1.
France
–
France, officially the French Republic, is a country with territory in western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The European, or metropolitan, area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, Overseas France include French Guiana on the South American continent and several island territories in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. France spans 643,801 square kilometres and had a population of almost 67 million people as of January 2017. It is a unitary republic with the capital in Paris. Other major urban centres include Marseille, Lyon, Lille, Nice, Toulouse, during the Iron Age, what is now metropolitan France was inhabited by the Gauls, a Celtic people. The area was annexed in 51 BC by Rome, which held Gaul until 486, France emerged as a major European power in the Late Middle Ages, with its victory in the Hundred Years War strengthening state-building and political centralisation. During the Renaissance, French culture flourished and a colonial empire was established. The 16th century was dominated by civil wars between Catholics and Protestants. France became Europes dominant cultural, political, and military power under Louis XIV, in the 19th century Napoleon took power and established the First French Empire, whose subsequent Napoleonic Wars shaped the course of continental Europe. Following the collapse of the Empire, France endured a succession of governments culminating with the establishment of the French Third Republic in 1870. Following liberation in 1944, a Fourth Republic was established and later dissolved in the course of the Algerian War, the Fifth Republic, led by Charles de Gaulle, was formed in 1958 and remains to this day. Algeria and nearly all the colonies became independent in the 1960s with minimal controversy and typically retained close economic. France has long been a centre of art, science. It hosts Europes fourth-largest number of cultural UNESCO World Heritage Sites and receives around 83 million foreign tourists annually, France is a developed country with the worlds sixth-largest economy by nominal GDP and ninth-largest by purchasing power parity. In terms of household wealth, it ranks fourth in the world. France performs well in international rankings of education, health care, life expectancy, France remains a great power in the world, being one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council with the power to veto and an official nuclear-weapon state. It is a member state of the European Union and the Eurozone. It is also a member of the Group of 7, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the World Trade Organization, originally applied to the whole Frankish Empire, the name France comes from the Latin Francia, or country of the Franks
2.
Cross country running
–
Cross country running is a sport in which teams and individuals run a race on open-air courses over natural terrain such as dirt or grass. Sometimes the runners are referred to as harriers, the course, typically 4–12 kilometres long, may include surfaces of grass, and earth, pass through woodlands and open country, and include hills, flat ground and sometimes gravel road. It is both an individual and a sport, runners are judged on individual times and teams by a points-scoring method. Cross country running is one of the disciplines under the sport of athletics. Although open-air running competitions are pre-historic, the rules and traditions of cross country racing emerged in Britain, the English championship became the first national competition in 1876 and the International Cross Country Championships was held for the first time in 1903. Since 1973 the foremost elite competition has been the IAAF World Cross Country Championships, Cross country courses are laid out on an open or woodland area. The IAAF recommends that courses be grass-covered, and have rolling terrain with frequent, courses consist of one or more loops, with a long straight at the start and another leading to the finish line. Because of variations in conditions, international standardization of cross country courses is impossible, part of cross country runnings appeal is the natural and distinct characteristics of each venues terrain and weather. Terrain can vary from open fields to forest hills and even across rivers and it also includes running down and up hills. According to the IAAF, a cross country course has a loop of 1,750 to 2,000 metres laid out on an open or wooded land. It should be covered by grass, as much as possible, while it is perfectly acceptable for local conditions to make dirt or snow the primary surface, courses should minimize running on roads or other macadamized paths. Parks and golf courses often provide suitable locations, a course at least 5 metres full allows competitors to pass others during the race. Clear markings keep competitors from making wrong turns, and spectators from interfering with the competition, markings may include tape or ribbon on both sides of the course, chalk or paint on the ground, or cones. Some classes use colored flags to indicate directions, red flags for left turns, yellow flags for right turns, courses also commonly include distance markings, usually at each kilometer or each mile. The course should have 400 to 1,200 m of level terrain before the first turn, to reduce contact, however, many courses at smaller competitions have their first turn after a much shorter distance. Courses for international competitions consist of a loop between 1750 and 2000 meters, athletes complete three to six loops, depending on the race. Senior men compete on a 12-kilometre course, senior women and junior men compete on an 8-kilometre course. Junior women compete on a 6-kilometre course, in the United States, college men typically compete on 8 km or 10 km courses, while college women race for 5 km or 6 km
3.
