1.
Neal Stephenson
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Neal Town Stephenson is an American writer and game designer known for his works of speculative fiction. His novels have been categorized as fiction, historical fiction, cyberpunk, postcyberpunk. Stephensons work explores subjects such as mathematics, cryptography, linguistics, philosophy, currency, and he also writes non-fiction articles about technology in publications such as Wired. He has also written novels with his uncle, George Jewsbury and he is currently Magic Leaps Chief Futurist. His mother worked in a laboratory, and her father was a biochemistry professor. Stephensons family moved to Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, in 1960 and then in 1966 to Ames and he graduated from Ames High School in 1977. Stephenson studied at Boston University, first specializing in physics, then switching to geography after he found that it would allow him to more time on the university mainframe. He graduated in 1981 with a B. A. in geography, since 1984, Stephenson has lived mostly in the Pacific Northwest and currently lives in Seattle with his family. Stephensons first novel, The Big U, published in 1984, was a take on life at American Megaversity. His next novel, Zodiac, was a following the exploits of a radical environmentalist protagonist in his struggle against corporate polluters. Neither novel attracted critical attention on first publication, but showcased concerns that Stephenson would further develop in his later work. Snow Crash was the first of Stephensons epic science fiction novels, in 1994, Stephenson joined with his uncle, J. Frederick George, to publish a political thriller, Interface, under the pen name Stephen Bury, they followed this in 1996 with The Cobweb. Stephensons next solo novel, published in 1995, was The Diamond Age, or A Young Ladys Illustrated Primer, seen back then as futuristic, Stephensons novel has broad range universal self-learning nanotechnology, dynabooks, extensive modern technologies, robotics, cybernetics and cyber cities. It has subsequently reissued in three separate volumes in some countries, including in French and Spanish translations. In 2013, Cryptonomicon won the Prometheus Hall of Fame Award, the Baroque Cycle is a series of historical novels set in the 17th and 18th centuries, and is in some respects a prequel to Cryptonomicon. The System of the World won the Prometheus Award in 2005, following this, Stephenson published a novel titled Anathem, a very long and detailed work, perhaps best described as speculative fiction. It is set in an Earthlike world, deals with metaphysics, Stephensons novel REAMDE was released on September 20,2011. The title is a play on the common filename README and this thriller, set in the present, centers around a group of MMORPG developers caught in the middle of Chinese cyber-criminals, Islamic terrorists, and Russian mafia
2.
Avon (publisher)
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Avon Publications was an American paperback book and comic book publisher. As of 2010, it is an imprint of HarperCollins, publishing primarily romance novels, Avon Books was founded in 1941 by the American News Corporation to create a rival to Pocket Books. They hired brother and sister Joseph Meyers and Edna Meyers Williams to establish the company, ogilvie Publications, a dime novel publisher partly owned by both the Meyers, and renamed it Avon Publications. They also got into comic books, the early Avons were somewhat similar in appearance to the existing paperbacks of Pocket Books, resulting in an immediate and largely ineffective lawsuit by that company. Despite this superficial similarity, though, from early on Meyers differentiated Avon by placing an emphasis on popular appeal rather than loftier concepts of literary merit, the first 40 titles were not numbered. First editions of the first dozen or so have front and rear endpapers with an illustration of a globe, as well as normal-sized paperbacks, Avon published digest-format paperbacks in series. These included Murder Mystery Monthly, Modern Short Story Monthly and Avon Fantasy Readers, many authors highly prized by present-day collectors were published in these editions, including A. Merritt, James M. Cain, H. P. Lovecraft, Raymond Chandler and Robert E. Howard. In 1953, Avon Books sold books in the range of 25¢ to 50¢ and were selling more than 20 million copies a year. Their books were characterized by Time Magazine as westerns, whodunits, at around this time, Avon also began to publish under other imprints, including Eton, Novel Library, Broadway and Diversey. Avons 35-cent T series, introduced in 1953, also had strong mass-market appeal, the T series also contained many movie tie-in editions and the stand-bys of mysteries and science fiction. Avon was bought by the Hearst Corporation in 1959, in 1972, Avon entered the modern romance genre with the publication of Kathleen Woodiwiss The Flame and the Flower. The novel went on to sell 2.35 million copies, Avon followed its release with the 1974 publication of Woodiwisss second novel, The Wolf and the Dove and two sexy novels by newcomer Rosemary Rogers, Sweet Savage Love and Dark Fires. The latter sold two million copies in its first three months of release, in 1999, the News Corporation bought out Hearsts book division. Avons hardcover and non-romance paperback lines were moved to sister company Morrow, from at least 1945 through the mid-1950s, Avon published comic books. Its titles included horror fiction, science fiction, Westerns, romance comics, war comics, most titles lasted only a few issues, with the six longest-running detailed in the complete list below, Official website
3.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
4.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
5.
Dewey Decimal Classification
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The Dewey Decimal Classification, or Dewey Decimal System, is a proprietary library classification system first published in the United States by Melvil Dewey in 1876. It has been revised and expanded through 23 major editions, the latest issued in 2011 and it is also available in an abridged version suitable for smaller libraries. It is currently maintained by the Online Computer Library Center, a cooperative that serves libraries. OCLC licenses access to a version for catalogers called WebDewey. The Decimal Classification introduced the concepts of relative location and relative index which allow new books to be added to a library in their location based on subject. Libraries previously had given books permanent shelf locations that were related to the order of acquisition rather than topic, the classifications notation makes use of three-digit Arabic numerals for main classes, with fractional decimals allowing expansion for further detail. Using Arabic numerals for symbols, it is flexible to the degree that numbers can be expanded in linear fashion to cover aspects of general subjects. A library assigns a number that unambiguously locates a particular volume in a position relative to other books in the library. The number makes it possible to find any book and to return it to its place on the library shelves. The classification system is used in 200,000 libraries in at least 135 countries, the major competing classification system to the Dewey Decimal system is the Library of Congress Classification system created by the U. S. Melvil Dewey was an American librarian and self-declared reformer and he was a founding member of the American Library Association and can be credited with the promotion of card systems in libraries and business. He developed the ideas for his classification system in 1873 while working at Amherst College library. He applied the classification to the books in library, until in 1876 he had a first version of the classification. In 1876, he published the classification in pamphlet form with the title A Classification and Subject Index for Cataloguing and Arranging the Books and he used the pamphlet, published in more than one version during the year, to solicit comments from other librarians. It is not known who received copies or how many commented as only one copy with comments has survived, in March 1876, he applied for, and received copyright on the first edition of the index. The edition was 44 pages in length, with 2,000 index entries, comprised 314 pages, with 10,000 index entries. Editions 3–14, published between 1888 and 1942, used a variant of this same title, Dewey modified and expanded his system considerably for the second edition. In an introduction to that edition Dewey states that nearly 100 persons hav contributed criticisms, one of the innovations of the Dewey Decimal system was that of positioning books on the shelves in relation to other books on similar topics
6.
Library of Congress Classification
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The Library of Congress Classification is a system of library classification developed by the Library of Congress. It is used by most research and academic libraries in the U. S. the Classification is also distinct from Library of Congress Subject Headings, the system of labels such as Boarding schools and Boarding schools—Fiction that describe contents systematically. The classification was invented by Herbert Putnam in 1897, just before he assumed the librarianship of Congress, with advice from Charles Ammi Cutter, it was influenced by his Cutter Expansive Classification, the Dewey Decimal System, and the Putnam Classification System. It was designed specifically for the purposes and collection of the Library of Congress to replace the fixed location system developed by Thomas Jefferson, by the time Putnam departed from his post in 1939, all the classes except K and parts of B were well developed. LCC has been criticized for lacking a theoretical basis, many of the classification decisions were driven by the practical needs of that library rather than epistemological considerations. Although it divides subjects into broad categories, it is essentially enumerative in nature and that is, it provides a guide to the books actually in one librarys collections, not a classification of the world. In 2007 the Wall Street Journal reported that in the countries it surveyed most public libraries, the National Library of Medicine classification system uses the initial letters W and QS–QZ, which are not used by LCC. Some libraries use NLM in conjunction with LCC, eschewing LCCs R for Medicine, others use LCCs QP–QR schedules and include Medicine R. Subclass AC – Collections. Collected works Subclass AE – Encyclopedias Subclass AG – Dictionaries and other reference works Subclass AI – Indexes Subclass AM – Museums. Collectors and collecting Subclass AN – Newspapers Subclass AP – Periodicals Subclass AS – Academies, directories Subclass AZ – History of scholarship and learning. The humanities Subclass B – Philosophy Subclass BC – Logic Subclass BD – Speculative philosophy Subclass BF – Psychology Subclass BH – Aesthetics Subclass BJ – Ethics Subclass BL – Religions, rationalism Subclass BM – Judaism Subclass BP – Islam. Seals Subclass CE – Technical Chronology, calendar Subclass CJ – Numismatics Subclass CN – Inscriptions. Former Soviet Republics – Poland Subclass DL – Northern Europe, maps Subclass GA – Mathematical geography. Cartography Subclass GB – Physical geography Subclass GC – Oceanography Subclass GE – Environmental Sciences Subclass GF – Human ecology, anthropogeography Subclass GN – Anthropology Subclass GR – Folklore Subclass GT – Manners and customs Subclass GV – Recreation. Leisure Subclass H – Social sciences Subclass HA – Statistics Subclass HB – Economic theory, demography Subclass HC – Economic history and conditions Subclass HD – Industries. Labor Subclass HE – Transportation and communications Subclass HF – Commerce Subclass HG – Finance Subclass HJ – Public finance Subclass HM – Sociology Subclass HN – Social history, Social reform Subclass HQ – The family. Marriage, Women and Sexuality Subclass HS – Societies, secret, benevolent, races Subclass HV – Social pathology. Municipal government Subclass JV – Colonies and colonization, International migration Subclass JX – International law, see JZ and KZ Subclass JZ – International relations Subclass K – Law in general
7.
