1.
Hangul
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The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul in South Korea and as Chosŏngŭl/Chosŏn Muntcha in North Korea is the alphabet that has been used to write the Korean language since the 15th century. It was created during the Joseon Dynasty in 1443 by King Sejong the Great, in South Korea, Hangul is used primarily to write the Korean language as using Hanja in typical Korean writing had fallen out of common usage during the late 1990s. In its classical and modern forms, the alphabet has 19 consonant and 21 vowel letters, however, instead of being written sequentially like the letters of the Latin alphabet, Hangul letters are grouped into blocks, such as 한 han, each of which transcribes a syllable. That is, although the syllable 한 han may look like a single character, each syllabic block consists of two to six letters, including at least one consonant and one vowel. These blocks are arranged horizontally from left to right or vertically from top to bottom. Each Korean word consists of one or more syllables, hence one or more blocks, of the 11,172 possible Hangul syllables, the most frequent 256 have a cumulative frequency of 88. 2%, with the top 512, it reaches 99. 9%. The modern name Hangul was coined by Ju Sigyeong in 1912, han meant great in archaic Korean, and geul is the native Korean word for script. Taken together, then, the meaning is great script, as the word han had also become one way of indicating Korea as a whole the name could also potentially be interpreted as Korean script. Korean 한글 is pronounced, and in English as /ˈhɑːn. ɡʊl/ or /ˈhɑːŋɡʊl/, when used as an English word, it is often rendered without the diacritics, hangul, and it is often capitalized as Hangul, as it appears in many English dictionaries. Hankul in the Yale romanization, a system recommended for technical linguistic studies, North Koreans call it Chosŏngŭl, after Chosŏn, the North Korean name for Korea. Because of objections to the names Hangeul, Chosŏngŭl, and urigeul by Koreans in China, until the early 20th century, Hangul was denigrated as vulgar by the literate elite, who preferred the traditional hanja writing system. They gave it such names as these, Achimgeul, in the original Hanja, it is rendered as 故智者不終朝而會，愚者可浹旬而學。 Gugmun Eonmun Amgeul. Am is a prefix that signifies a noun is feminine Ahaetgeul or Ahaegeul Hangul was promulgated by Sejong the Great, the Hall of Worthies, a group of scholars who worked with Sejong to develop and refine the new alphabet, is often credited for the work. The project was completed in late December 1443 or January 1444, the publication date of the Hunmin Jeong-eum, October 9, became Hangul Day in South Korea. Its North Korean equivalent, Chosongul Day, is on January 15, various speculations about the creation process were put to rest by the discovery in 1940 of the 1446 Hunmin Jeong-eum Haerye. This document explains the design of the consonant letters according to articulatory phonetics, to assuage this problem, King Sejong created the unique alphabet known as Hangul to promote literacy among the common people. However, it entered popular culture as Sejong had intended, being used especially by women, the late 16th century, however, saw a revival of Hangul, with gasa literature and later sijo flourishing. In the 17th century, Hangul novels became a major genre, by this point spelling had become quite irregular
2.
Hanja
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Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. Borrowed from Chinese and incorporated into the Korean language with Korean pronunciation, hanja-mal or hanja-eo refers to words that can be written with hanja, and hanmun refers to Classical Chinese writing, although hanja is sometimes used loosely to encompass these other concepts. Because hanja never underwent major reform, they are almost entirely identical to traditional Chinese, only a small number of hanja characters are modified or unique to Korean. By contrast, many of the Chinese characters currently in use in Japan and Mainland China have been simplified, and contain fewer strokes than the corresponding hanja characters. Today, a working knowledge of Chinese characters is still important for anyone who wishes to study older texts. Learning a certain number of hanja is very helpful for understanding the etymology of Sino-Korean words, hanja are not used to write native Korean words, which are always rendered in hangul, and even words of Chinese origin—hanja-eo —are written with the hangul alphabet most of the time. A major motivation for the introduction of Chinese characters into Korea was the spread of Buddhism, the major Chinese text that introduced hanja to Koreans, however, was not a religious text but the Chinese text, Cheonjamun. One way of adapting hanja to write Korean in such systems was to represent native Korean grammatical particles, for example, Gugyeol uses the characters 爲尼 to transcribe the Korean word hăni, in modern Korean, that means does, and so. However, in Chinese, the characters are read as the expression wéi ní. This is an example of Gugyeol words where the radical is read in Korean for its meaning. Hanja was the means of writing Korean until King Sejong the Great promoted the invention of hangul in the 15th century. However, even after the invention of hangul, most Korean scholars continued to write in hanmun and it was not until the 20th century that hangul truly replaced hanja. Officially, hanja has not been used in North Korea since June 1949, additionally, many words borrowed from Chinese have been replaced in the North with native Korean words. However, there are a number of Chinese-borrowed words in widespread usage in the North. The replacement has been less total in South Korea where, although usage has declined over time, some remains in common usage in some contexts. Each hanja is composed of one of 214 radicals plus in most cases one or more additional elements, the vast majority of hanja use the additional elements to indicate the sound of the character, but a few hanja are purely pictographic, and some were formed in other ways. This dual meaning-sound reading of a character is called eumhun, the word or words used to denote the meaning are often—though hardly always—words of native Korean origin, and are sometimes archaic words no longer commonly used. South Korean primary schools abandoned the teaching of hanja in 1971 and it is taught in separate courses in South Korean high schools, separately from the normal Korean-language curriculum
3.
