1.
Construction aggregate
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Aggregates are the most mined materials in the world. Aggregates are a component of composite materials such as concrete and asphalt concrete, aggregates are also used as base material under foundations, roads, and railroads. Preferred bitumenous aggregate sizes for road construction are given in EN13043 as d/D, the same classification sizing is used for larger armour stone sizes in EN13383, EN12620 for concrete aggregate, EN13242 for base layers of road construction and EN13450 for railway ballast. These products include specific types of coarse and fine aggregate designed for such uses as additives to asphalt and concrete mixes, state transportation departments further refine aggregate material specifications in order to tailor aggregate use to the needs and available supply in their particular locations. In addition, there are materials that are used as specialty lightweight aggregates, clay, pumice, perlite. People have used sand and stone for foundations for thousands of years, significant refinement of the production and use of aggregate occurred during the Roman Empire, which used aggregate to build its vast network of roads and aqueducts. The invention of concrete, which was essential to architecture utilizing arches, created an immediate, vitruvius writes in De architectura, Economy denotes the proper management of materials and of site, as well as a thrifty balancing of cost and common sense in the construction of works. This will be observed if, in the first place, the architect does not demand things which cannot be found or made ready without great expense, for example, it is not everywhere that there is plenty of pit-sand, rubble, fir, clear fir, and marble. Where there is no pit sand, we must use the kinds washed up by rivers or by the sea. the advent of modern blasting methods enabled the development of quarries, which are now used throughout the world, wherever competent bedrock deposits of aggregate quality exist. In many places, good limestone, granite, marble or other quality stone bedrock deposits do not exist, in these areas, natural sand and gravel are mined for use as aggregate. Where neither stone, nor sand and gravel, are available, construction demand is satisfied by shipping in aggregate by rail. Additionally, demand for aggregates can be satisfied through the use of slag. However, the available tonnages and lesser quality of these materials prevent them from being a replacement for mined aggregates on a large scale. Large stone quarry and sand and gravel operations exist near virtually all population centers, limestone and granite are also produced in large amounts as dimension stone. The great majority of crushed stone is moved by truck from the quarry/plant to the first point of sale or use. According to the USGS,2006 U. S. sand and gravel production was 1.32 billion tonnes valued at $8.54 billion, the great majority of this was again moved by truck, instead of by electric train. Currently, total U. S. aggregate demand by final market sector was 30%–35% for non-residential building, 25% for highways, the largest-volume of recycled material used as construction aggregate is blast furnace and steel furnace slag. Blast furnace slag is either air-cooled or granulated, if the granulated blast furnace slag accesses free lime during hydration, it develops strong hydraulic cementitious properties and can partly substitute for portland cement in concrete
2.
Landscape design
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Landscape design is an independent profession and a design and art tradition, practised by landscape designers, combining nature and culture. In contemporary practice, landscape design bridges the space between landscape architecture and garden design, Landscape design focuses on both the integrated master landscape planning of a property and the specific garden design of landscape elements and plants within it. The practical, aesthetic, horticultural, and environmental sustainability are also components of landscape design and it is often divided into hardscape design and softscape design. Landscape designers often collaborate with related disciplines such as architecture and geography, soils and civil engineering, surveying, landscape contracting, botany, design projects may involve two different professional roles, landscape design and landscape architecture. There can be significant overlap of talent and skill between the two roles, depending on the education, licensing, and experience of the professional, both landscape designers and landscape architects practice landscape design. There are innumerable other design factors and considerations brought to the process of designing a garden that is beautiful, well-functioning. The professional section of garden designers in Europe and the Americas went by the name Landscape Gardener, in the 1890s, the distinct classification of landscape architect was created, with educational and licensing test requirements for using the title legally. Beatrix Farrand, the woman in the founding group, refused the title preferring Landscape Gardener. Matching the client and technical needs of a project, and the practitioner with talent, legal qualifications. Institutional education in landscape design appeared in the early 20th century, over time it became available at various levels. Departments of landscape architecture are located within university schools of architecture or environmental design, specialties and minors are available in horticultural botany, horticulture, natural resources, landscape engineering, construction management, fine and applied arts, and landscape design history. Traditionally, hand drawn drawings documented the design and position of features for construction, many landscape designers have an interest and involvement with gardening, personally or professionally. Some integrate this scope with their practice, informally or as licensed landscape contractors. Gardens are dynamic and not static after construction and planting are completed, involvement with landscape management and direction of ongoing garden direction, evolution, and care depend on the professionals and clients needs and inclinations. As with the other interrelated landscape disciplines, there can be overlap of services offered under the titles of landscape designer or professional gardener, garden design Landscape architecture Landscape assessment Landscape design history Landscape planning Space in landscape design Concrete landscape curbing
3.
