceremonial swords are inverted
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Granary Burying Ground
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The Old Granary Burial Ground in Massachusetts is the city of Bostons third-oldest cemetery, founded in 1660 and located on Tremont Street. The cemetery has 2,345 grave-markers, but historians estimate that as many as 5,000 people are buried in it, the cemetery is adjacent to Park Street Church and immediately across from Suffolk University Law School. The cemeterys Egyptian revival gate and fence were designed by architect Isaiah Rogers, the Burying Ground was the third cemetery established in the city of Boston and dates to 1660. The need for the site arose because the set aside for the citys first cemetery—Kings Chapel Burying Ground. The area was known as the South Burying Ground until 1737, in May 1830, trees were planted in the area and an attempt was made to change the name to “Franklin Cemetery” to honor the family of Benjamin Franklin, but the effort failed. The Burying Ground was originally part of the Boston Common, which encompassed the entire block. Tombs were initially placed near the back of the property, on May 15,1717, a vote was passed by the town to enlarge the Burying Ground by taking part of the highway on the eastern side. The enlargement was carried out in 1720 when 15 tombs were created and assigned to a number of Boston families, eleven large European elms fronted it on Tremont Street. The elms were planted in 1762 by Major Adino Paddock and John Ballard, the walk under the elms was known as Paddocks Mall, while the rest of the grounds were devoid of any trees at all. The first major improvement was undertaken in 1830, when a number of trees were planted around the grounds, the property was improved again in 1840 by the construction of an iron fence on Tremont Street. The fence was designed by Boston architect Isaiah Rogers at a cost of $5,000, half paid by the city, Rogers designed an identical Egyptian revival gateway for Newports Touro Cemetery. In January 2009, a previously unknown crypt was discovered when a tourist on a tour through the cemetery fell through the ground into what appeared to be a stairway leading to a crypt. The stairway had been covered with a piece of slate which eventually gave way due to advanced age, the crypt is reported to be 8 by 12 feet and is structurally intact. It is possibly the place of Jonathan Armitage, a Boston selectman from 1732 to 1733. $125,000 will be provided by the Freedom Trail Foundation, prominently displayed in the Burying Ground is an obelisk erected in 1827 to the parents and relatives of Benjamin Franklin who was born in Boston and is buried in Philadelphia. Franklins father was Josiah Franklin, originally from Ecton, Northamptonshire, England, and his mother was Abiah, constructed of granite from the Bunker Hill Monument quarry, the obelisk was constructed to replace the original Franklin family gravestones which had been in poor condition. The new memorial was dedicated on 15 June 1827, the oldest memorial in the yard lies near the Franklin monument memorializing John Wakefield, aged 52 who died 18 June 1667. The reason for the gap between the establishment of the burying ground and the oldest memorial are unknown
40.