Baekje
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Baekje was a kingdom located in southwest Korea. It was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, together with Goguryeo, Baekje was founded by Onjo, the third son of Goguryeos founder Jumong and So Seo-no, at Wiryeseong. Baekje, like Goguryeo, claimed to succeed Buyeo, an established in present-day Manchuria around the time of Gojoseons fall. Baekje alternately battled and allied with Goguryeo and Silla as the three kingdoms expanded control over the peninsula and it became a significant regional sea power, with political and trade relations with China and Japan. In 660 it was defeated, by an alliance of Silla and the Chinese Tang Dynasty, Baekje was founded in 18 BC by King Onjo, who led a group of people from Goguryeo south to the Han River basin. According to the Chinese Records of the Three Kingdoms, during the Samhan period, the Samguk Sagi provides a detailed account of Baekjes founding. Jumong had left his son Yuri in Buyeo when he left that kingdom to establish the new kingdom of Goguryeo, Jumong became Divine King Dongmyeong, and had two more sons with So Seo-no, Onjo and Biryu. When Yuri later arrived in Goguryeo, Jumong promptly made him the crown prince, realizing Yuri would become the next king, So Seo-no left Goguryeo, taking her two sons Biryu and Onjo south to found their own kingdoms with their people, along with ten vassals. She is remembered as a key figure in the founding of both Goguryeo and Baekje, Onjo settled in Wiryeseong, and called his country Sipje, while Biryu settled in Michuhol, against the vassals advice. The salty water and marshes in Michuhol made settlement difficult, while the people of Wiryeseong lived prosperously, Biryu then went to his brother Onjo, asking for the throne of Sipje. When Onjo refused, Biryu declared war, but lost, in shame, Biryu committed suicide, and his people moved to Wiryeseong, where King Onjo welcomed them and renamed his country Baekje. King Onjo moved the capital from the south to the north of the Han river, King Gaeru is believed to have moved the capital north of the river to Bukhansanseong in 132, probably in present-day Goyang to the northwest of Seoul. Through the early centuries of the Common Era, sometimes called the Proto–Three Kingdoms Period, during the reign of King Goi, Baekje became a full-fledged kingdom, as it continued consolidating the Mahan confederacy. In 249, according to the ancient Japanese text Nihonshoki, Baekjes expansion reached the Gaya confederacy to its east, Baekje is first described in Chinese records as a kingdom in 345. The first diplomatic missions from Baekje reached Japan around 367, King Geunchogo expanded Baekjes territory to the north through war against Goguryeo, while annexing the remaining Mahan societies in the south. During Geunchogos reign, the territories of Baekje included most of the western Korean Peninsula, Baekje continued substantial trade with Goguryeo, and actively adopted Chinese culture and technology. Buddhism became the state religion in 384. Baekje also became a sea power and continued mutual goodwill relationships with the Japanese rulers of the Kofun period, transmitting continental cultural influences to Japan
4.
Crowns of Silla
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The crowns of Silla were made in the Korean kingdom of Silla approximately in the 5th-7th centuries of the Common Era. These crowns were excavated in Gyeongju, the capital of Silla. The Silla crowns are very fragile and weigh more than one kilogram, the Silla kings probably did not wear the golden crowns regularly. They were probably used only for formal and ceremonial occasions, the Silla crowns are some of the most spectacular treasures uncovered in the tumuli of Gyeongju, South Korea, the capital of Silla and Unified Silla. Silla tumuli, unlike their Baekje and Goguryeo counterparts were made inaccessible because the tombs did not include passageways, instead, deep pits were dug and lined with wood and this is where the treasures and coffin were placed. These burial pit were covered in dirt and sealed with clay, the heavy boulders also served to push the tombs deeper into the ground, thus making them even more inaccessible. The Silla burial mechanism made it so that grave robbers and foreign invaders could never steal their precious contents, the best of the crowns are made of pure gold and were probably reserved for kings. However, other crowns have been discovered made from gilt-bronze or gold-plated bronze, some of the finest crowns have been excavated from the 5th century Gold Crown Tomb, and the 6th century Gold Bell Tomb and Heavenly Horse Tomb. The adoption of Buddhism by the Silla kings in 528 A. D. led to the decline of the practice of burying gold artifacts in tombs. The styling of the part of the crowns suggests a Korean connection with the Scytho-Siberians. The crowns are a uniquely Korean product and show no Chinese influence, the Silla crown is also notably distinct from the crown of Baekje, the crown of Gaya, and the crown of Goguryeo kingdoms. The tree motif of the crown is believed to represent the idea of the world tree which was an important tenet of Siberian shamanism. However, some believe that the trident-like protrusions symbolize mountains or even birds, additionally, the antler-like prongs also indicate a strong connection to Korean Shamanism or the importance of the reindeer. A crown in Afghanistan bears a resemblance to the other Korean crowns which is also evidence of a Scytho-Siberian connection. Additionally, the sophisticated metalworking of the show that Silla gold smiths held an advanced knowledge of working with gold. The delicate nature of the gold crowns comes from the fact they were made from cutting thin sheet gold, the crown is impractical to wear and some believe that the crown may have been made specifically as a burial good. The use of gogok, or comma-shaped curved jewels also point to a Siberian influence, there may also be a connection with ancient Japan because the gogok were used extensively by the ruling elite of that society as well. These comma-shaped jewels of jade and glass may have symbolized the fruits, the crowns come in two major parts
5.