Fort des Dunes
–
The Fort des Dunes, also known as Fort Leffrinckoucke and sometime Fort de lEst, is located in the commune of Leffrinckoucke, France, about 6 kilometres east of Dunkirk. Built from 1878 to 1880, it is part of the Séré de Rivières system of fortifications that France built following the defeat of the Franco-Prussian War. Although it played no part in World War I, it had a significant role in both the beginning and end of World War II and it has been preserved and is interpreted by a local preservation association for the public. The Fort des Dunes was built as the westernmost frontier fort in the Séré de Rivières system, the chosen site was both served by and a place of protection for the coastal railway and canal. It occupies a sandy hill 27 metres high, and is protected by as many as 6 metres of sand cover. The rectangular fort is surrounded by a dry moat defended by caponiers that provide a firing position to sweep the length of the ditch with gunfire. The main fort is accessed by a drawbridge over the ditch, the Fort des Dunes was armed with a variety of artillery over its history, initially mounted on the forts surface. The forts barracks and service areas are recessed into the surface and covered with soil, the walls are built of brick and stone masonry. It was initially armed with about 25 artillery pieces, served by 451 men, the Fort des Dunes was a component of a larger system of coastal batteries and outlying positions defending the greater Dunkirk area. These fortifications were modified as artillery technology developed, making fixed open-air gun emplacements untenable, during World War I the forts primary armament was two or three 90mm guns on the ramparts. Several 120mm anti-aircraft guns were positioned in the surrounding the fort. The Fort des Dunes did not see action during the First World War and it was garrisoned largely by reservists. The forts primary function during this time was as a munitions depot, during the Battle of France in 1940, large numbers of French and British troops arrived in the Dunkirk area, separated from their units. The Camp des Dunes was established at the fort to process French soldiers, General Georges Blanchard, whose First French Army had effectively ceased to exist, arrived at the fort on 30 May. The fort became the headquarters of the French 12th Motorized Infantry Division on 1 June, on 2 June the fort was attacked by aircraft. Two bombs exploded in the courtyard of the fort, among the dead was the 12th Motorized Infantrys General Janssen. Another bombing raid on 3 June hit the fort with six bombs, heavily damaging the fort and killing six more officers, the repeated attacks and heavy damage led the 12th Division to leave the fort. Following the last evacuations from the beaches and port of Dunkirk on 4 June, the fort became a component of the German Atlantic Wall fortifications, primarily as an annex to the Zuydcoote battery
4.
Fortification
–
Fortifications are military constructions or buildings designed for the defense of territories in warfare, and also used to solidify rule in a region during peace time. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a variety of increasingly complex designs, the term is derived from the Latin fortis and facere. From very early history to modern times, walls have been a necessity for cities to survive in a changing world of invasion. Some settlements in the Indus Valley Civilization were the first small cities to be fortified, in ancient Greece, large stone walls had been built in Mycenaean Greece, such as the ancient site of Mycenae. A Greek Phrourion was a collection of buildings used as a military garrison. These construction mainly served the purpose of a tower, to guard certain roads, passes. Though smaller than a fortress, they acted as a border guard rather than a real strongpoint to watch. The art of setting out a camp or constructing a fortification traditionally has been called castramentation since the time of the Roman legions. Fortification is usually divided into two branches, permanent fortification and field fortification, there is also an intermediate branch known as semi-permanent fortification. Castles are fortifications which are regarded as being distinct from the fort or fortress in that they are a residence of a monarch or noble. Roman forts and hill forts were the antecedents of castles in Europe. The Early Middle Ages saw the creation of towns built around castles. Medieval-style fortifications were made obsolete by the arrival of cannons in the 14th century. Fortifications in the age of black powder evolved into much lower structures with greater use of ditches and earth ramparts that would absorb, Walls exposed to direct cannon fire were very vulnerable, so were sunk into ditches fronted by earth slopes. The arrival of explosive shells in the 19th century led to yet another stage in the evolution of fortification, steel-and-concrete fortifications were common during the 19th and early 20th centuries. However the advances in warfare since World War I have made large-scale fortifications obsolete in most situations. Demilitarized zones along borders are arguably another type of fortification, although a passive kind, many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified. Larger forts may be called fortresses, smaller ones were known as fortalices
5.