John Adams
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John Adams was an American patriot who served as the second President of the United States and the first Vice President. He was a lawyer, diplomat, statesman, political theorist, and, as a Founding Father and he was also a dedicated diarist and correspondent, particularly with his wife and closest advisor Abigail. He collaborated with his cousin, revolutionary leader Samuel Adams, Adams was a delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, where he played a leading role in persuading Congress to declare independence. He assisted Thomas Jefferson in drafting the Declaration of Independence in 1776, as a diplomat in Europe, he helped negotiate the eventual peace treaty with Great Britain, and acquired vital governmental loans from Amsterdam bankers. Adams was the author of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780 which influenced American political theory. Adamss credentials as a revolutionary secured for him two terms as President George Washingtons vice president and also his own election in 1796 as the second president. In his single term as president, he encountered fierce criticism from the Jeffersonian Republicans, as well as the dominant faction in his own Federalist Party, led by his rival Alexander Hamilton. Adams signed the controversial Alien and Sedition Acts, and built up the army, the major accomplishment of his presidency was a peaceful resolution of the conflict in the face of Hamiltons opposition. Due to his strong posture on defense, Adams is often called the father of the American Navy and he was the first U. S. president to reside in the executive mansion, now known as the White House. In 1800, Adams lost re-election to Thomas Jefferson and retired to Massachusetts and he eventually resumed his friendship with Jefferson upon the latters own retirement by initiating a correspondence which lasted fourteen years. He and his wife established a family of politicians, diplomats, Adams was the father of John Quincy Adams, the sixth President of the United States. He died on the anniversary of the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. Modern historians in the aggregate have favorably ranked his administration, John Adams was born on October 30,1735 to John Adams Sr. and Susanna Boylston. He had two brothers, Peter and Elihu. Adams birthplace was then in Braintree, Massachusetts, and is preserved at Adams National Historical Park, Adams mother was from a leading medical family of present-day Brookline, Massachusetts. His father was a Congregationalist deacon, a farmer, a cordwainer, the Deacon also served as a selectman and supervised the building of schools and roads. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship, though raised in modest surroundings, Adams felt an acute responsibility to live up to his familys heritage of reverence. Journalist Richard Brookhiser wrote that Adams Puritan ancestors believed they lived in the Bible, England under the Stuarts was Egypt, they were Israel fleeing
41.
Human branding
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This is performed using a hot or very cold branding iron. It may also be practiced as a rite of passage, e. g. within a tribe, in Dutch, branden mean to burn, brandmerk a branded mark, similarly, in German, Brandzeichen means a brand and brandmarken, to brand. Sometimes, the word cauterize is used, however cauterization is now generally understood to mean a medical process – specifically to stop bleeding. The origin may be the ancient treatment of a slave as livestock, european, American and other colonial slavers branded millions of slaves during the period of trans-Atlantic enslavement. Sometimes there were several brandings, e. g. for the Portuguese crown and the private owner, to a slave owner it would be logical to mark such property just like cattle, more so since humans are more able to escape. Ancient Romans marked runaway slaves with the letters FGV, in criminal law, branding with a hot iron was a mode of punishment consisting of marking the subject as if goods or animals, sometimes concurrently with their reduction of status in life. Under Constantine I the face was not permitted to be so disfigured, in the 16th century, German Anabaptists were branded with a cross on their foreheads for refusing to recant their faith and join the Roman Catholic church. The mark in later times was often chosen as a code for the crime. Branding was used for a time by the Union Army during the American Civil War, surgeon and Oxford English Dictionary contributor William Chester Minor was required to brand deserters at around the time of the Battle of the Wilderness. In Germany however, branding was illegal, following the Conspiracy of the Slaves of 1749 in Malta, some slaves were branded with the letter R on their forehead and condemned to the galleys for life. In Louisiana, there was a code, or Code Noir, which allowed the cropping of ears, shoulder branding. Slave owners used extreme punishments to stop flight, or escape and they would often brand the slaves palms, shoulders, buttocks, or cheeks with a branding iron. Branding was sometimes used to mark recaptured runaway slaves to help the locals easily identify the runaway. Mr. Micajah Ricks, in Raleigh, North Carolina, was looking for his slave and described, I burnt her with a hot iron, on the side of her face. Most slave owners would use whipping as their method. Another testimony explains how a slave owner in Kentucky around 1848 was looking for his runaway slave and he described her having a brand mark on the breast something like L blotched. In South Carolina, there were many laws which permitted the punishments slaves would receive, when a slave ran away, if it was the first offense, the slave would receive no more than forty lashes. Then the second offense would be branding, the slave would have been marked with the letter R on their forehead signifying that they were a criminal, and a runaway
42.