Crusher
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A crusher is a machine designed to reduce large rocks into smaller rocks, gravel, or rock dust. The earliest crushers were hand-held stones, where the weight of the stone provided a boost to muscle power, querns and mortars are types of these crushing devices. In industry, crushers are machines which use a surface to break or compress materials into small fractional chunks or denser masses. Abraham Darby a century later relocated to Bristol where he had established a building brass and bronze industry by importing Dutch workers, both materials were considered superior to iron for cannon, and machines as they were better understood. But Darby would change the world in key ways. Where the Dutch had failed in casting iron, one of Darbys apprentices, John Thomas succeeded in 1707, concurrently, mines needed drained resulting in Savery and Newcomens early steam driven pumping systems. The deeper the mines went, the larger the demand became for better pumps, the greater the demand for iron, the greater the need for coal, the greater the demand for each. Seeing ahead clearly, Darby, sold off his brass business interests and relocated to Coalbrookdale with its coal mines, water power. Over that decade his foundries developed iron casting technologies and began to supplant other metals in many applications and he adapted Coking of his fuel by copying Brewers practices. Economies of scale gradually infused industrial enterprises, while became a key bottleneck as the volume of moved materials continued to increase following demand. This spurred numerous projects, inspired laying first wooden, then iron protected rails using draft animals to pull loads in the emerging bulk goods transportation dependent economy. Like mine pumps, the internal conveyors and trip-hammers contained within these 7—11 story buildings, each crusher is designed to work with a certain maximum size of raw material, and often delivers its output to a screening machine which sorts and directs the product for further processing. Typically, crushing stages are followed by milling stages if the materials need to be further reduced, additionally rockbreakers are typically located next to a crusher to reduce oversize material too large for a crusher. Crushers are used to reduce particle size enough so that the material can be processed into finer particles in a grinder, a typical processing line at a mine might consist of a crusher followed by a SAG mill followed by a ball mill. In this context, the SAG mill and ball mill are considered rather than crushers. In operation, the raw material is delivered to the primary crushers hopper by dump trucks. Primary crushing reduces the large pieces to a size which can be handled by the downstream machinery, some crushers are mobile and can crush rocks as large as 60 inches. Primarily used in-pit at the mine face these units are able to move with the large infeed machines to increase the tonnage produced, in a mobile road operation, these crushed rocks are directly combined with concrete and asphalt which are then deposited on to a road surface
4.