Korean shamanism
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Korean shamanism, also known as Muism or Sinism Singyo religion of the shin, is the ethnic religion of Korea and the Koreans. Although used synonymously, the two terms are not identical, Jung Young Lee describes Muism as a form of Sinism - the shamanic tradition within the religion, other names for the religion are Shindo, Shindoism, Gosindo, and Pungwoldo. It has approximately 5-15 million followers, in contemporary Korean language, the shaman-priest or mu is known as a mudang if female or baksu if male, although other names are used. Korean mu shaman is synonymous with Chinese wu, which defines priests both male and female. The role of the mudang is to act as intermediary between the spirits or gods, and the plain, through gut, seeking to resolve problems in the patterns of development of human life. Central to the faith is the belief in Haneullim or Hwanin, meaning source of all being, and of all gods of nature, the utmost god or the supreme mind. The mu are mythically described as descendants of the Heavenly King, son of the Holy Mother, however, other myths link the heritage of the traditional faith to Dangun, male son of the Heavenly King and initiator of the Korean nation. Korean Muism has similarities with Chinese Wuism, Japanese Shinto, Ainu religion, in some provinces of Korea the shaman is still called dangul dangul-ari. The mudang is similar to the Japanese miko and the Ryukyuan yuta, Muism has exerted an influence on some Korean new religions, such as Cheondoism and Jeung San Do. According to various studies, many Christian churches in Korea make use of practices rooted in shamanism. The Korean word mu is thought to come from the root as the Chinese wu. The Korean language and culture, however, has developed its own terminology, already in Yi dynasty records, also mudang apparently derives from Chinese, and originally meant the altar of mu and not the person itself. The Korean word Mu means Heaven of Mago land, the priest for Mu is Muin of Shaman. Man in Shaman is the meaning of the muin of Suri, mudang is used mostly for female shamans, though not exclusively. Male Korean mu are called by a variety of names, such as sana mudang in the Seoul area, or baksu mudang, baksu may come from a Korean adaptation of siberian names for male shamans, such as baksi, balsi or bahsih. The mu is known as magician, medicine man, mystic, what set him apart from other healers and priests is his ability to move at will into trance states. During a trance, the soul leaves his body and travelled to other realms. The mu provides healing on many levels, physical, psychological and spiritual, the work of the mu is based on the holistic model, which takes into consideration, not only the whole person, but the individuals interaction with his environment, both his inner and outer world
6.
Diadem
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A diadem is a type of crown, specifically an ornamental headband worn by monarchs and others as a badge of royalty. The word derives from the Greek διάδημα diádēma, band or fillet, from διαδέω diadéō, I bind round, such ribbons were also used to crown victorious athletes in important sports games in antiquity. It was later applied to a crown, generally in a circular or fillet shape. For example, the worn by Juliana was a diadem. The ancient Celts were believed to have used a thin, semioval gold plate called a mind as a diadem. Some of the earliest examples of types of crowns can be found in ancient Egypt, from the simple fabric type to the more elaborate metallic type. A diadem is also a jewelled ornament in the shape of a crown, worn by women. In some societies, it may be a wreath worn around the head, the ancient Persians wore a high and erect royal tiara encircled with a diadem. Hera, queen of the Greek gods, wore a crown called the diadem. By extension, diadem can be used generally for an emblem of power or dignity. The head regalia worn by Roman Emperors, from the time of Diocletian onwards, is described as a diadem in the original sources and it was this object that the Foederatus general Odoacer returned to Emperor Zeno after his expulsion of the usurper Romulus Augustus from Rome in 476 CE. Civic crown Tainia Fillet Tiara Diadem
7.
National Treasure (South Korea)
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A National Treasure is a tangible treasure, artifact, site, or building which is recognized by the South Korean government as having exceptional artistic, cultural and historical value to the country. Many of the treasures are popular tourist destinations such as Jongmyo royal ancestral shrine, Bulguksa, Seokguram. As of January 2017, there are 320 distinct entries on the list, the treasures are numbered according to the order in which they were designated not according to their individual value. The National Treasures are designated within the heritage preservation system of the country, the first list of Korean cultural treasures was designated by Governor-General of Korea in 1938 during the Japanese occupation with The Act of Treasures of the Joseon dynasty. In 1955, the South Korean government declared as National Treasures the items previously on the Korean Treasures Preservation Order issued during Japans occupation of Korea, the current list dates to December 20,1962, when the Cultural Protection Act was enacted by the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction. There were 116 items on the National Treasures list at that time, numerous amendments have been made to the list since that time, most recently in 2004. Living National Treasure are holders, or keepers of Intangible Cultural Property, Namdaemun, also known as Sungnyemun, Jung District, Seoul. Severely damaged in the 2008 Namdaemun fire on February 10,2008, found in Pubuchong Tomb, Pomun-dong, Gyeongju, North Gyeongsang Province. A stoneware vessel in the shape of a warrior on horseback, from the Old Silla period, seated iron vairocana Buddha statue of Borimsa temple, Jangheung County 118. Gilt-bronze pensive maitreya bodhisattva, Samsung Museum of Art, Seoul 119, standing gilt-bronze Buddha with inscription of the seventh year of Yeonga era, National Museum of Korea, Seoul 120. Bell of Yongjusa, Yongjusa temple, Hwaseong 121, hahoetal and Byeongsantal masks, Andong 122. Three storied stone pagoda of Jinjeonsa temple site, Yangyang County 123, relics found from the five storied stone pagoda in Wanggung-ri, Iksan, Jeonju National Museum, Jeonju 124. Seated marble bodhisattva statue of Hansongsa temple, National Museum of Korea, green-glazed funeral urn with stone case, National Museum of Korea, Seoul 126. Relics found inside three storied Seokgatap pagoda of Bulguksa temple, Gyeongju 127, standing gilt-bronze avalokitesvara bodhisattva statue of Samyang-dong, National Museum of Korea, Seoul 128. Standing gilt-bronze avalokitesvara bodhisattva statue, Hoam Art Museum, Yongin 129, standing gilt-bronze bodhisattva statue, Leeum Art Museum, Yongin 130. Five storied stone pagoda of Jukjang-dong, Seonsan, Gumi 131, family register of King Taejo, founder of the Joseon Kingdom, National Museum of Korea, Seoul 132. Jingbirok, the war memoirs by Yu Seongryong, Andong 133, porcelain kettle in the shape of a lotus blossom, Hoam Art Museum, Yongin 134. Gilt bodhisattva triad, Hoam Art Museum, Yongin 135, hyewon pungsokdo, thirty-leaf album of genre paintings by Sin Yunbok, Gansong Art Museum, Seoul 136
8.