Negro
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Negro is a term traditionally used to denote persons considered to be of Negroid heritage. It has various equivalents in other languages, around 1442, the Portuguese first arrived in Southern Africa while trying to find a sea route to India. The term negro, literally meaning black, was used by the Spanish, Negro denotes black in Spanish and Portuguese, derived from the Latin word Niger, meaning black, which itself is probably from a Proto-Indo-European root *nekw-, to be dark, akin to *nokw-, night. Negro was also used of the peoples of West Africa in old maps labelled Negroland, from the 18th century to the late 1960s, negro was considered to be the proper English-language term for people of black African origin. According to Oxford Dictionaries, use of the word now seems out of date or even offensive in both British and US English, a specifically female form of the word, negress, was occasionally used. However, like Jewess, it has all but completely fallen from use, Negroid has traditionally been used within physical anthropology to denote one of the three purported races of humankind, alongside Caucasoid and Mongoloid. The suffix -oid means similar to, Negroid as a noun was used to designate a wider or more generalized category than Negro, as an adjective, it qualified a noun as in, for example, negroid features. Negro superseded colored as the most polite word for African Americans at a time when black was considered more offensive, du Bois and Dr. Carter G. Woodson used it in the titles of their non-fiction books, The Negro and The Mis-Education of the Negro respectively. Negro was accepted as normal, both as exonym and endonym, until the late 1960s, after the later African-American Civil Rights Movement. One well-known example is the identification by Martin Luther King, Jr. of his own race as Negro in his famous I Have a Dream speech of 1963, malcolm X preferred Black to Negro, but also started using the term Afro-American after leaving the Nation of Islam. Since the late 1960s, various terms have been more widespread in popular usage. These include black, Black African, Afro-American and African American, the word Negro fell out of favor by the early 1970s. However, many older African Americans initially found the term black more offensive than Negro, the United States Census Bureau included Negro on the 2010 Census, alongside Black and African-American, because some older black Americans still self-identify with the term. The U. S. Census now uses the grouping Black, African-American, Negro is used in efforts to include older African Americans who more closely associate with the term. The constitution of Liberia limits Liberian nationality to Negro people, people of other racial origins, even if they have lived for many years in Liberia, are thus precluded from becoming citizens of the Republic. In Spanish, negro is most commonly used for the color black, in Spain, Mexico and almost all of Latin America, negro means black person. As in English, this Spanish word is used figuratively and negatively, to mean irregular or undesirable. In Venezuela the word negro is similarly used, despite its large West African slave-descended population percentage, in certain parts of Latin America, the usage of negro to directly address black people can be colloquial
43.
Taig
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Tadhg, is an Irish and Scottish Gaelic masculine name that was very common when the Gaelic languages predominated, to the extent that it is a synecdoche for Irish Gaelic man. The name signifies poet or philosopher and this was also the name of many Gaelic Irish kings from the 10th to the 16th centuries, particularly in Connacht and Munster. Tadhg is most common in south-west Ireland, particularly in County Cork, the name has enjoyed a surge in popularity recently, in 2005 it was the 69th most common name for baby boys and in 2010 the 40th, according to the Central Statistics Office in Ireland. In the form Taig the name is used as a term of abuse for an Irish Catholic. The commonly accepted meaning of Tadhg is poet or storyteller, the ultimate derivation is from the Celtic *tazgo-, who were poets in early Celtic society. In any case, the name element Tasgo-, Tasco-, or Taxo- is widely attested in Gaulish. When the whole of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, due to similarity in sound, Tadhg is often listed as an Irish equivalent of the Judeo-Christian names Thaddeus, Timothy or sometimes Thomas, but these names are not actually related. The name is also spelled Taḋg in the Irish uncial alphabet with an overdot over the d to indicate it is lenited, Tadhg has been popularly anglicized as Tighe and Teague. Alternative spellings are Tadgh, Taigh, Taidgh, the name is found once in an Old Norse Viking source spelled as Taðkr. Tadhg is also a synecdoche and was once so common as an Irish name that it became synonymous with the typical Irishman in the way that Paddy or Mick might be today. In 1698, John Dunton wrote an account of Ireland. Thereafter, the use of the term was frequent. However, there is evidence from this era of the name continued to be used as a source of pride for assertive Gaelic Irish people. Most probably a motley rabble of saucy boys, negros and molattoes, Irish Teagues, extremist loyalists have also used in graffiti slogans such as Kill All Taigs and All Taigs Are Targets. Keanes 1965 play The Field, has a character named Tadhg McCabe, list of Irish-language given names Dictionary definition of Taig
44.