Allies of World War II
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The Allies of World War II, called the United Nations from the 1 January 1942 declaration, were the countries that together opposed the Axis powers during the Second World War. The Allies promoted the alliance as seeking to stop German, Japanese, at the start of the war on 1 September 1939, the Allies consisted of France, Poland and the United Kingdom, and dependent states, such as the British India. Within days they were joined by the independent Dominions of the British Commonwealth, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Poland was a minor factor after its defeat in 1939, France was a minor factor after its defeat in 1940. China had already been into a war with Japan since the Marco Polo Bridge Incident of 1937. The alliance was formalised by the Declaration by United Nations, from 1 January 1942, however, the name United Nations was rarely used to describe the Allies during the war. The leaders of the Big Three – the UK, the Soviet Union, in 1945, the Allied nations became the basis of the United Nations. The origins of the Allied powers stem from the Allies of World War I, Germany resented signing Treaty of Versailles. The new Weimar republics legitimacy became shaken, by the early 1930s, the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler became the dominant revanchist movement in Germany and Hitler and the Nazis gained power in 1933. The Nazi regime demanded the cancellation of the Treaty of Versailles and made claims to German-populated Austria. The likelihood of war was high, and the question was whether it could be avoided through strategies such as appeasement, in Asia, when Japan seized Manchuria in 1931, the League of Nations condemned it for aggression against China. Japan responded by leaving the League of Nations in March 1933, after four quiet years, the Sino-Japanese War erupted in 1937 with Japanese forces invading China. The League of Nations condemned Japans actions and initiated sanctions on Japan, the United States, in particular, was angered at Japan and sought to support China. In March 1939, Germany took over Czechoslovakia, violating the Munich Agreement signed six months before, Britain and France decided that Hitler had no intention to uphold diplomatic agreements and responded by preparing for war. On 31 March 1939, Britain formed the Anglo-Polish military alliance in an effort to avert a German attack on the country, also, the French had a long-standing alliance with Poland since 1921. The Soviet Union sought an alliance with the powers. The agreement secretly divided the independent nations of eastern Europe between the two powers and assured adequate oil supplies for the German war machine, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland, two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany. Then, on 17 September 1939, the Soviet Union invaded Poland from the east, a Polish government-in-exile was set up and it continued to be one of the Allies, a model followed by other occupied countries. After a quiet winter, Germany in April 1940 invaded and quickly defeated Denmark, Norway, Belgium, Britain and its Empire stood alone against Hitler and Mussolini
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Cryptography
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Cryptography or cryptology is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of third parties called adversaries. Modern cryptography exists at the intersection of the disciplines of mathematics, computer science, Applications of cryptography include ATM cards, computer passwords, and electronic commerce. Cryptography prior to the age was effectively synonymous with encryption. The originator of an encrypted message shared the decoding technique needed to recover the information only with intended recipients. The cryptography literature often uses Alice for the sender, Bob for the intended recipient and it is theoretically possible to break such a system, but it is infeasible to do so by any known practical means. The growth of technology has raised a number of legal issues in the information age. Cryptographys potential for use as a tool for espionage and sedition has led governments to classify it as a weapon and to limit or even prohibit its use. In some jurisdictions where the use of cryptography is legal, laws permit investigators to compel the disclosure of encryption keys for documents relevant to an investigation, Cryptography also plays a major role in digital rights management and copyright infringement of digital media. Until modern times, cryptography referred almost exclusively to encryption, which is the process of converting ordinary information into unintelligible text, decryption is the reverse, in other words, moving from the unintelligible ciphertext back to plaintext. A cipher is a pair of algorithms that create the encryption, the detailed operation of a cipher is controlled both by the algorithm and in each instance by a key. The key is a secret, usually a short string of characters, historically, ciphers were often used directly for encryption or decryption without additional procedures such as authentication or integrity checks. There are two kinds of cryptosystems, symmetric and asymmetric, in symmetric systems the same key is used to encrypt and decrypt a message. Data manipulation in symmetric systems is faster than asymmetric systems as they generally use shorter key lengths, asymmetric systems use a public key to encrypt a message and a private key to decrypt it. Use of asymmetric systems enhances the security of communication, examples of asymmetric systems include RSA, and ECC. Symmetric models include the commonly used AES which replaced the older DES, in colloquial use, the term code is often used to mean any method of encryption or concealment of meaning. However, in cryptography, code has a specific meaning. It means the replacement of a unit of plaintext with a code word, English is more flexible than several other languages in which cryptology is always used in the second sense above. RFC2828 advises that steganography is sometimes included in cryptology, the study of characteristics of languages that have some application in cryptography or cryptology is called cryptolinguistics
9.
London Controlling Section
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The LCS was formed within the Joint Planning Staff at the offices of the War Cabinet, which was presided over by Winston Churchill as Prime Minister. At first the department struggled to have any impact, and Stanley spent time away from the due to his wifes terminal illness. In June his post of Controlling Officer was handed over to Colonel John Bevan, the organisation was publicly revealed by Sir Ronald Wingate in 1969. Following the onset of the Second World War, the Allied nations began to recognise deception as a useful strategy, in early 1941 Lieutenant-Colonel Dudley Clarkes A Force department, based in Cairo, undertook deception operations for the North African campaign. As their work came to the notice of high command Clarke was summoned to London, in late September 1941, Clarke was offered the job of heading this new section, named the London Controlling Section. However, he declined, preferring to return to Cairo, instead, on 9 October, the post was offered to Colonel Oliver Stanley, a former Secretary of State for War. However, Clarke had left very little information about A Force and his own deception activities and his task was made more difficult by the fact that strategic deception was a wholly new concept in England, and had few champions in the military establishment. The LCS was granted representatives from all three of the services, and theoretically had a lot of power, in practice there was little interest in deception. The army sent Lieutenant Colonel Fritz Lumby while the RAF, refusing to send any Group Captains due to the Battle of Britain, Ronald Wingate also joined the staff. This lack of interest left the LCS, according to Wheatley, the climate was not right for strategic deception on the Western Front, very few offensive operations were being planned, and Stanley was not able to do much to raise the profile of the department. However, the LCS did manage to put together Operation Hardboiled, the end of Hardboiled was very demotivating. To make matters worse, Stanleys wife was diagnosed with a terminal illness, in May 1942, Lumley was offered a posting to Africa, which he eagerly accepted. Bevan was an individual with good connections in the establishment. He recognised the role that the London Controlling Section could play in Allied strategy, Bevan kept Wheatley, another socialite, on the staff, and the two complemented each other well. He also recruited Major Ronald Wingate, the London Controlling Section was moved down into the Cabinet War Office, to be closer to the other key strategic war planning. This helped the new department be taken seriously, additionally, and more sweeping, they were not limited to strategic deception, but had authority to include any matter for a military advantage. Cover and deception are intended to create or reinforce a belief in one’s opponent which influences the opponents behavior along certain lines. Cover induces belief that something true is false, Deception induces belief that something false is true
10.
Government Communications Headquarters
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GCHQ was originally established after the First World War as the Government Code and Cypher School and was known under that name until 1946. During the Second World War it was located at Bletchley Park and it is co-located with GCHQ for administrative purposes. Snowdens revelations began a spate of ongoing disclosures of global surveillance, GCHQ is led by the Director of GCHQ, currently Robert Hannigan, and a Corporate Board, made up of Executive and Non-Executive Directors. Sinclair merged staff from NID25 and MI1b into the new organisation, which consisted of around 25–30 officers. It was titled the Government Code and Cypher School, a chosen by Victor Forbes of the Foreign Office. Alastair Denniston, who had been a member of NID25, was appointed as its operational head and it was initially under the control of the Admiralty and located in Watergate House, Adelphi, London. GC&CS officially formed on 1 November 1919, and produced its first decrypt on 19 October, before the Second World War, GC&CS was a relatively small department. GC&CS came under the supervision of Hugh Sinclair, who by 1923 was both the Chief of SIS and Director of GC&CS, in 1925, both organisations were co-located on different floors of Broadway Buildings, opposite St. Jamess Park. Messages decrypted by GC&CS were distributed in blue-jacketed files that became known as BJs, in the 1920s, GC&CS was successfully reading Soviet Union diplomatic ciphers. In 1940, GC&CS was working on the codes and ciphers of 26 countries. J. Good, Peter Calvocoressi and Hugh Foss, an outstation in the Far East, the Far East Combined Bureau was set up in Hong Kong in 1935, and moved to Singapore in 1939. Subsequently, with the Japanese advance down the Malay Peninsula, the Army and RAF codebreakers went to the Wireless Experimental Centre in Delhi, the Navy codebreakers in FECB went to Colombo, Ceylon, then to Kilindini, near Mombasa, Kenya. GC&CS was renamed the Government Communications Headquarters in June 1946, GCHQ was at first based in Eastcote, but in 1951 moved to the outskirts of Cheltenham, setting up two sites there – Oakley and Benhall. Duncan Campbell and Mark Hosenball revealed the existence of GCHQ in 1976 in an article for Time Out, GCHQ had a very low profile in the media until 1983 when the trial of Geoffrey Prime, a KGB mole within GCHQ, created considerable media interest. Since the days of the Second World War, US and British intelligence have shared information, for the GCHQ this means that it shares information with, and gets information from, the National Security Agency in the United States. Subsequently, a feasible implementation scheme via an asymmetric key algorithm was invented by another staff member Clifford Cocks and this fact was kept secret until 1997. In 1984, GCHQ was the centre of a row when the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher prohibited its employees from belonging to a trade union. It was claimed that joining a union would be in conflict with national security, a number of mass national one-day strikes were held to protest this decision, seen as a first step to wider bans on trade unions
11.