Gongju National Museum
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Gongju National Museum is a national museum in Gongju, South Korea. The Gongju National Museum holds 10,000 artifacts including 19 national treasures and 3 treasures excavated in Daejeon and Chungcheongnam-do areas, list of museums in South Korea National museum 국립공주박물관
9.
Muryeong of Baekje
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Muryeong of Baekje was the 25th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. During his reign, Baekje remained allied with Silla against Goguryeo, the Tomb of King Muryeong calls him King Sama, and records his birth year as 462. The Samguk Sagi calls him King Muryeong, with the name of Sama. He is described as the son of the 24th king Dongseong. He became king when Dongseong was assassinated by the court official Baekga, the following year, he crushed a planned rebellion by Baekga. Chinas Liang shu gives his surname as Yeo and personal name as Yung, japans Nihonshoki gives his birth year as 461, and describes him as the son of the 21st king Gaero. It is said Gonji, the brother of King Gaero went to Japan to serve Emperor Yūryaku with King Muryeongs mother and he was called Semakishi and King Shima in Japanese records because he was born in an island. Some scholars claim Muryeong ruled the Yamato region under the name of King Bu before he moved to Baekje to be a king of kings, in 501, he sent an army to attack Goguryeos Sugok-seong. In 503, he repelled an attack by the Mohe, in 507, he successfully countered another attack by Goguryeo and Mohe forces. In 512, Goguryeo conquered two castles, but Muryeong personally led 3,000 men to destroy the Goguryeo army, in 523, he ordered the building of a fortified wall to defend the northern border. According to both historical and archeological sources, contact and trade between China and Baekje increased during Muryeongs reign, in 512, according to the Liang shu, Muryeong sent Baekjes first mission to the newly established court of the Chinese Liang Dynasty. A second mission was sent in 521, announcing various victories over Goguryeo, in reply, the Liang emperor bestowed various titles on him, including Great General Tranquilizing the East and King of Baekje. These titles were found engraved on a tablet in King Muryeongs tomb. In 503, he sent a bronze mirror, and in 513 and 516, in 1971, King Muryeongs tomb was excavated in Songsan-ri, Gongju, South Korea, where he was buried with his queen. It was the first time that a Japanese emperor publicly acknowledged Korean blood in the imperial line, according to the Shoku Nihongi, Emperor Kanmus mother, Takano no Niigasa is a descendant of Prince Junda, son of Muryeong, who died in Japan in 513. The Kings Daughter, Soo Baek-hyang 2013 History of Korea List of Korea-related topics Tomb of King Muryeong Kim, “The Tomb of King Muryong of the Paekche Dynasty. ”Asian Pacific Quarterly of Cultural and Social Affairs 3,3, 34-46. Excavation of the Tomb of Paekche King Muryong, article on King Muryongs Ascension to the Throne Yamato and Takano clans, the descendant of prince Junda, son of Muryeong
10.
Gongju
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Gongju, also spelt Kongju, is a city in South Chungcheong province, South Korea. Gongju was formerly named Ungjin and was the capital of Baekje from AD475 to 538, in this period, Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo. Goguryeo had overrun the previous capital of Hanseong, which forced Baekje to find a new center of strength, in 538, King Seong moved the capital to Sabi. However, Gongju remained an important center until the fall in 660. On August 11,2004, the South Korean Prime Minister Lee Hae-chan announced that the capital will be moved from Seoul to Gongju. A72.91 square kilometres site was chosen for the project, the projected cost of the project ranged from $45bn to as much as $94bn. The plan has aroused controversy, with opposition parties calling for a referendum to see whether it is endorsed by the population, opinion polls showed that a slight majority of South Koreans are opposed to the move, both before and after the ruling. The question remains unresolved to date, famous people associated with Gongju include member of popular boy band JYJ, YoungWoong JaeJoong, professional baseball player Chan-ho Park, and 2009 new singer Taegoon who were born there
11.
South Korea
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South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea, is a sovereign state in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The earliest Korean pottery dates to 8000 BC, with three kingdoms flourishing in the 1st century BC and its rich and vibrant culture left 19 UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritages of Humanity, the third largest in the world, along with 12 World Heritage Sites. Annexed into Imperial Japan in 1910, Korea was divided after its surrender in 1945, peace has since mostly continued with the two agreeing to work peacefully for reunification and the South solidifying peace as a regional power with the worlds 10th largest defence budget. South Koreas tiger economy soared at an average of 10% for over 30 years in a period of rapid transformation called the Miracle on the Han River. A long legacy of openness and focus on innovation made it successful, today, it is the worlds fifth largest exporter with the G20s largest budget surplus and highest credit rating of any country in East Asia. It has free trade agreements with 75% of the economy and is the only G20 nation trading freely with China, the US. Since 1988, its constitution guarantees a liberal democracy with high government transparency, high personal freedoms led to the rise of a globally influential pop culture such as K-pop and K-drama, a phenomenon called the Korean Wave, known for its distinctive fashionable and trendy style. Home of the UN Green Climate Fund and GGGI, South Korea is a leader in low carbon growth, committed to helping developing countries as a major DAC. It is the third least ignorant country in the Index of Ignorance, ranking eighth highest for peaceful tolerance. It is the worlds largest spender on R&D per GDP, leading the OECD in graduates in science, the name Korea derives from the name Goryeo. The name Goryeo itself was first used by the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo in the 5th century as a form of its name. The 10th-century kingdom of Goryeo succeeded Goguryeo, and thus inherited its name, the modern spelling of Korea first appeared in the late 17th century in the travel writings of the Dutch East India Companys Hendrick Hamel. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became the name for the entire territory. The new official name has its origin in the ancient country of Gojoseon, in 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the official name of the country from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk. The name Daehan, which means great Han literally, derives from Samhan, however, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule, the two names Han and Joseon coexisted, there were several groups who fought for independence, the most notable being the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. Following the surrender of Japan, in 1945, the Republic of Korea was adopted as the name for the new country. Since the government only controlled the part of the Korean Peninsula
12.