Gravel
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Gravel /ˈɡrævəl/ is composed of unconsolidated rock fragments that have a general particle size range and include size classes from granule- to boulder-sized fragments. Gravel is categorized by the Udden-Wentworth scale into granular gravel and pebble gravel, one cubic metre of gravel typically weighs about 1,800 kg. Gravel is an important commercial product, with a number of applications, many roadways are surfaced with gravel, especially in rural areas where there is little traffic. Globally, far more roads are surfaced with gravel than with concrete or tarmac, both sand and small gravel are also important for the manufacture of concrete. Large gravel deposits are a geological feature, being formed as a result of the weathering. The action of rivers and waves tends to pile up gravel in large accumulations and this can sometimes result in gravel becoming compacted and concreted into the sedimentary rock called conglomerate. Where natural gravel deposits are insufficient for human purposes, gravel is often produced by quarrying and crushing hard-wearing rocks, such as sandstone, limestone, quarries where gravel is extracted are known as gravel pits. Southern England possesses particularly large concentrations of them due to the deposition of gravel in the region during the Ice Ages. As of 2006, the United States is the leading producer and consumer of gravel. The word gravel comes from the Breton language, adding the -el suffix in Breton denotes the component parts of something larger. Thus gravel means the stones which make up such a beach on the coast. Many dictionaries ignore the Breton language, citing Old French gravele or gravelle, Gravel often has the meaning a mixture of different size pieces of stone mixed with sand and possibly some clay. American English also allows small stones without sand mixed in also known as crushed stone, types of gravel include, Bank gravel, naturally deposited gravel intermixed with sand or clay found in and next to rivers and streams. Also known as Bank run or River run, bench gravel, a bed of gravel located on the side of a valley above the present stream bottom, indicating the former location of the stream bed when it was at a higher level. Creek rock, this is rounded, semi-polished stones, potentially of a wide range of types. It is also used as concrete aggregate and less often as a paving surface. Crushed stone, rock crushed and graded by screens and then mixed to a blend of stones and fines and it is widely used as a surfacing for roads and driveways, sometimes with tar applied over it. Crushed stone may be made from granite, limestone, dolomite, also known as crusher run, DGA QP, and shoulder stone
5.
Riprap
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It is made from a variety of rock types, commonly granite or limestone, and occasionally concrete rubble from building and paving demolition. It can be used on any waterway or water containment where there is potential for water erosion, underwater, rock armour caps submerged tunnels to protect against accidental anchor strikes or sinking debris. Ciria-CUR - Rock Manual - The use of rock in hydraulic engineering, allsop - Breakwaters, coastal structures and coastlines
6.
Track ballast
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Track ballast forms the trackbed upon which railroad ties are laid. It is packed between, below, and around the ties and it is used to bear the load from the railroad ties, to facilitate drainage of water, and also to keep down vegetation that might interfere with the track structure. This also serves to hold the track in place as the roll by. It is typically made of crushed stone, although ballast has sometimes consisted of other, less suitable materials, the term ballast comes from a nautical term for the stones used to stabilize a ship. The appropriate thickness of a layer of track ballast depends on the size and spacing of the ties, the amount of traffic on the line, and various other factors. Track ballast should never be laid down less than 150 mm thick, an insufficient depth of ballast causes overloading of the underlying soil, and in unfavourable conditions overloading the soil causes the track to sink, usually unevenly. Ballast less than 300 mm thick can lead to vibrations that damage nearby structures, however, increasing the depth beyond 300 mm adds no extra benefit in reducing vibration. In turn, track ballast typically rests on a layer of crushed stones. The sub-ballast layer gives a solid support for the top ballast, sometimes an elastic mat is placed on the layer of sub-ballast and beneath the ballast, thereby significantly reducing vibration. The ballast shoulder always should be at least 150 mm wide, the shape of the ballast is also important. Stones must be cut, with sharp edges, so that they properly interlock and grip the ties in order to fully secure them against movement. In order to let the stones fully settle and interlock, speed limits are often lowered on sections of track for a period of time after new ballast has been laid. If ballast is badly fouled, the clogging will reduce its ability to drain properly, therefore, keeping the ballast clean is essential. Bioremediation can be used to clean ballast and it is not always necessary to replace the ballast if it is fouled, nor must all the ballast be removed if it is to be cleaned. Removing and cleaning the ballast from the shoulder is often sufficient, such machines can clean up to two kilometres of ballast in an hour. In such cases, it is necessary to replace the ballast altogether, the dump and jack method cannot of course be used through tunnels, under overbridges, and where there are platforms. Where the track is laid over a swamp, such as the Hexham swamp in Australia, the ballast continuously sinks, after 150 years of topping up, there appears to be 10 m of sunken ballast under the tracks. Chat Moss in the United Kingdom is similar, regular inspection of the ballast shoulder is important, as noted earlier, the lateral stability of the track depends upon the shoulder
7.