Bletchley Park
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Bletchley Park was the central site for British codebreakers during World War II. Run by the Government Code and Cypher School, it penetrated the secret communications of the Axis Powers – most importantly the German Enigma. Located in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, England UK, Bletchley Park is open to the public, Bletchley Park is opposite Bletchley railway station. It is close to junctions 13 and 14 of the M1, located 50 miles northwest of London, the site appears in the Domesday Book as part of the Manor of Eaton. Browne Willis built a mansion there in 1711, but after Thomas Harrison purchased the property in 1793 this was pulled down and it was first known as Bletchley Park after its purchase by Samuel Lipscomb Seckham in 1877. A key advantage seen by Sinclair and his colleagues was Bletchleys geographical centrality, Bletchley Park was known as B. P. to those who worked there. Station X, London Signals Intelligence Centre, and Government Communications Headquarters were all cover names used during the war, the formal posting of the many Wrens – members of the Womens Royal Naval Service – working there, was to HMS Pembroke V. Royal Air Force names of Bletchley Park and its outstations included RAF Eastcote, RAF Lime Grove, the postal address that staff had to use was Room 47, Foreign Office. Commander Alastair Denniston was operational head of GC&CS from 1919 to 1942, beginning with its formation from the Admiraltys Room 40, key GC&CS cryptanalysts who moved from London to Bletchley Park included John Tiltman, Dillwyn Dilly Knox, Josh Cooper, and Nigel de Grey. These people had a variety of backgrounds – linguists, chess champions, and crossword experts were common, the British War Office recruited top solvers of cryptic crossword puzzles, as these individuals had strong lateral thinking skills. On the day Britain declared war on Germany, Denniston wrote to the Foreign Office about recruiting men of the professor type, personal networking drove early recruitments, particularly of men from the universities of Cambridge and Oxford. Trustworthy women were recruited for administrative and clerical jobs. Later-recruited cryptanalysts included the mathematicians Derek Taunt, Jack Good, Bill Tutte, and Max Newman, historian Harry Hinsley, joan Clarke was one of the few women employed at Bletchley as a full-fledged cryptanalyst. This eclectic staff of Boffins and Debs caused GC&CS to be dubbed the Golf, Cheese and Chess Society. During a September 1941 morale-boosting visit, Winston Churchill reportedly remarked to Denniston, I told you to leave no stone unturned to get staff, but I had no idea you had taken me so literally. Six weeks later, having failed to get sufficient typing and unskilled staff to achieve the productivity that was possible, Turing, Welchman, Alexander and Milner-Barry wrote directly to Churchill. His response was Action this day make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done. At the end of the week, a worker went off at 8 a. m
12.
Axis powers
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The Axis powers, also known as the Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, were the nations that fought in World War II against the Allied Powers. The Axis agreed on their opposition to the Allies, but did not completely coordinate their activity, the Axis grew out of the diplomatic efforts of Germany, Italy, and Japan to secure their own specific expansionist interests in the mid-1930s. The first step was the treaty signed by Germany and Italy in October 1936, Mussolini declared on 1 November that all other European countries would from then on rotate on the Rome–Berlin axis, thus creating the term Axis. The almost simultaneous second step was the signing in November 1936 of the Anti-Comintern Pact, Italy joined the Pact in 1937. At its zenith during World War II, the Axis presided over territories that occupied parts of Europe, North Africa. There were no three-way summit meetings and cooperation and coordination was minimal, the war ended in 1945 with the defeat of the Axis powers and the dissolution of their alliance. As in the case of the Allies, membership of the Axis was fluid, at the time he was seeking an alliance with the Weimar Republic against Yugoslavia and France in the dispute over the Free State of Fiume. The term was used by Hungarys prime minister Gyula Gömbös when advocating an alliance of Hungary with Germany, when Mussolini publicly announced the signing on 1 November, he proclaimed the creation of a Rome–Berlin axis. Italy under Duce Benito Mussolini had pursued an alliance of Italy with Germany against France since the early 1920s. He believed that Italy could expand its influence in Europe by allying with Germany against France, in early 1923, as a goodwill gesture to Germany, Italy secretly delivered weapons for the German Army, which had faced major disarmament under the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. General Hans von Seeckt supported an alliance between Germany and the Soviet Union to invade and partition Poland between them and restore the German-Russian border of 1914. The discussions concluded that Germans still wanted a war of revenge against France but were short on weapons, however at this time Mussolini stressed one important condition that Italy must pursue in an alliance with Germany, that Italy must. Tow them, not be towed by them, the French government warned Italy that it had to choose whether to be on the side of the pro-Versailles powers or that of the anti-Versailles revanchists. Grandi responded that Italy would be willing to offer France support against Germany if France gave Italy its mandate over Cameroon, France refused Italys proposed exchange for support, as it believed Italys demands were unacceptable and the threat from Germany was not yet immediate. In 1932, Gyula Gömbös and the Party of National Unity rose to power in Hungary, Gömbös sought to alter Hungarys post–Treaty of Trianon borders by forming an alliance with Austria and Italy, knowing that Hungary alone was not capable of challenging the Little Entente powers. At the meeting between Gömbös and Mussolini in Rome on 10 November 1932, the question came up of the sovereignty of Austria in relation to the rise to power in Germany of the Nazi Party. Mussolini was worried about Nazi ambitions towards Austria, and indicated that at least in the term he was committed to maintaining Austria as a sovereign state. Italy had concerns over a Germany which included Austria laying land claims to German-populated territories of the South Tyrol within Italy, Mussolini said he hoped the Anschluss could be postponed as long as possible until the breakout of a European war that he estimated would begin in 1938
13.
Genocides in history
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Genocide is the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious or national group. The term was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin, determining what historical events constitute a genocide and which are merely criminal or inhuman behavior is not a clear-cut matter. The debate continues over what legally constitutes genocide, one definition is any conflict that the International Criminal Court has so designated. Many conflicts that have been labeled genocide in the press have not been so designated. M. Hassan Kakar argued that the definition should include political groups or any group so defined by the perpetrator. He prefers the definition from Chalk and Jonassohn, Genocide is a form of one-sided mass killing in which a state or other authority intends to destroy a group so defined by the perpetrator. Some critics of the international definition argued that the definition was influenced by Joseph Stalin to exclude political groups, according to R. J. Rummel, genocide has multiple meanings. The ordinary meaning is murder by a government of people due to their national, ethnic, racial, the legal meaning is defined by CCPG. This includes actions such as preventing births or forcibly transferring children to another group, Rummel created the term democide to include assaults on political groups. In this article, atrocities that have characterized as genocide by some reliable source are included. Thus examples listed may constitute genocide by the United Nations definition, some advocate a very loose definition of genocide, encompassing all premeditated mass killing of civilians. Some genocides involve Ethnic cleansing though not all Ethnic cleansings are genocides, some events are debated on whether they constitute Ethnic cleansing or genocide. Ethnic cleansing is also a Crime Against Humanity, for a list of Ethnic cleansings see, List of ethnic cleansings Then there are War crimes. War crimes do not necessarily entail mass killing and they may include such as disturbing peace treaties. There are examples of forced labor being used to execute Jews during the holocaust by the Extermination through labour policy of Nazi Germany but in general slavery is not considered genocide. Some famines such as those under communist and colonial regimes were man-made and these man-made famines have been recognized to some extent as genocides and holocausts. As a result, the group might be labeled as a threat that must be eliminated. Jones continues, The difficulty, as Frank Chalk and Kurt Jonassohn pointed out in their study, is that such historical records as exist are ambiguous
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Genre
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Genre is any form or type of communication in any mode with socially-agreed upon conventions developed over time. Genres form by conventions that change over time as new genres are invented, often, works fit into multiple genres by way of borrowing and recombining these conventions. Stand alone texts, works, or pieces of communication may have individual styles, some genres may be rigid with strictly adhered to guidelines while others may be very flexible. Genre began as a classification system for ancient Greek literature. Poetry, prose, and performance each had a specific and calculated style that related to the theme of the story. Speech patterns for comedy would not be appropriate for tragedy, in later periods genres proliferated and developed in response to changes in audiences and creators. Genre became a tool to help the public make sense out of unpredictable art. Because art is often a response to a state, in that people write/paint/sing/dance about what they know about. Genre suffers from the ills of any classification system. Genre is to be reassessed and scrutinized and to works on their unique merit. While the genre of storytelling has been relegated as lesser form of art because of the heavily borrowed nature of the conventions, proponents argue that the genius of an effective genre piece is in the variation, recombination, and evolution of the codes. The term genre is used in the history and criticism of visual art. These are distinguished from staffage, incidental figures in what is primarily a landscape or architectural painting, Genre painting may also be used as a wider term covering genre painting proper, and other specialized types of paintings such as still-life, landscapes, marine paintings and animal paintings. The concept of the hierarchy of genres was a one in artistic theory. It was strongest in France, where it was associated with the Académie française which held a role in academic art. Genres may be determined by technique, tone, content. Genre should not be confused with age category, by which literature may be classified as adult, young adult. They also must not be confused with format, such as novel or picture book
15.