Silk
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Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm Bombyx mori reared in captivity, Silk is produced by several insects, but generally only the silk of moth caterpillars has been used for textile manufacturing. There has been research into other types of silk, which differ at the molecular level. Silk is mainly produced by the larvae of insects undergoing complete metamorphosis, Silk production also occurs in Hymenoptera, silverfish, mayflies, thrips, leafhoppers, beetles, lacewings, fleas, flies, and midges. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably various arachnids such as spiders, the word silk comes from Old English sioloc, from Greek σηρικός serikos, silken, ultimately from an Asian source. Several kinds of silk, which are produced by caterpillars other than the mulberry silkworm, have been known and used in China, South Asia. However, the scale of production was far smaller than for cultivated silks. Thus, the way to obtain silk suitable for spinning into textiles in areas where commercial silks are not cultivated was by tedious. Commercial silks originate from reared silkworm pupae, which are bred to produce a silk thread with no mineral on the surface. The pupae are killed by either dipping them in boiling water before the adult moths emerge or by piercing them with a needle. These factors all contribute to the ability of the cocoon to be unravelled as one continuous thread. Wild silks also tend to be difficult to dye than silk from the cultivated silkworm. Genetic modification of domesticated silkworms is used to facilitate the production of more types of silk. Silk fabric was first developed in ancient China, the earliest example of silk fabric is from 3630 BC, and it was used as wrapping for the body of a child from a Yangshao culture site in Qingtaicun at Xingyang, Henan. Legend gives credit for developing silk to a Chinese empress, Leizu, because of its texture and lustre, silk rapidly became a popular luxury fabric in the many areas accessible to Chinese merchants. Silk was in demand, and became a staple of pre-industrial international trade. In July 2007, archaeologists discovered intricately woven and dyed silk textiles in a tomb in Jiangxi province, Silk is described in a chapter on mulberry planting by Si Shengzhi of the Western Han
13.
Shamanism
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The word shaman probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia. The term was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552, Mircea Eliade writes, A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be, shamanism = technique of religious ecstasy. Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between the world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments/illness by mending the soul, alleviating traumas affecting the soul/spirit restores the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. The shaman also enters supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community, Shamans may visit other worlds/dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of the human soul caused by foreign elements. The shaman operates primarily within the world, which in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance results in the elimination of the ailment, hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The word shaman probably originates from the Evenki word šamán, most likely from the dialect spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples. The Tungusic term was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia. It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum, adam Brand, a merchant from Lübeck, published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China, a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. The etymology of the Evenki word is sometimes connected to a Tungus root ša- to know, other scholars assert that the word comes directly from the Manchu language, and as such would be the only commonly used English word that is a loan from this language. This proposal has been thoroughly critiqued since 1917, ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen regards it as an anachronism and an impossibility that is nothing more than a far-fetched etymology. Ethnolinguists did not develop as a discipline nor achieve contact with these communities until the late 19th century, there is no single agreed-upon definition for the word shamanism among anthropologists. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, the first of these uses the term to refer to anybody who contacts a spirit world while in an altered state of consciousness. The second definition limits the term to refer to those who contact a spirit world while in a state of consciousness at the behest of others. Problematically, scholars advocating the third view have failed to agree on what the defining technique should be, the fourth definition identified by Hutton uses shamanism to refer to the indigenous religions of Siberia and neighboring parts of Asia. According to the Golomt Center for Shamanic Studies, a Mongolian organisation of shamans, Shamans are normally called by dreams or signs which require lengthy training. However, shamanic powers may be inherited, turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called shamanistic initiatory crisis, a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness and/or psychological crisis
14.