World War I
–
World War I, also known as the First World War, the Great War, or the War to End All Wars, was a global war originating in Europe that lasted from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. More than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history and it was one of the deadliest conflicts in history, and paved the way for major political changes, including revolutions in many of the nations involved. The war drew in all the worlds great powers, assembled in two opposing alliances, the Allies versus the Central Powers of Germany and Austria-Hungary. These alliances were reorganised and expanded as more nations entered the war, Italy, Japan, the trigger for the war was the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by Yugoslav nationalist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo on 28 June 1914. This set off a crisis when Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to the Kingdom of Serbia. Within weeks, the powers were at war and the conflict soon spread around the world. On 25 July Russia began mobilisation and on 28 July, the Austro-Hungarians declared war on Serbia, Germany presented an ultimatum to Russia to demobilise, and when this was refused, declared war on Russia on 1 August. Germany then invaded neutral Belgium and Luxembourg before moving towards France, after the German march on Paris was halted, what became known as the Western Front settled into a battle of attrition, with a trench line that changed little until 1917. On the Eastern Front, the Russian army was successful against the Austro-Hungarians, in November 1914, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, opening fronts in the Caucasus, Mesopotamia and the Sinai. In 1915, Italy joined the Allies and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, Romania joined the Allies in 1916, after a stunning German offensive along the Western Front in the spring of 1918, the Allies rallied and drove back the Germans in a series of successful offensives. By the end of the war or soon after, the German Empire, Russian Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, national borders were redrawn, with several independent nations restored or created, and Germanys colonies were parceled out among the victors. During the Paris Peace Conference of 1919, the Big Four imposed their terms in a series of treaties, the League of Nations was formed with the aim of preventing any repetition of such a conflict. This effort failed, and economic depression, renewed nationalism, weakened successor states, and feelings of humiliation eventually contributed to World War II. From the time of its start until the approach of World War II, at the time, it was also sometimes called the war to end war or the war to end all wars due to its then-unparalleled scale and devastation. In Canada, Macleans magazine in October 1914 wrote, Some wars name themselves, during the interwar period, the war was most often called the World War and the Great War in English-speaking countries. Will become the first world war in the sense of the word. These began in 1815, with the Holy Alliance between Prussia, Russia, and Austria, when Germany was united in 1871, Prussia became part of the new German nation. Soon after, in October 1873, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck negotiated the League of the Three Emperors between the monarchs of Austria-Hungary, Russia and Germany
6.
European Cross Country Championships
–
The European Cross Country Championships is an annual international cross country running competition. Organised by the European Athletic Association, it is the championships for the region and is held in December each year. The championships was inaugurated in 1994 in Alnwick and the venue for the changes each year. There are individual and national team medals awarded in each race, in the team competition, the finishing positions of the top six scorers from a team of up to nine are combined for the men and women, respectively, and the low score wins. For the junior races, the top three from a team of up to four are scored, the first edition of the competition featured only senior races and 180 athletes took part. Mens and womens races were introduced at the third edition in 1996. In its six-race format, the championships had record participation in 2010. Two cities have hosted the competition on multiple occasions, Alnwick held the 1994 and 1995 editions, lebid also holds the record for consecutive appearances, as he has competed at the championships every year since its inception. Nb Country and athlete figures for senior races only European Athletics official website Historical results from GBR Athletics
7.