Snow Crash
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Snow Crash is a science fiction novel by American writer Neal Stephenson, published in 1992. Like many of Stephensons other novels it covers history, linguistics, anthropology, archaeology, religion, computer science, politics, cryptography, memetics, Stephenson explained the title of the novel in his 1999 essay In the Beginning. Was the Command Line as his term for a software failure mode on the early Apple Macintosh computer. Stephenson also mentioned a book by Julian Jaynes, The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, the book presents the Sumerian language as the firmware programming language for the brainstem, which is supposedly functioning as the BIOS for the human brain. According to characters in the book, the goddess Asherah is the personification of a linguistic virus, the god Enki created a counter-program which he called a nam-shub that caused all of humanity to speak different languages as a protection against Asherah. Snow Crash was nominated for both the British Science Fiction Award in 1993, and the Arthur C. Clarke Award in 1994, the story begins in Los Angeles in the 21st century, no longer part of the United States. The federal government of the United States has ceded most of its power and territory to private organizations, franchising, individual sovereignty, and private vehicles reign supreme over the landscape. Mercenary armies compete for national defense contracts while private security guards preserve the peace in sovereign, highway companies compete to attract drivers to their roads and all mail delivery is by hired courier. The remnants of government maintain authority only in isolated compounds where they transact tedious make-work that is, by and large and this arrangement resembles anarcho-capitalism, a theme Stephenson carries over to his next novel The Diamond Age. Hyperinflation encouraged people to use electronic currency which is exchanged in encrypted online transactions and is hence untaxable, for physical transactions, they resort to alternative, non-hyperinflated currencies such as yen or Kongbucks. Hyperinflation has also affected much of the rest of the world. The Metaverse, a phrase coined by Stephenson as a successor to the Internet, resembling a massively multiplayer online game, the Metaverse is populated by user-controlled avatars as well as system daemons. Hiro Protagonist is a hacker and pizza delivery driver for the Mafia, a young skateboard Kourier, during a failed attempt to make a delivery on time. Within the Metaverse, Hiro is offered a datafile named Snow Crash by a man named Raven who hints that it is a form of narcotic. Hiros friend and fellow hacker Da5id views a bitmap image contained in the file which causes his computer to crash, Juanita advises him to be careful and disappears. The Mafia boss Uncle Enzo begins to take a paternal interest in Y. T, impressed by her attitude and initiative, he arranges to meet her and offers her freelance jobs. Juanitas research showed that the ancient Sumerian ur-language allowed brain function to be programmed using audio stimuli in conjunction with a DNA altering virus, Sumerian culture was organized around these programs which were administered by priests to the populace. L. Bob Rife had been collecting Sumerian artifacts and developed the drug Snow Crash in order to make the public vulnerable to new forms of me which he would control
16.
The Diamond Age
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The Diamond Age, Or, A Young Ladys Illustrated Primer is a science fiction novel by American writer Neal Stephenson. It is to some extent a bildungsroman or coming-of-age story, focused on a girl named Nell. The novel deals with themes of education, social class, ethnicity, the Diamond Age was first published in 1995 by Bantam Books, as a Bantam Spectra hardcover edition. In 1996, it won both the Hugo and Locus Awards, and was shortlisted for the Nebula and other awards, in 2009, a six-hour miniseries adapted from the novel was slated for development for the Syfy Channel, although the adaptation did not ultimately emerge. The Diamond Age depicts a near-future world revolutionised by advances in nanotechnology, Molecular nanotechnology is omni-present in the novels world, generally in the form of Matter Compilers and the products that come out of them. Major cities have immune systems made up of aerostatic defensive micromachines, and public matter compilers provide basic food, blankets, Matter compilers receive their raw materials from the Feed, a system analogous to the electrical grid of modern society. The Feed carries streams of energy and basic molecules, which are rapidly assembled into usable goods by matter compilers. The Source, where the Feeds stream of matter originates, is controlled by the Victorian phyle, the hierarchic nature of the Feed and an alternative, anarchic developing technology, known as the Seed, mirror the cultural conflict between East and West that is depicted in the book. Society in The Diamond Age is dominated by a number of phyles, Phyles are groups of people often distinguished by shared values, similar ethnic heritage, a common religion, or other cultural similarities. In the extremely globalized future depicted in the novel, these divisions have largely supplanted the system of nation-states that divides the world today. Cities in The Diamond Age appear divided into sovereign enclaves affiliated or belonging to different phyles within a single metropolis, most phyles depicted in the novel have a global scope of sovereignty, and maintain segregated enclaves in or near many cities throughout the world. The phyles coexist much like historical nation-states under a system of justice and mutual protection, the rules of the CEP are intended to provide for the co-existence of, and peaceful economic activity between, phyles with potentially very different values. The CEP is concerned particularly with upholding rights to personal property, the role of the CEP in the world of the novel could be seen in comparison with the roles of real-life international organizations such as the United Nations and the International Monetary Fund. Thetes are individuals who are not members of any phyle and are socially disadvantaged and economically poor. The book distinguishes three Great Phyles, the Han, the Neo-Victorian New Atlantis and Nippon, the novel raises the question as to whether Hindustan is a fourth Great Phyle, or a riotously diverse collection of microtribes sintered together according to some formula we dont get. Internally, the New Atlantis phyle is a corporate oligarchy whose equity lords rule the organization, other phyles are less defined – some intentionally, as with the CryptNet group or the mysterious hive-mind Drummers. It is also hinted that property rights are so expansive that the Protocol recognizes children as the assets of their parents. Originally intended for the wealthy Neo-Victorian Equity Lord Chung-Sik Finkle-McGraws granddaughter, the story follows Nells development under the tutelage of the Primer, and to a lesser degree, the lives of Elizabeth and Fiona, girls who receive similar books
17.
Alan Turing
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Alan Mathison Turing OBE FRS was an English computer scientist, mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst and theoretical biologist. Turing is widely considered to be the father of computer science. During the Second World War, Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park, for a time he led Hut 8, the section responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. After the war, he worked at the National Physical Laboratory and he wrote a paper on the chemical basis of morphogenesis, and predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, first observed in the 1960s. Turing was prosecuted in 1952 for homosexual acts, when by the Labouchere Amendment and he accepted chemical castration treatment, with DES, as an alternative to prison. Turing died in 1954,16 days before his 42nd birthday, an inquest determined his death as suicide, but it has been noted that the known evidence is also consistent with accidental poisoning. In 2009, following an Internet campaign, British Prime Minister Gordon Brown made a public apology on behalf of the British government for the appalling way he was treated. Queen Elizabeth II granted him a pardon in 2013. The Alan Turing law is now a term for a 2017 law in the United Kingdom that retroactively pardons men cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. Turings father was the son of a clergyman, the Rev. John Robert Turing, from a Scottish family of merchants that had based in the Netherlands. Turings mother, Julius wife, was Ethel Sara, daughter of Edward Waller Stoney, the Stoneys were a Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry family from both County Tipperary and County Longford, while Ethel herself had spent much of her childhood in County Clare. Julius work with the ICS brought the family to British India and he had an elder brother, John. At Hastings, Turing stayed at Baston Lodge, Upper Maze Hill, St Leonards-on-Sea, very early in life, Turing showed signs of the genius that he was later to display prominently. His parents purchased a house in Guildford in 1927, and Turing lived there during school holidays, the location is also marked with a blue plaque. Turings parents enrolled him at St Michaels, a day school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-Sea, the headmistress recognised his talent early on, as did many of his subsequent educators. From January 1922 to 1926, Turing was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School, in 1926, at the age of 13, he went on to Sherborne School, an independent school in the market town of Sherborne in Dorset. Turings natural inclination towards mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some of the teachers at Sherborne and his headmaster wrote to his parents, I hope he will not fall between two stools. If he is to stay at school, he must aim at becoming educated
18.