Composite material
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The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished structure. The new material may be preferred for reasons, common examples include materials which are stronger, lighter. More recently, researchers have begun to actively include sensing, actuation, computation and communication into composites. The most advanced examples perform routinely on spacecraft and aircraft in demanding environments, the earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. Ancient brick-making was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings, wattle and daub is one of the oldest man-made composite materials, at over 6000 years old. Concrete is also a material, and is used more than any other man-made material in the world. As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic metres of concrete are made each year—more than one metre for every person on Earth. 2181–2055 BC and was used for death masks Cob Mud Bricks, concrete was described by Vitruvius, writing around 25 BC in his Ten Books on Architecture, distinguished types of aggregate appropriate for the preparation of lime mortars. For structural mortars, he recommended pozzolana, which were volcanic sands from the beds of Pozzuoli brownish-yellow-gray in colour near Naples. Natural cement-stones, after burning, produced cements used in concretes from post-Roman times into the 20th century, the glass fiber is relatively strong and stiff, whereas the polymer is ductile. Thus the resulting fiberglass is relatively stiff, strong, flexible, concrete is the most common artificial composite material of all and typically consists of loose stones held with a matrix of cement. Concrete is a material, and will not compress or shatter even under quite a large compressive force. However, concrete cannot survive tensile loading, therefore, to give concrete the ability to resist being stretched, steel bars, which can resist high stretching forces, are often added to concrete to form reinforced concrete. Fibre-reinforced polymers or FRPs include carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer or CFRP, and glass-reinforced plastic or GRP, if classified by matrix then there are thermoplastic composites, short fiber thermoplastics, long fibre thermoplastics or long fibre-reinforced thermoplastics. There are numerous thermoset composites, including paper composite panels, many advanced thermoset polymer matrix systems usually incorporate aramid fibre and carbon fibre in an epoxy resin matrix. Shape memory polymer composites are high-performance composites, formulated using fibre or fabric reinforcement and they can also be reheated and reshaped repeatedly without losing their material properties. These composites are ideal for such as lightweight, rigid, deployable structures, rapid manufacturing. Although high strain composites exhibit many similarities to shape memory polymers, Composites can also use metal fibres reinforcing other metals, as in metal matrix composites or ceramic matrix composites, which includes bone, cermet and concrete
8.
Tarmacadam
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Tarmac is a type of road surfacing material patented by English inventor Edgar Purnell Hooley in 1902. The term is used, with varying degrees of correctness, for a variety of other materials, including tar-grouted macadam, bituminous surface treatments. The term is often used to describe airport aprons, taxiways. Pioneered by Scottish engineer John Loudon McAdam in the 1820s, Macadam roads are prone to rutting and generating dust. Methods to stabilize macadam surfaces with tar date back to at least 1834 when John Henry Cassell, operating from Cassells Patent Lava Stone Works in Millwall, patented lava stone. This method involved spreading tar on the subgrade, placing a typical macadam layer, tar-grouted macadam was in use well before 1900, and involved scarifying the surface of an existing macadam pavement, spreading tar, and re-compacting. In 1901, Edgar Purnell Hooley was walking in Denby, Derbyshire when he noticed a smooth stretch of road close to an ironworks. He was informed that a barrel of tar had fallen onto the road, Hooley noticed this unintentional resurfacing had solidified the road, and there was no rutting and no dust. Hooleys 1902 patent for tarmac involved mechanically mixing tar and aggregate prior to lay-down, the tar was modified by adding small amounts of Portland cement, resin, and pitch. Nottinghams Radcliffe Road became the first tarmac road in the world, in 1903 Hooley formed Tar Macadam Syndicate Ltd and registered tarmac as a trademark. As petroleum production increased, the by-product bitumen became available in greater quantities, the Wick Airport at Wick in Caithness, Scotland, is one of the few airports that still have real tarmac runways. Similarly in the UK the word tarmac is much more used by the public when referring to asphalt concrete. Tarmac is a trademark although it is frequently written with a lower-case initial letter. History of road transport – covers the development of road-building techniques Asphalt concrete Pavement Tarmac Limited