Jack Tar
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Jack Tar was a common English term originally used to refer to seamen of the Merchant or Royal Navy, particularly during the period of the British Empire. By World War I the term was used as a nickname for those in the U. S. Navy, both members of the public, and seafarers themselves, made use of the name in identifying those who went to sea. It was not used as a pejorative and sailors were happy to use the term to label themselves, there are several plausible etymologies for the reference to tar. In the age of sailing vessels, a ships rigging was rope made of hemp. To avoid this, the ropes and cables of the rig were soaked in tar. Seamen were known to tar their clothes before departing on voyages, in order to make them waterproof, later they frequently wore coats and hats made from a waterproof fabric called tarpaulin. This may have been shortened to tar at some point and it was common amongst seamen to plait their long hair into a ponytail and smear it with high grade tar to prevent it getting caught in the ships equipment. Pinafore, subtitled The Lass That Loved a Sailor, uses the synonym tar frequently in its dialogue, including the songs The Merry Maiden and the Tar and A British Tar. One of John Philip Sousas lesser known works was his Jack Tar March, written in 1903, Jack Tar, Life in Nelson’s Navy, best-selling non-fiction book written by Roy and Lesley Adkins about the real lives of sailors in Nelsons age. The traditional English folk song Go to Sea Once More tells the tale of a sailor by the name of Jack Tarr who loses everything after a drunken escapade while ashore in Liverpool. The traditional English folk song Jacky Tar, sung by Eliza Carthy, Roud 511, Laws K40, John Adams called the crowd involved with the Boston Massacre a motley rabble of saucy boys, negros and molattoes, Irish teagues and outlandish jack tarrs. Heart of Oak, the march of the Royal Navy, features the line Heart of oak are our ships. Rollins College of Winter Park, Florida chose the Tar as its mascot, people born in Swansea, UK are known as Jacks or Swansea Jacks. One explanation for the name is that the people of Swansea had a reputation as skilled sailors, in Anthony Shaffers comedy/thriller play Sleuth, the most prominent of Andrew Wykes automata is Jolly Jack Tarr, the Jovial Sailor. This life-sized figure laughs, and his body shakes appropriately, with the pressing of a control button. He is in several scenes, including one where a clue to a murder is hidden on Jolly Jack Tarrs person, a Better Berth for Jack Tar. —Article by an Able Seaman describing the Seamens Act of 1915 and conditions for seafarers Jack Tar
45.