Albert Einstein
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Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist. He developed the theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics, Einsteins work is also known for its influence on the philosophy of science. Einstein is best known in popular culture for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2, near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led him to develop his theory of relativity during his time at the Swiss Patent Office in Bern. Briefly before, he aquired the Swiss citizenship in 1901, which he kept for his whole life and he continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe. He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and, being Jewish, did not go back to Germany and he settled in the United States, becoming an American citizen in 1940. This eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project, Einstein supported defending the Allied forces, but generally denounced the idea of using the newly discovered nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955. Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works, on 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einsteins papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einsteins intellectual achievements and originality have made the word Einstein synonymous with genius, Albert Einstein was born in Ulm, in the Kingdom of Württemberg in the German Empire, on 14 March 1879. His parents were Hermann Einstein, a salesman and engineer, the Einsteins were non-observant Ashkenazi Jews, and Albert attended a Catholic elementary school in Munich from the age of 5 for three years. At the age of 8, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium, the loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to Milan, when the family moved to Pavia, Einstein stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to electrical engineering, but Einstein clashed with authorities and resented the schools regimen. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict rote learning, at the end of December 1894, he travelled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctors note. During his time in Italy he wrote an essay with the title On the Investigation of the State of the Ether in a Magnetic Field
19.
Douglas MacArthur
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Douglas MacArthur was an American five-star general and field marshal of the Philippine Army. He was Chief of Staff of the United States Army during the 1930s and he received the Medal of Honor for his service in the Philippines Campaign, which made him and his father Arthur MacArthur, Jr. the first father and son to be awarded the medal. He was one of five men ever to rise to the rank of General of the Army in the US Army. During the 1914 United States occupation of Veracruz, he conducted a reconnaissance mission, in 1917, he was promoted from major to colonel and became chief of staff of the 42nd Division. From 1919 to 1922, MacArthur served as Superintendent of the U. S, Military Academy at West Point, where he attempted a series of reforms. His next assignment was in the Philippines, where in 1924 he was instrumental in quelling the Philippine Scout Mutiny, in 1925, he became the Armys youngest major general. He served on the martial of Brigadier General Billy Mitchell and was president of the American Olympic Committee during the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam. In 1930, he became Chief of Staff of the United States Army, as such, he was involved in the expulsion of the Bonus Army protesters from Washington, D. C. in 1932, and the establishment and organization of the Civilian Conservation Corps. He retired from the US Army in 1937 to become Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines, MacArthur was recalled to active duty in 1941 as commander of United States Army Forces in the Far East. A series of disasters followed, starting with the destruction of his air forces on 8 December 1941, MacArthurs forces were soon compelled to withdraw to Bataan, where they held out until May 1942. In March 1942, MacArthur, his family and his staff left nearby Corregidor Island in PT boats and escaped to Australia, upon his arrival in Australia, MacArthur gave a speech in which he famously promised I shall return to the Philippines. For his defense of the Philippines, MacArthur was awarded the Medal of Honor, after more than two years of fighting in the Pacific, he fulfilled a promise to return to the Philippines. He officially accepted Japans surrender on 2 September 1945, aboard USS Missouri anchored in Tokyo Bay, as the effective ruler of Japan, he oversaw sweeping economic, political and social changes. He led the United Nations Command in the Korean War until he was removed from command by President Harry S. Truman on 11 April 1951 and he later became Chairman of the Board of Remington Rand. A military brat, Douglas MacArthur was born 26 January 1880, at Little Rock Barracks, Little Rock, Arkansas, to Arthur MacArthur, Jr. a U. S. Army captain, Pinkney came from a prominent Norfolk, Virginia, family. Two of her brothers had fought for the South in the Civil War, Arthur and Pinky had three sons, of whom Douglas was the youngest, following Arthur III, born on 1 August 1876, and Malcolm, born on 17 October 1878. The family lived on a succession of Army posts in the American Old West, conditions were primitive, and Malcolm died of measles in 1883. In his memoir, Reminiscences, MacArthur wrote I learned to ride and shoot even before I could read or write—indeed and this time on the frontier ended in July 1889 when the family moved to Washington, D. C. where Douglas attended the Force Public School
20.
Winston Churchill
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Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill KG OM CH TD PC DL FRS RA was a British statesman who was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1940 to 1945 and again from 1951 to 1955. Churchill was also an officer in the British Army, a historian. He won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1953 for his overall, in 1963, he was the first of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States. Churchill was born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough and his father, Lord Randolph Churchill, was a charismatic politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer, his mother, Jennie Jerome, was an American socialite. As a young officer, he saw action in British India, the Anglo–Sudan War. He gained fame as a war correspondent and wrote books about his campaigns, at the forefront of politics for fifty years, he held many political and cabinet positions. Before the First World War, he served as President of the Board of Trade, Home Secretary, during the war, he continued as First Lord of the Admiralty until the disastrous Gallipoli Campaign caused his departure from government. He then briefly resumed active service on the Western Front as commander of the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He returned to government under Lloyd George as Minister of Munitions, Secretary of State for War, Secretary of State for Air, at the outbreak of the Second World War, he was again appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain on 10 May 1940, Churchill became Prime Minister and he led Britain as Prime Minister until victory over Nazi Germany had been secured. After the Conservative Party suffered a defeat in the 1945 general election. He publicly warned of an Iron Curtain of Soviet influence in Europe, after winning the 1951 election, Churchill again became Prime Minister. His second term was preoccupied by foreign affairs, including the Malayan Emergency, Mau Mau Uprising, Korean War, domestically his government laid great emphasis on house-building. Churchill suffered a stroke in 1953 and retired as Prime Minister in 1955. Upon his death aged ninety in 1965, Elizabeth II granted him the honour of a state funeral and his highly complex legacy continues to stimulate intense debate amongst writers and historians. Born into the family of the Dukes of Marlborough, a branch of the noble Spencer family, Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, like his father. His ancestor George Spencer had changed his surname to Spencer-Churchill in 1817 when he became Duke of Marlborough, to highlight his descent from John Churchill, Churchill was born on 30 November 1874, two months prematurely, in a bedroom in Blenheim Palace, Woodstock, Oxfordshire. From age two to six, he lived in Dublin, where his grandfather had been appointed Viceroy, Churchills brother, John Strange Spencer-Churchill, was born during this time in Ireland
21.
Isoroku Yamamoto
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Isoroku Yamamoto was a Japanese Marshal Admiral of the Navy and the commander-in-chief of the Combined Fleet during World War II until his death. Yamamoto held several important posts in the Imperial Japanese Navy, and undertook many of its changes and reorganizations and he was the commander-in-chief during the decisive early years of the Pacific War, so was responsible for major battles such as Pearl Harbor and Midway. He died when American code breakers identified his flight plans and his plane was shot down and his death was a major blow to Japanese military morale during World War II. Yamamoto was born Isoroku Takano in Nagaoka, Niigata and his father was Sadayoshi Takano, an intermediate-rank samurai of the Nagaoka Domain. Isoroku is an old Japanese term meaning 56, the referred to his fathers age at Isorokus birth. In 1916, Isoroku was adopted into the Yamamoto family and took the Yamamoto name and it was a common practice for samurai families lacking sons to adopt suitable young men in this fashion to carry on the family name, the rank and the income that comes with it. In 1918 Isoroku married Reiko Mihashi, with whom he had two sons and two daughters, after graduating from the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy in 1904, Yamamoto served on the armored cruiser Nisshin during the Russo-Japanese War. He was wounded at the Battle of Tsushima, losing two fingers on his hand, as the cruiser was hit repeatedly by the Russian battle line. He returned to the Naval Staff College in 1914, emerging as a lieutenant commander in 1916, Yamamoto was part of the Japanese Navy establishment, who were rivals of the more aggressive army establishment, especially the officers of the Kwantung Army. This stance led him to oppose the invasion of China and he also opposed war against the United States partly because of his studies at Harvard University and his two postings as a naval attaché in Washington, D. C. where he learned to speak fluent English. Yamamoto traveled extensively in the United States during his tour of duty there and he was promoted to captain in 1923. On February 13,1924, at the rank of captain, later that year, he changed his specialty from gunnery to naval aviation. His first command was the cruiser Isuzu in 1928, followed by the aircraft carrier Akagi, Yamamoto was a strong proponent of naval aviation, and served as head of the Aeronautics Department before accepting a post as commander of the First Carrier Division. Yamamoto opposed the invasion of Manchuria in 1931, the subsequent land war with China, as Deputy Navy Minister, he apologized to United States Ambassador Joseph C. Grew for the bombing of the gunboat USS Panay in December 1937 and these issues made him a target of assassination threats by pro-war militarists. Yamamoto received a stream of hate mail and death threats from Japanese nationalists. His reaction to the prospect of death by assassination was passive, the admiral wrote, To die for Emperor and Nation is the highest hope of a military man. After a brave hard fight the blossoms are scattered on the fighting field, but if a person wants to take a life instead, still the fighting man will go to eternity for Emperor and country
22.
Ronald Reagan
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Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
23.