Three Kingdoms of Korea
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The concept of the Three Kingdoms of Korea refers to the three kingdoms of Baekje, Silla and Goguryeo, which was later known as Goryeo, from which the name Korea is derived. The Three Kingdoms period was defined as being from 57 BC to 668 AD, the three kingdoms occupied parts of Manchuria, in present-day China and Russia, and the Korean Peninsula. Baekje and Silla only dominated the southern part of the peninsula whereas Goguryeo controlled the Liaodong Peninsula, Manchuria and the northern half of the Korean Peninsula. In the 7th century, allied with China under the Tang dynasty, Silla unified the Korean Peninsula for the first time in Korean history, after the fall of Baekje and Goguryeo, the Tang dynasty established a short-lived military government to administer parts of the Korean peninsula. However, as a result of the Silla–Tang Wars, Silla forces expelled the Protectorate armies from the peninsula in 676, subsequently, Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general, founded Balhae in the former territory of Goguryeo after defeating the Tang dynasty at the Battle of Tianmenling. The predecessor period, before the development of the kingdoms, is sometimes called Proto–Three Kingdoms period. Main primary sources for this period include Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa in Korea, the name Three Kingdoms was used in the titles of the Korean histories Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa, and should not be confused with the Chinese Three Kingdoms. The Three Kingdoms was founded after the fall of Gojoseon, after the fall of Gojoseon, the Han dynasty established four commanderies in present Liaoning. Three fell quickly to the Samhan, and the last was destroyed by Goguryeo in 313, the three polities made the transition from walled-town state to full-fledged state-level societies between 1st – 3rd century AD. All three kingdoms shared a culture and language. Their original religions appear to have been shamanistic, but they were influenced by Chinese culture. In the 4th century, Buddhism was introduced to the peninsula, Goguryeo emerged on the north and south banks of the Yalu River, in the wake of Gojoseons fall. Evidence indicates Goguryeo was the most advanced, and likely the first established, Goguryeo, eventually the largest of the three kingdoms, had several capitals in alternation, two capitals in the upper Yalu area, and later Nangrang which is now part of Pyongyang. At the beginning, the state was located on the border with China, it expanded into Manchuria. The cultural influence of the Chinese continued as Buddhism was adopted as the religion in 372. Goguryeo was a highly militaristic state, it was a powerful empire, the state was at its zenith in the fifth century, during the rule of King Gwanggaeto the Great and his son King Jangsu, and particularly during their campaign against China in Manchuria. For the next century or so, Goguryeo was the dominant nation in Chinese Manchuria, Goguryeo eventually occupied the Liaodong Plains in Manchuria and todays Seoul area. Gwanggaeto achieved a loose unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, Goguryeo controlled not only Koreans but also Chinese and Tungusic tribes in Manchuria and North Korea
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National Museum of Korea
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The National Museum of Korea is the flagship museum of Korean history and art in South Korea and is the cultural organization that represents Korea. A poll of nearly 2,000 foreign visitors, conducted by the Seoul Metropolitan Government in November 2011 and it is one of the largest museums in Asia. Emperor Sunjong established Koreas first museum, the Imperial Household Museum, during the Korean War, the 20,000 of the museums pieces were safely moved to Busan to avoid destruction. When the museum returned to Seoul after the war, it was housed at both Gyeongbokgung and Deoksugung Palace, in 1972, the museum moved again to a new building on the grounds of the Gyeonbokgung Palace. The museum was moved again in 1986 to the Jungangcheong, the former Japanese General Government Building, in October 2005, the museum opened in a new building in Yongsan Family Park in Seoul, South Korea. The museum is situated on used to be a golf course that was part of the Yongsan Garrison. The US Army returned a part of the land in 1992 to the Korean government, while the plans for the museum inside the park began in 1993, its opening was delayed repeatedly by a helipad, which was eventually relocated in 2005 by agreement. The museum contains over 310,000 pieces in its collection with about 15,000 pieces on display at one time and it is the sixth largest museum in the world in terms of floor space, now covering a total of 295,551 square metres. In order to protect the artifacts inside the museum, the building was built to withstand a magnitude 6.0 Richter Scale earthquake. The display cases are equipped with shock-absorbent platforms, there is also an imported natural lighting system which utilizes sunlight instead of artificial lights and a specially designed air-conditioning system. The museum is made from fire-resistant materials. The museum also has special exhibition halls, education facilities, a museum, huge outdoor exhibition areas, restaurants, cafes. The museum is divided into three floors, symbolically, the left of the museum is supposed to represent the past, while the right side of the museum represents the future. The ground floor contains parks, gardens of plants, waterfalls and pools, and a collection of pagodas, stupas, lanterns. On the first floor is the Prehistory and Ancient History Gallery, artifacts from important prehistoric sites and settlements such the Bangudae Petroglyphs and Songgung-ni are found in the Neolithic and Bronze Age Rooms. Also on the first floor is the Medieval and Early Modern History Gallery, which showcases the cultural and historical heritage throughout the Unified Silla, Balhae, Goryeo, and Joseon periods. The eight rooms of the include the Unified Silla Room, Balhae Room, Goryeo Room. The second floor contains the Donation Gallery and the Calligraphy and Painting Gallery, the Calligraphy and Painting Gallery is divided into four rooms, the Painting Room, the Calligraphy Room, the Buddhist Paintings Room, and the Sarangbang
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Naju