European Athletic Association
–
The European Athletic Association is the governing body for athletics in Europe. It is one of the six Area Associations of the athletics governing body. European Athletics has 51 members and is headquartered in Lausanne, svein Arne Hansen is its current president. Originally created in 1932 as a European Committee, it was made into an independent body during the Bucharest conference of 1969, the first European Athletics congress took place in Paris on 6–8 October 1970, with Dutchman Adriaan Paulen elected as its first president. From a volunteer-led organization based in the acting Secretarys home country, European Athletics runs and regulates several championships and meetings across Europe - both indoor and outdoor. After the foundation of the International Association of Athletic Federations in 1912, following this meeting, the Council officially designated a European Commission with the task of reviewing the conditions for the organisation of the European Athletics Championships. The first official meeting of what was later to be known as the European Commission was held in Budapest on 7 January 1934, the organization of the first European Athletics Championships was officially awarded to Turin. These first games were men-only and were notable by the absence of the British delegation, the next championships took place in Paris in 1938, but after Stankovits death the same year and the cancellation of all events during WWII, the Commission lay dormant until 1945. Its budget, for example, increased from £100 in 1951 to US$40,000 per year in 1970, the Commission officially became a Committee in July 1952, gradually expanding its independence. The members of the Commission were elected at regular IAAF Congresses until 1966 when, for the first time, the shift also reflects the increased income received from television rights, as earnings took off as a direct result of broadcasting arrangements. The 1969 European championships secured a record US$90,000 from Eurovision for the rights to broadcast the event and its Constitutional Rules were ratified at the IAAF Congress in Stockholm, August 1970, and came into force at the first European Athletics Congress in Paris on 7 November 1970. Ad Paulen, who was president of the European Committee of the IAAF, was elected as the first President and he held this position until his election as President of the IAAF in 1976. The 1970s were also the time for European Athletics to raise the issue of doping and they started establishing more systematic controls, pushing for tests to be extended to non-European athletes as well. The European Championships of 1974 included a range of banned products than previously. As a continent, Europe clearly was the nucleus of the IAAF, as such, the European Association became an experimental platform for international athletics, organising events before they were recognized by the International Olympic Committee. For example, the marathon was included in the 1982 championships. The late 1980s saw major new challenges for sports in general, and European athletics in particular, with the increased professionalization of athletes and the breakdown of the Eastern Bloc. Till Luft, from Germany, became the first full-time General Secretary in 1995 and worked at the first European Athletics office in Frankfurt and, after April 1996, a second office was also opened in London, next to the IAAF
8.
Cross Internacional de Soria
–
The Cross Internacional de Soria, also known as the Campo a Través Internacional de Soria, is an annual cross country running competition that takes place in Soria, Spain. First held in 1994, it takes place in late November. It was previously a European Athletic Association permit meeting, the competition features elite races of 10 km for men and 8 km for women. The mens and womens race had initially been competed over distances of 9 km and 6 km respectively, the course, known as the Monte Valonsadero, was used in the early 1990s as a training ground by Fermín Cacho and Abel Antón, two of the regions foremost athletes. After inspecting the area, Miguel Ángel Pérez and Adolfo Caballero suggested that a cross country meeting should be held there and it is a grassy course set in the Sorian countryside, and it is at a particularly high altitude –1063 metres above sea level. Many World Championship medallists have competed at the course, including Gebregziabher Gebremariam, Zersenay Tadese, Meselech Melkamu, the meeting tends to be dominated by runners from East Africa and Spain
Bruno Levant (FRA)
Nancy Pattee (BEL)
Albertina Dias (POR)
Wilson Omwoyo (KEN)
Zola Budd (RSA)
Fatuma Roba (ETH)
Margarita Marusova (RUS)
John Yuda (TAN)
Mohammed Farah (GBR)
Birhanu Balew (BHR)