Prime number
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A prime number is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive divisors other than 1 and itself. A natural number greater than 1 that is not a number is called a composite number. For example,5 is prime because 1 and 5 are its only positive integer factors, the property of being prime is called primality. A simple but slow method of verifying the primality of a number n is known as trial division. It consists of testing whether n is a multiple of any integer between 2 and n, algorithms much more efficient than trial division have been devised to test the primality of large numbers. Particularly fast methods are available for numbers of forms, such as Mersenne numbers. As of January 2016, the largest known prime number has 22,338,618 decimal digits, there are infinitely many primes, as demonstrated by Euclid around 300 BC. There is no simple formula that separates prime numbers from composite numbers. However, the distribution of primes, that is to say, many questions regarding prime numbers remain open, such as Goldbachs conjecture, and the twin prime conjecture. Such questions spurred the development of branches of number theory. Prime numbers give rise to various generalizations in other domains, mainly algebra, such as prime elements. A natural number is called a number if it has exactly two positive divisors,1 and the number itself. Natural numbers greater than 1 that are not prime are called composite, among the numbers 1 to 6, the numbers 2,3, and 5 are the prime numbers, while 1,4, and 6 are not prime. 1 is excluded as a number, for reasons explained below. 2 is a number, since the only natural numbers dividing it are 1 and 2. Next,3 is prime, too,1 and 3 do divide 3 without remainder, however,4 is composite, since 2 is another number dividing 4 without remainder,4 =2 ·2. 5 is again prime, none of the numbers 2,3, next,6 is divisible by 2 or 3, since 6 =2 ·3. The image at the right illustrates that 12 is not prime,12 =3 ·4, no even number greater than 2 is prime because by definition, any such number n has at least three distinct divisors, namely 1,2, and n
24.
Modular arithmetic
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In mathematics, modular arithmetic is a system of arithmetic for integers, where numbers wrap around upon reaching a certain value—the modulus. The modern approach to modular arithmetic was developed by Carl Friedrich Gauss in his book Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, a familiar use of modular arithmetic is in the 12-hour clock, in which the day is divided into two 12-hour periods. If the time is 7,00 now, then 8 hours later it will be 3,00. Usual addition would suggest that the time should be 7 +8 =15. Likewise, if the clock starts at 12,00 and 21 hours elapse, then the time will be 9,00 the next day, because the hour number starts over after it reaches 12, this is arithmetic modulo 12. According to the definition below,12 is congruent not only to 12 itself, Modular arithmetic can be handled mathematically by introducing a congruence relation on the integers that is compatible with the operations on integers, addition, subtraction, and multiplication. For a positive n, two integers a and b are said to be congruent modulo n, written, a ≡ b. The number n is called the modulus of the congruence, for example,38 ≡14 because 38 −14 =24, which is a multiple of 12. The same rule holds for negative values, −8 ≡72 ≡ −3 −3 ≡ −8. Equivalently, a ≡ b mod n can also be thought of as asserting that the remainders of the division of both a and b by n are the same, for instance,38 ≡14 because both 38 and 14 have the same remainder 2 when divided by 12. It is also the case that 38 −14 =24 is a multiple of 12. A remark on the notation, Because it is common to consider several congruence relations for different moduli at the same time, in spite of the ternary notation, the congruence relation for a given modulus is binary. This would have been if the notation a ≡n b had been used. The properties that make this relation a congruence relation are the following, if a 1 ≡ b 1 and a 2 ≡ b 2, then, a 1 + a 2 ≡ b 1 + b 2 a 1 − a 2 ≡ b 1 − b 2. The above two properties would still hold if the theory were expanded to all real numbers, that is if a1, a2, b1, b2. The next property, however, would fail if these variables were not all integers, the notion of modular arithmetic is related to that of the remainder in Euclidean division. The operation of finding the remainder is referred to as the modulo operation. For example, the remainder of the division of 14 by 12 is denoted by 14 mod 12, as this remainder is 2, we have 14 mod 12 =2
25.
Necronomicon
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The Necronomicon is a fictional grimoire appearing in the stories by horror writer H. P. Lovecraft and his followers. Among other things, the contains a account of the Old Ones, their history. Other authors such as August Derleth and Clark Ashton Smith also cited it in their works, Lovecraft approved, capitalizing on the notoriety of the fictional volume, real-life publishers have printed many books entitled Necronomicon since Lovecrafts death. How Lovecraft conceived the name Necronomicon is not clear—Lovecraft said that the title came to him in a dream. Lovecraft wrote that the title, as translated from the Greek language, meant an image of the law of the dead, compounded respectively from νεκρός nekros dead, νόμος nomos law, and εἰκών eikon image. Robert M. Price notes that the title has been translated by others as Book of the names of the dead, Book of the laws of the dead, Book of dead names. S. T. Joshi states that Lovecrafts own etymology is almost entirely unsound, the last portion of it is particularly erroneous, since -ikon is nothing more than a neuter adjectival suffix and has nothing to do with eikõn. Joshi translates the title as Book considering the dead, Lovecraft was often asked about the veracity of the Necronomicon, and always answered that it was completely his invention. In a letter to Willis Conover, Lovecraft elaborated upon his typical answer, Now about the terrible, there never was any Abdul Alhazred or Necronomicon, for I invented these names myself. Robert Bloch devised the idea of Ludvig Prinn and his De Vermis Mysteriis, robert E. Howard is responsible for Friedrich von Junzt and his Unaussprechlichen Kulten. As for seriously-written books on dark, occult, and supernatural themes — in all truth they don’t amount to much and that is why it’s more fun to invent mythical works like the Necronomicon and Book of Eibon. Reinforcing the books fictionalization, the name of the supposed author. The name Abdul simply means the worshiper/slave of, standing alone, it would make no sense, as Alhazred is not a surname in the Western sense, but a reference to a persons place of birth. In 1927, Lovecraft wrote a brief pseudo-history of the Necronomicon that was published in 1938, after his death, one Arabic/English dictionary translates Azīf as whistling, weird sound or noise. Gabriel Oussani defined it as the sound of the jinn in the wilderness. The tradition of azif al jinn is linked to the phenomenon of singing sand, in the History, Alhazred is said to have been a half-crazed Arab who worshipped the Lovecraftian entities Yog-Sothoth and Cthulhu. He is described as being from Sanaa in Yemen, and as visiting the ruins of Babylon, the secrets of Memphis. In his last years, he lived in Damascus, where he wrote Al Azif before his sudden, in subsequent years, Lovecraft wrote, the Azif gained considerable, though surreptitious circulation amongst the philosophers of the age
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H. P. Lovecraft
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Howard Phillips Lovecraft was an American author who achieved posthumous fame through his influential works of horror fiction. He was virtually unknown and published only in magazines before he died in poverty. Lovecraft was born in Providence, Rhode Island, where he spent most of his life, among his most celebrated tales are The Call of Cthulhu and The Shadow over Innsmouth, both canonical to the Cthulhu Mythos. Lovecraft was never able to support himself from earnings as author and editor and he saw commercial success increasingly elude him in this latter period, partly because he lacked the confidence and drive to promote himself. He subsisted in straitened circumstances in his last years, an inheritance was completely spent by the time that he died at age 46. Lovecraft was born on August 20,1890 in his home at 194 Angell Street in Providence. Both of his parents were of entirely English ancestry, and most of his ancestors had been in New England since the colonial period and his great-grandfather Joseph Lovecraft Jr. emigrated to Rochester, New York from Devon, England in 1831. Lovecraft maintained throughout his life that his father died in a condition of paralysis brought on by nervous exhaustion. It has been suggested that his fathers mental illness may have been caused by syphilis, all five resided together in the family home. Lovecraft was a prodigy, reciting poetry at the age of three and writing complete poems by six. His grandfather encouraged his reading, providing him with such as One Thousand and One Nights, Thomas Bulfinchs Age of Fable, and childrens versions of the Iliad. His grandfather also stirred the boys interest in the weird by telling him his own tales of gothic horror. Lovecraft was frequently ill as a child, and he attended school until he was eight years old because of his sickly condition. He read voraciously during this period and became enamored of chemistry. He produced several hectographed publications with a circulation, beginning in 1899 with The Scientific Gazette. Four years later, he returned to school at Hope High School. Beginning in his life, Lovecraft is believed to have suffered from sleep paralysis. Much of his work is thought to have been directly inspired by these terrors
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John Wilkins
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John Wilkins FRS was an Anglican clergyman, natural philosopher and author, and was one of the founders of the Royal Society. He was Bishop of Chester from 1668 until his death, Wilkins is one of the few persons to have headed a college at both the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. He was a polymath, although not one of the most important scientific innovators of the period and he was one of the founders of the new natural theology compatible with the science of the time. Gilbert Burnet called him the wisest clergyman I ever knew and he was a lover of mankind, and had a delight in doing good. His stepdaughter married John Tillotson, who became Archbishop of Canterbury and his mother then remarried, and Walter Pope was a half-brother. Wilkins was educated at a school in Oxford run by Edward Sylvester and he then moved to Magdalen Hall, Oxford where his tutor was John Tombes, and graduated with a B. A. degree in 1631, an M. A. degree in 1634. He studied astronomy with John Bainbridge and he was ordained a priest of the Church of England in Christ Church Cathedral in February 1638. He then became chaplain successively to Lord Saye and Sele, in 1644 he became chaplain to Prince Charles Louis, nephew of King Charles I, who was then in England. These included George Ent, Samuel Foster, Francis Glisson, Jonathan Goddard, Christopher Merrett, others of Scarburghs circle were William Harvey and Seth Ward. From 1648 Charles Louis was able to take up his position as Elector of the Palatinate on the Rhine, Wilkins travelled to continental Europe, and according to Anthony Wood visited Heidelberg. In 1648 Wilkins became Warden of Wadham College, in Oxford and he fostered political and religious tolerance and drew talented minds to the college, including Christopher Wren. Although he was a supporter of Oliver Cromwell, Royalists placed their sons in his charge, from those interested in experimental science, he drew together a significant group known as the Oxford Philosophical Club, which by 1650 had been constituted with a set of rules. Besides some of the London group, it included Ralph Bathurst, Robert Boyle, William Petty, Lawrence Rooke, Thomas Willis, by 1658 he was working with Boyle. In 1656, he married Robina French née Cromwell, youngest sister of Oliver Cromwell, who had been widowed in 1655 when her husband Peter French, Wilkins thereby joined a high stratum of Parliamentary society, and the couple used rooms in Whitehall Palace. He was there enough to befriend and become a patron of Isaac Barrow. Upon the Restoration in 1660, the new authorities deprived Wilkins of the position given him by Cromwell, he gained appointment as prebendary of York and rector of Cranford, in 1661 he was reduced to preacher at Grays Inn, lodging with his friend Seth Ward. In 1662 he became vicar of St Lawrence Jewry, London and he suffered in the Great Fire of London, losing his vicarage, library and scientific instruments. Wilkins became vicar of Polebrook, Northamptonshire, in 1666, prebendary of Exeter in 1667 and he owed his position as bishop to the influence of George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham
28.