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Naju is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895, the name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju and the first character of Naju. Dongshin University is situated in Naju, Naju is famous for the Naju Pear which is a large round pear that forms its district logo. In the Later Three Kingdoms period of Korean history, Wang Geon occupied the Naju area, which was then part of Later Baekje Kingdom and came to become large base of his political support. He also married the daughter of the Magistrate of Naju, Oh Janghwa, who became the mother of Goryeos second King Hyejong of Goryeo In 1986, in 1995, Naju city was expanded to include Naju county. A well-known local product is the Naju Pear, which has long been cultivated along the Yeongsan River, Naju Pears and muskmelons are popular as gifts for Lunar New Year and other holidays. Naju was designated an Innovative City and the ceremony for city construction was held on November 8,2007. President Roh participated in the opening events, as the city won the title of Innovative City, several public offices are in the process of moving from Seoul, to the Naju area. Najus construction was 4th begun after Jeju, Gimcheon and Jinju, ltd. Korea Coast Guard Academy, The Korea Teachers Pension, Korea Agro-Fisheries Trade Corporation The area of the new city is expected to be 7.26 square kilometres. The masterplan of Naju city proposed to develop eco-friendly nature and city administration, also in Naju is The Naju Pear Museum and Pear Orchard for Tourists, which is dedicated to the Asian pear, all of its displays are in Korean. An amusement park called Samhanji Theme Park was used for the set because of its traditional sceneries. It hosts events including childrens dying wishes, lots of elementary schools are registering for this program. List of cities in South Korea City government webpage Najus Eucharistic miracle in the Vatican
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Japan
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Japan is a sovereign island nation in Eastern Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies off the eastern coast of the Asia Mainland and stretches from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea, the kanji that make up Japans name mean sun origin. 日 can be read as ni and means sun while 本 can be read as hon, or pon, Japan is often referred to by the famous epithet Land of the Rising Sun in reference to its Japanese name. Japan is an archipelago consisting of about 6,852 islands. The four largest are Honshu, Hokkaido, Kyushu and Shikoku, the country is divided into 47 prefectures in eight regions. Hokkaido being the northernmost prefecture and Okinawa being the southernmost one, the population of 127 million is the worlds tenth largest. Japanese people make up 98. 5% of Japans total population, approximately 9.1 million people live in the city of Tokyo, the capital of Japan. Archaeological research indicates that Japan was inhabited as early as the Upper Paleolithic period, the first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other regions, mainly China, followed by periods of isolation, from the 12th century until 1868, Japan was ruled by successive feudal military shoguns who ruled in the name of the Emperor. Japan entered into a period of isolation in the early 17th century. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan is a member of the UN, the OECD, the G7, the G8, the country has the worlds third-largest economy by nominal GDP and the worlds fourth-largest economy by purchasing power parity. It is also the worlds fourth-largest exporter and fourth-largest importer, although Japan has officially renounced its right to declare war, it maintains a modern military with the worlds eighth-largest military budget, used for self-defense and peacekeeping roles. Japan is a country with a very high standard of living. Its population enjoys the highest life expectancy and the third lowest infant mortality rate in the world, in ancient China, Japan was called Wo 倭. It was mentioned in the third century Chinese historical text Records of the Three Kingdoms in the section for the Wei kingdom, Wa became disliked because it has the connotation of the character 矮, meaning dwarf. The 倭 kanji has been replaced with the homophone Wa, meaning harmony, the Japanese word for Japan is 日本, which is pronounced Nippon or Nihon and literally means the origin of the sun. The earliest record of the name Nihon appears in the Chinese historical records of the Tang dynasty, at the start of the seventh century, a delegation from Japan introduced their country as Nihon
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History of Korea
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The Lower Paleolithic era in the Korean Peninsula began roughly half a million years ago. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period began after 6000 BC, followed by the Bronze Age by 800 BC, and the Iron Age around 400 BC. According to the mythic account recounted in the Samguk Yusa, the Gojoseon kingdom was founded in northern Korea, the Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in 12th century BC, and its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era. The written historical record on Gojoseon can be found from early 7th century BC, the Jin state was formed in southern Korea by the 3rd century BC. In the 2nd century BC, Gija Joseon was replaced by Wiman Joseon which fell to the Han China near the end of the century and this resulted in the fall of Gojoseon and led to succeeding warring states, the Proto–Three Kingdoms period that spanned the later Iron Age. From the 1st century, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla grew to control the peninsula, in 698, Dae Jo-yeong established Balhae in old territories of Goguryeo, which led to the North South States Period. In the late 9th century, Silla was divided into the Later Three Kingdoms, during the Goryeo period, laws were codified, a civil service system was introduced, and culture influenced by Buddhism flourished. However, Mongol invasions in the 13th century brought Goryeo under its influence until the mid-14th century, in 1392, General Yi Seong-gye established the Joseon dynasty after a coup that overthrew the Goryeo dynasty in 1388. After enjoying a period of peace for two centuries, the Joseon dynasty faced foreign invasions and internal fractional strifes, beginning in 1592 until 1637. Henceforth, Joseon gradually became more and more isolationist and stagnant, by the mid 19th century, with the country unwilling to modernize, and encroachment of European powers, Joseon Korea was forced to sign unequal treaties with foreign powers. However, in 1905, the Korean Empire was forced to sign a treaty and in 1910 Japan annexed the Korean Empire. Korean resistance was manifested in the widespread nonviolent March 1st Movement of 1919, thereafter the resistance movements, coordinated by the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea in exile, were largely active in neighboring Manchuria, China and Siberia. Figures from these organizations would become important in post WWII Korea. After the end of WW2 in 1945, the country was divided into an area, protected by the Soviets. In 1948, when the failed to agree on the formation of a single government. The new premier of North Korea, Kim il-Sung launched the Korean War in 1950 in an attempt to reunify the country under Communist rule. After immense material and human destruction, the conflict ended with a cease-fire in 1953, both states were accepted into the United Nations in 1991. While both countries were essentially military rule after the war, South Korea eventually liberalized
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Korean art