Founding Fathers of the United States
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Adams, Jefferson, and Franklin were members of the Committee of Five that drafted the Declaration of Independence. Hamilton, Madison, and Jay were authors of the The Federalist Papers, Jay, Adams and Franklin negotiated the Treaty of Paris that would end the American Revolutionary War. Washington was Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army and was President of the Constitutional Convention, according to the CIA, Washington, Jay and Franklin helped define the powers of the Executive Branch All held additional important roles in the early government of the United States. The term Founding Fathers is sometimes used to refer to the Signers of the version of the Declaration of Independence in 1776. Of the 55 Framers, only 39 were signers of the Constitution, a further subset of Founding Founders includes those who signed the Continental Association or the Articles of Confederation. The phrase Founding Fathers is a twentieth century appellation and was first coined by Warren G. Harding in 1916, the First Continental Congress met briefly in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1774 and consisted of fifty-six delegates from twelve of the Thirteen Colonies that became the United States of America. On the list of attendees was George Washington, who would soon be out of military retirement to command the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. Also in attendance was Patrick Henry, and John Adams, who were elected by their respective colonial assemblies, other notable delegates included Samuel Adams from Massachusetts, John Dickinson from Pennsylvania and New Yorks John Jay. This congress in addition to formulating appeals to the British crown, when the Second Continental Congress came together on May 10,1775, it was, in effect, a reconvening of the First Congress. Many of the same 56 delegates who attended the first meeting participated in the second, notable new arrivals included Benjamin Franklin and Robert Morris of Pennsylvania, John Hancock of Massachusetts, and John Witherspoon of New Jersey. Hancock was elected Congress President two weeks into the session when Peyton Randolph was summoned back to Virginia to preside over the House of Burgesses, Thomas Jefferson replaced Randolph in the Virginia congressional delegation. The second Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence, Witherspoon was the only active clergyman to sign the Declaration. He also signed the Articles of Confederation and attended the New Jersey convention that ratified the Federal Constitution, the newly founded country of the United States had to create a new government to replace the British Parliament. The Americans adopted the Articles of Confederation, a declaration that established a government which was made up of a one-house legislature. Its ratification by all thirteen colonies gave the second Congress a new name, the Congress of the Confederation, later, the Constitutional Convention took place during the summer of 1787, in Philadelphia. The delegates elected George Washington to preside over the Convention, the result of the Convention was the United States Constitution. The Founding Fathers represented a cross-section of 18th-century American leadership, almost all of them were well-educated men of means who were leaders in their communities. Many were also prominent in national affairs, virtually every one had taken part in the American Revolution, at least 29 had served in the Continental Army, most of them in positions of command
46.
Samuel Adams
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Samuel Adams was an American statesman, political philosopher, and one of the Founding Fathers of the United States. He was a cousin to fellow Founding Father, President John Adams. Adams was born in Boston, brought up in a religious, a graduate of Harvard College, he was an unsuccessful businessman and tax collector before concentrating on politics. His 1768 Massachusetts Circular Letter calling for colonial non-cooperation prompted the occupation of Boston by British soldiers, continued resistance to British policy resulted in the 1773 Boston Tea Party and the coming of the American Revolution. Parliament passed the Coercive Acts in 1774, at which time Adams attended the Continental Congress in Philadelphia which was convened to coordinate a colonial response, Adams returned to Massachusetts after the American Revolution, where he served in the state senate and was eventually elected governor. Samuel Adams later became a figure in American history. Accounts written in the 19th century praised him as someone who had been steering his fellow colonists towards independence long before the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. This view gave way to negative assessments of Adams in the first half of the 20th century, both of these interpretations have been challenged by some modern scholars, who argue that these traditional depictions of Adams are myths contradicted by the historical record. Samuel Adams was born in Boston in the British colony of Massachusetts on September 16,1722, an Old Style date that is sometimes converted to the New Style date of September 27. Adams was one of children born to Samuel Adams, Sr. and Mary Adams in an age of high infant mortality. Adamss parents were devout Puritans and members of the Old South Congregational Church, the family lived on Purchase Street in Boston. Adams was proud of his Puritan heritage, and emphasized Puritan values in his political career, Samuel Adams, Sr. was a prosperous merchant and church deacon. Deacon Adams became a figure in Boston politics through an organization that became known as the Boston Caucus. The Boston Caucus helped shape the agenda of the Boston Town Meeting, Deacon Adams rose through the political ranks, becoming a justice of the peace, a selectman, and a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives. In the coming years, members of the party became known as Whigs or Patriots. The younger Samuel Adams attended Boston Latin School and then entered Harvard College in 1736 and his parents hoped that his schooling would prepare him for the ministry, but Adams gradually shifted his interest to politics. After graduating in 1740, Adams continued his studies, earning a degree in 1743. Adamss life was affected by his fathers involvement in a banking controversy
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Wilson, James Grant; Fiske, John, eds. (1900). "Attucks, Crispus". Appletons' Cyclopædia of American Biography. New York: D. Appleton.
One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the 