Quicksilver (novel)
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Quicksilver is a historical novel by Neal Stephenson, published in 2003. It is the first volume of The Baroque Cycle, his late Baroque historical fiction series, succeeded by The Confusion, Quicksilver won the Arthur C. Clarke Award and was nominated for the Locus Award in 2004. Stephenson organized the structure of Quicksilver such that chapters have been incorporated into three books titled Quicksilver, The King of the Vagabonds, and Odalisque. In 2006, each book was released in separate paperback editions. These internal books were originally independent novels within the cycle during composition. The novel Quicksilver is written in various styles, such as theatrical staging and epistolary. Though mostly set in late 17th century England, France, and the United Provinces, in order to write the novel, Stephenson researched the period extensively and integrates events and historical themes important to historical scholarship throughout the novel. However, Stephenson alters details such as the members of the Cabal ministry, within the historical context, Stephenson also deals with many themes which pervade his other works, including the exploration of knowledge, communication and cryptography. The second book introduces the vagabond Jack Shaftoe and Eliza as they cross Europe, eventually landing in the Netherlands, Quicksilver operates in the same fictional universe as Stephensons earlier novel Cryptonomicon, in which descendants of Quicksilver characters Shaftoe and Waterhouse appear prominently. He considered this striking when was already working on a book about money and a book about computers, originally intended to be included in Cryptonomicon, Stephenson instead used the material as the foundation for Quicksilver, the first volume of the Baroque Cycle. In Quicksilver, Stephenson places the ancestors of the Cryptonomicons characters in Enlightenment Europe alongside a cast of historical individuals from Restoration England, amongst the cast are some of the most prominent natural philosophers, mathematicians and scientists, and politicians of the age. In his research for the characters, he explored the major scholarship about the period, in the course of his research he noted historiographic inconsistencies regarding characters of the period which he had to reconcile. Especially prominent was the deification of Newton, Locke and Boyle and their scientific method by Enlightenment and he considers the scientific work done during the Baroque period as crucial to the Enlightenment. The portrayal of a confusing and uncertain era develops throughout the book, some reviewers commented that Stephenson seems to carry his understanding of the period a little too far at times, delving into too much detail. Nick Hasted of The Independent wrote that this research made descriptions of Restoration London feel leaden, despite the thorough examination of the period, however, Stephenson does take liberty in depicting the Enlightenment. Both main and secondary fictional characters become prominent members of society who advise the most important figures of the period and affect everything from politics to economics, for example, he repopulates the real Cabal Ministry with fictional characters. Quicksilver is a fiction novel that occasionally uses fantasy and science fiction techniques. The book is written in an omniscient modern presence occasionally given to wisecracks, mark Sanderson of The Daily Telegraph and Steven Poole of The Guardian both describe the novel as in the picaresque genre, a genre common to 17th- and 18th-century Europe
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William F. Friedman
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William Frederick Friedman was a US Army cryptographer who ran the research division of the Armys Signal Intelligence Service in the 1930s, and parts of its follow-on services into the 1950s. In 1940, subordinates of his led by Frank Rowlett broke Japans PURPLE cipher, Friedmans family fled Russia in 1892 to escape the virulent anti-Semitism there, ending up in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Three years later, his first name was changed to William, as a child, Friedman was introduced to cryptography in the short story The Gold-Bug by Edgar Allan Poe. He studied at the Michigan Agricultural College in East Lansing and received a scholarship to work on genetics at Cornell University. Meanwhile, George Fabyan, who ran a research laboratory to study any personally interesting project. Friedman joined Fabyans Riverbank Laboratories outside Chicago in September 1915, as head of the Department of Genetics, one of the projects he ran studied the effects of moonlight on crop growth, and so he experimented with the planting of wheat during various phases of the moon. Another of Fabyans pet projects was research into secret messages which Sir Francis Bacon had allegedly hidden in various texts during the reigns of Elizabeth I, the research was carried out by Elizabeth Wells Gallup. She believed that she had discovered many such messages in the works of William Shakespeare and he became fascinated with the work as he courted Elizebeth Smith, Mrs. Gallups assistant and an accomplished cryptographer. They married, and he became director of Riverbanks Department of Codes. With the entry of the United States into World War I, Fabyan offered the services of his Department of Codes, No Federal department existed for this kind of work, and soon Riverbank became the unofficial cryptographic center for the US Government. During this period, the Friedmans broke a code used by German-funded Indian radicals in the US who planned to ship arms to India to gain independence from Britain. Analysing the format of the messages, Riverbank realized that the code was based on a dictionary of some sort, a cryptographic technique common at the time. The Friedmans soon managed to decrypt most of the messages, but only long after the case had come to trial did the book come to light. The United States government decided to set up its own cryptological service, to support the program, Friedman wrote a series of technical monographs, completing seven by early 1918. He then enlisted in the Army and went to France to serve as the personal cryptographer for General John J. Pershing and his texts for Army cryptographic training were well thought of and remained classified for several decades. In 1921 he became chief cryptanalyst for the War Department and later led the Signals Intelligence Service—a position he kept for a quarter century, Friedman coined several terms, including cryptanalysis, and wrote many monographs on cryptography. One of these was the first draft of his Elements of cryptanalysis, realizing that mathematical and language skills were essential to SIS work, Friedman managed to get authority to hire three men with both mathematical training and language knowledge. They were Solomon Kullback, Frank Rowlett and Abraham Sinkov, each of whom went on to distinguished service for decades, in addition he also was finally able to hire a man fluent in Japanese, John Hurt
30.
Dot-com bubble
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The period was marked by the founding of several new Internet-based companies commonly referred to as dot-coms. Companies could cause their stock prices to increase by adding an e- prefix to their name or a. com suffix. By the end of the 1990s, the NASDAQ hit a P/E ratio of 200, the collapse of the bubble took place during 1999–2001. Some companies, such as pets. com and Webvan, failed completely, others – such as Cisco, whose stock declined by 86% – lost a large portion of their market capitalization but remained stable and profitable. Some, such as eBay. com, later recovered and even surpassed their dot-com-bubble peaks, the stock of Amazon. com came to exceed $700 per share, for example, after having gone from $107 to $7 in the crash. The low interest rates of 1998–99 helped increase the start-up capital amounts, a canonical dot-com companys business model relied on harnessing network effects by operating at a sustained net loss and building market share. These companies offered their services or end product for free with the expectation that they could build enough brand awareness to charge profitable rates for their services later, the motto get big fast reflected this strategy. This occurred in industrialized nations due to the digital divide in the late 1990s. The absence of infrastructure and a lack of understanding were two obstacles that previously obstructed mass connectivity. For these reasons, individuals had limited capabilities in what they could do, increased means of connectivity to the Internet than previously available allowed the use of ICT to progress from a luxury good to a necessity good. As connectivity grew, so did the potential for venture capitalists to take advantage of the growing field, the functionalism, or impacts of technologies driven from the cost effectiveness of new Internet websites ultimately influenced the demand growth during this time. A bubble occurs when speculators note the fast increase in value and decide to buy in anticipation of further rises, typically, during a bubble, many companies thus become grossly overvalued. When the bubble bursts, the prices fall dramatically. The prices of many non-technology stocks increased in tandem and were pushed up to valuations uncorrelated to fundamentals. Andrew Smith argued that the financial industrys handling of initial public offerings tended to benefit the banks, in contrast, the financiers and other initial investors were typically entitled to sell at the peak price, and so could immediately profit from short-term price rises. Smith argues that the profitability of the IPOs to Wall Street was a significant factor in the course of events of the bubble. He writes, But did the kids dupe the establishment by drawing them into companies, or did the establishment dupe the kids by introducing them to Mammon. In spite of this, however, a few company founders made vast fortunes when their companies were out at an early stage in the dot-com stock market bubble
31.