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Korean arts include traditions in calligraphy, music, painting and pottery, often marked by the use of natural forms, surface decoration and bold colors or sounds. The earliest examples of Korean art consist of stone age works dating from 3000 BC and these mainly consist of votive sculptures and more recently, petroglyphs, which were rediscovered. This early period was followed by the art styles of various Korean kingdoms, Korean artists sometimes modified Chinese traditions with a native preference for simple elegance, spontaneity, and an appreciation for purity of nature. The Goryeo Dynasty was one of the most prolific periods for a range of disciplines. The Korean art market is concentrated in the Insadong district of Seoul where over 50 small galleries exhibit, galleries are cooperatively run, small and often with curated and finely designed exhibits. In every town there are smaller regional galleries, with artists showing in traditional. Art galleries usually have a mix of media, attempts at bringing Western conceptual art into the foreground have usually had their best success outside of Korea in New York, San Francisco, London and Paris. An art given birth to and developed by a nation is its own art, humans have occupied the Korean Peninsula from at least c.50,000 BC. Pottery dated to approximately 7,000 BC has been found and this pottery was made from clay and fired over open or semi-open pits at temperatures around 700 degrees Celsius. The earliest pottery style, dated to circa 7,000 BC, were flat-bottomed wares were decorated with designs, raised horizontal lines. Jeulmun-type pottery, is typically cone-bottomed and incised with a comb-pattern appearing circa 6,000 BC in the archaeological record and this type of pottery is similar to Siberian styles. Mumun-type pottery emerged approximately 2000 BC and is characterized as large, undecorated pottery, mostly used for cooking, between 2000 BC and 300 BC bronze items began to be imported and made in Korea. By the seventh century BC, an indigenous culture was established in Korea as evidenced by Korean bronze having a unique percentage of zinc. Items manufactured during this time were weapons such as swords, daggers, also, ritual items such as mirrors, bells, and rattles were made. These items were buried in dolmens with the cultural elite, additionally, iron-rich red pots began to be created around circa 6th century. Comma-shaped beads, usually made from nephrite, known as kokkok have also found in dolmen burials. Kokkok may be carved to imitate bear claws, another Siberian influence can be seen in rock drawings of animals that display a life line in the X-ray style of Siberian art. The Iron Age began in Korea around 300 BC, Korean iron was highly valued in the Chinese commanderies and in Japan
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Crown of Gaya
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The crowns of Gaya refers to two excavated pieces that are believed to be the headgear of the elite of the Gaya Confederacy. However, the Gaya crowns are obviously distinctive from the traditions of the Silla and Baekje, the Geumgwan mit busok geumgu refers to a collection of artifacts including a gold crown and its accompanying accessories, finger rings, and earrings. The crown is housed at the Hoam Art Museum. This artifact, along with its accessories, was designated as a national treasure of Korea on December 21,1971. The crown is believed to be from the fifth or sixth century CE and the crown measures 11.5 centimeters in height,3.6 centimeters in width, the crown has three distinctive parts. The headband is made of gold and it is decorated with tiny gold mirrors which are attached to the band. The band itself is incised with dotted decorations running on the top, attached to the band are jade gogok. However, whether these beads were supposed to be on the headband is still debated because they were not found on the crown when it was excavated. The appendages of the crown are placed equidistant from each other on the circular headband and these appendages look similar to fleur de lis symbol but are more often described as grass-shaped or floral-shaped. Each appendage is identical and has three sets of prongs flowing downward at a angle and is topped with a jewel-shaped finial. These appendages resemble a crown of Baekje which also had flowing floral-like patterns instead of the crowns of Silla. Finally, the crown came with four floral-shaped ornaments which were used as diadems. Jade gogok were attached to the gold ornaments as well as tiny gold disks and it is believed that these ornaments follow Silla styles and are also incised with dots in a diamond motif like the headband of the crown. National treasures of Korea Gaya Confederacy Crown of Silla Crown of Baekje Cultural Heritage, National Treasure No.138 Hoam Art Museum, Leeum Gallery
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Tomb of King Muryeong
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The Tomb of King Muryeong, also known as Songsan-ri Tomb No. 7, is the ancient tumulus of King Muryeong, who ruled the Baekje Kingdom from 501 to 523, the rarity of intact Baekje tombs makes this one of the major archaeological discoveries in Korea and a crucial source for the understanding of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms. The tomb is located in present-day Gongju in Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea and it is Korean Historic Site No.13. King Muryeongs Tomb is also registered on the South Korean governments tentative list of World Heritage Sites, the tomb was accidentally discovered during water drainage work on the No.5 and 6 tombs in 1971. The exterior of the tomb looks like a mound,20 meters in diameter and 7.7 meters in height. It is believed that the mound was originally larger, notably, the tomb employed a drainage system. The tomb is based on the southern Chinese prototypes but also incorporates Baekje elements to create a Korean-style tomb, solely Korean elements of the tomb include the arched shape of the chamber and the brick colour pattern. The style of King Muryeongs tumulus is found only in the Gongju area, while Chinese custom placed tombs in the north, this tomb was placed in the south. However, the king was placed in the east part of the tomb while the queen was placed in west which follows Chinese practice, the main chamber is rectangular and made of black brick. It is 4.2 meters north-south,2.72 meters east-west, while the north and south walls stand straight, the east and west walls curve inward, creating an arched roof. The south wall has a door which leads to a passageway. The door is 2.9 meters in length,1.04 meters in width, the east and west walls have two onion-shaped or flame-shaped niches to hold lamps while the north wall has one such niche. The placement of the bricks of the tomb are in alternating rows of lengthwise and widthwise arrangements, the bricks mainly have lotus motifs but other decorations were incorporated as well. From the tomb,2,906 objects were excavated and subsequently classified into 108 categories, the most important objects include two pairs of royal diadems made for the king and queen and two stone epigraphs containing valuable inscriptions and dates. The epigraphs give the name and age of the king and queen and dates of their deaths and burials and these dates are also extremely valuable as they corroborate exactly the Korean history text Samguk Sagi. Other objects include Chinese celadon jars, a bowl, gold and silver bracelets and earrings, footrests, bronze mirrors, a ring-pomelled sword. The bier in the tomb was covered by the remains of the wood coffins, Baekje Muryeong of Baekje Crown of Baekje National treasures of Korea Notes Sources Kim Won-yong. Art and Archaeology of Ancient Korea, Kim Won-yong and Richard J. Pearson