1997 Asian financial crisis
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At the time, Thailand had acquired a burden of foreign debt that made the country effectively bankrupt even before the collapse of its currency. As the crisis spread, most of Southeast Asia and Japan saw slumping currencies, devalued stock markets and other asset prices, Indonesia, South Korea and Thailand were the countries most affected by the crisis. Hong Kong, Laos, Malaysia and the Philippines were also hurt by the slump, brunei, China, Singapore, Taiwan and Vietnam were less affected, although all suffered from a loss of demand and confidence throughout the region. Foreign debt-to-GDP ratios rose from 100% to 167% in the four large Association of Southeast Asian Nations economies in 1993–96, in South Korea, the ratios rose from 13% to 21% and then as high as 40%, while the other northern newly industrialized countries fared much better. Only in Thailand and South Korea did debt service-to-exports ratios rise, the efforts to stem a global economic crisis did little to stabilize the domestic situation in Indonesia, however. After 30 years in power, President Suharto was forced to step down on 21 May 1998 in the wake of rioting that followed sharp price increases caused by a drastic devaluation of the rupiah. The effects of the crisis lingered through 1998, in 1998 the Philippines growth dropped to virtually zero. By 1999, however, analysts saw signs that the economies of Asia were beginning to recover, after the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, economies in the region are working toward financial stability on financial supervision. Until 1999, Asia attracted almost half of the capital inflow into developing countries. The economies of Southeast Asia in particular maintained high interest rates attractive to investors looking for a high rate of return. As a result, the regions received a large inflow of money. At the same time, the economies of Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore. This achievement was widely acclaimed by financial institutions including IMF and World Bank, the causes of the debacle are many and disputed. Thailands economy developed into an economic bubble fueled by hot money, more and more was required as the size of the bubble grew. The same type of situation happened in Malaysia, and Indonesia, the short-term capital flow was expensive and often highly conditioned for quick profit. Development money went in an uncontrolled manner to certain people only, not particularly the best suited or most efficient. As the U. S. economy recovered from a recession in the early 1990s, the U. S. Federal Reserve Bank under Alan Greenspan began to raise U. S. interest rates to head off inflation. S. dollar. For the Southeast Asian nations which had pegged to the U. S. dollar
32.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
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Enigma machine
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The Enigma machines were a series of electro-mechanical rotor cipher machines developed and used in the early- to mid-twentieth century to protect commercial, diplomatic and military communication. Enigma was invented by the German engineer Arthur Scherbius at the end of World War I, early models were used commercially from the early 1920s, and adopted by military and government services of several countries, most notably Nazi Germany before and during World War II. Several different Enigma models were produced, but the German military models, however, Japanese and Italian models were also in use. Rejewski did that without knowing the machine wiring, so the result did not allow the Poles to read any messages, however, the French had a spy with access to German cipher materials that included the daily keys used in September and October 1932. Those keys included the plugboard settings, the French gave the material to the Poles, and Rejewski used some of that material and the message traffic in September and October to solve for the unknown rotor wiring. Consequently, the Poles were able to build their own Enigma machines, Rejewski was aided by cryptanalysts Jerzy Różycki and Henryk Zygalski, both of whom had been recruited with Rejewski from Poznań University. The Polish Cipher Bureau developed techniques to defeat the plugboard and find all components of the daily key, over time, the German cryptographic procedures improved, and the Cipher Bureau developed techniques and designed mechanical devices to continue breaking the Enigma traffic. In 1938, the Germans added complexity to the Enigma machines that finally became too expensive for the Poles to counter. The Poles had six bomby, but when the Germans added two more rotors, ten times as many bomby were needed, but the Poles did not have the resources, the demonstration represented a vital basis for the later British continuation and effort. During the war, British cryptologists decrypted a vast number of messages enciphered on Enigma, the intelligence gleaned from this source, codenamed Ultra by the British, was a substantial aid to the Allied war effort. Like other rotor machines, the Enigma machine is a combination of mechanical and electrical subsystems, the mechanical parts act in such a way as to form a varying electrical circuit. When a key is pressed, one or more move to form a new rotor configuration. Current flows through various components in the new configuration, ultimately lighting one display lamp, which shows the output letter. For example, when encrypting a message starting ANX. the operator would first press the A key, the operator would next press N, and then X in the same fashion, and so on. Current flowed from the battery through a depressed bi-directional keyboard switch to the plugboard, next, it passed through the plug A via the entry wheel, through the wiring of the three or four installed rotors, and entered the reflector. The repeated changes of electrical path through an Enigma scrambler implemented a polyalphabetic substitution cipher that provided Enigmas security, the diagram on the right shows how the electrical pathway changed with each key depression, which caused rotation of at least the right-hand rotor. Current passed into the set of rotors, into and back out of the reflector, the greyed-out lines are other possible paths within each rotor, these are hard-wired from one side of each rotor to the other. The letter A encrypts differently with consecutive key presses, first to G and this is because the right-hand rotor has stepped, sending the signal on a completely different route
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United States Marine Corps
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The U. S. Marine Corps is one of the four armed service branches in the U. S. Department of Defense and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The current Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, the military officer in the U. S. Armed Forces, is a Marine Corps general, the Marine Corps has been a component of the U. S. Department of the Navy since 30 June 1834, working closely with naval forces for training, transportation, and logistics. The USMC operates posts on land and aboard sea-going amphibious warfare ships around the world, two battalions of Continental Marines were formed on 10 November 1775 in Philadelphia as a service branch of infantry troops capable of fighting for independence both at sea and on shore. The role of the Corps has since grown and evolved, expanding to aerial warfare and earning popular titles such as, Americas third air force, and, second land army. By the mid-20th century, the U. S. Marine Corps had become a major theorist of and its ability to rapidly respond on short notice to expeditionary crises gives it a strong role in the implementation and execution of American foreign policy. As of 2016, the USMC has around 182,000 active duty members and it is the smallest of the U. S. The USMC serves as an expeditionary force-in-readiness and this last clause, while seemingly redundant given the Presidents position as Commander-in-chief, is a codification of the expeditionary responsibilities of the Marine Corps. It derives from similar language in the Congressional acts For the Better Organization of the Marine Corps of 1834, in 1951, the House of Representatives Armed Services Committee called the clause one of the most important statutory – and traditional – functions of the Marine Corps. In addition to its duties, the Marine Corps conducts Visit, Board, Search, and Seizure operations, as well as missions in direct support of the White House. The Marine Band, dubbed the Presidents Own by Thomas Jefferson, Marines from Ceremonial Companies A & B, quartered in Marine Barracks, Washington, D. C. The Executive Flight Detachment also provides transport to Cabinet members. The relationship between the Department of State and the U. S. Marine Corps is nearly as old as the corps itself, for over 200 years, Marines have served at the request of various Secretaries of State. After World War II, an alert, disciplined force was needed to protect American embassies, consulates, in 1947, a proposal was made that the Department of War furnish Marine Corps personnel for Foreign Service guard duty under the provisions of the Foreign Service Act of 1946. A formal Memorandum of Agreement was signed between the Department of State and the Secretary of the Navy on December 15,1948, during the first year of the MSG program,36 detachments were deployed worldwide. Continental Marines manned raiding parties, both at sea and ashore, the Advanced Base Doctrine of the early 20th century codified their combat duties ashore, outlining the use of Marines in the seizure of bases and other duties on land to support naval campaigns. Throughout the late 19th and 20th centuries, Marine detachments served aboard Navy cruisers, battleships, Marine detachments served in their traditional duties as a ships landing force, manning the ships weapons and providing shipboard security. Marines would develop tactics and techniques of amphibious assault on defended coastlines in time for use in World War II, during World War II, Marines continued to serve on capital ships
35.
China Marines
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Due to the cheap labor available, China Marines lived a relatively comfortable lifestyle, with each squad able to hire Chinese men to do its cleaning and run its errands. This, plus the inexpensive goods available on the local market, most of the China Marines were withdrawn in November 1941, but those at the embassy were scheduled to be withdrawn on December 10. The last commander of the China Marines was Colonel William W. Ashurst, after Japans surrender, the 1st and 6th Marine Divisions, also known as China Marines, were sent to occupy northern China from 1945 to 1948. The 31st MEU-SOC visited China again on November 22,2006, American Legion China Post One, formed in 1919, one year after the Great War and chartered by the American Legion on 20 April 1920, was originally named the General Frederick Townsend Ward Post No. It is the only post nominally headquartered in a communist country, griffin often writes of China Marines in his book series The Corps. Book 1 of the series in particular highlights the pre-World War II lives of China Marines, neal Stephensons book Cryptonomicon contains descriptions of the exploits of the China Marines in World War II. The book begins with the evacuation of Shanghai in 1941, Yangtze Patrol Yangtze Service Medal Operation Beleaguer China Service Medal History of the United States Marine Corps List of United States Marine Corps battalions Biggs, Jr. Chester M. The United States Marines in North China, 1894-1942, the United States Marines in North China, 1945-1949. Historical Branch, United States Marine Corps, chinaMarines. com China Marines Band China Marines. org American Legion China Post One
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