1.
Diamond cubic
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The diamond cubic crystal structure is a repeating pattern of 8 atoms that certain materials may adopt as they solidify. Diamond cubic is in the Fd3m space group, which follows the face-centered cubic Bravais lattice, the diamond lattice can be viewed as a pair of intersecting face-centered cubic lattices, with each separated by 1/4 of the width of the unit cell in each dimension. Many compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, β-silicon carbide, and indium antimonide adopt the analogous zincblende structure, zincblendes space group is F43m, but many of its structural properties are quite similar to the diamond structure. The atomic packing factor of the cubic structure is π√3/16 ≈0.34. Zincblende structures have higher packing factors than 0.34 depending on the sizes of their two component atoms. The first-, second-, third-, fourth- and fifth-nearest-neighbor distances in units of the lattice constant are √3/4, √2/2, √11/4,1 and √19/4. Mathematically, the points of the cubic structure can be given coordinates as a subset of a three-dimensional integer lattice by using a cubic unit cell four units across. With these coordinates, the points of the structure have coordinates satisfying the equations x = y = z, and x + y + z =0 or 1. There are eight points that satisfy these conditions, All of the points in the structure may be obtained by adding multiples of four to the x, y. Adjacent points in this structure are at distance √3 apart in the integer lattice and this structure may be scaled to a cubical unit cell that is some number a of units across by multiplying all coordinates by a/4. Alternatively, each point of the cubic structure may be given by four-dimensional integer coordinates whose sum is either zero or one. Two points are adjacent in the structure if and only if their four-dimensional coordinates differ by one in a single coordinate. The total difference in values between any two points gives the number of edges in the shortest path between them in the diamond structure. These four-dimensional coordinates may be transformed into three-dimensional coordinates by the formula →, because the diamond structure forms a distance-preserving subset of the four-dimensional integer lattice, it is a partial cube. Yet another coordinatization of the diamond cubic involves the removal of some of the edges from a grid graph. The diamond cubic is sometimes called the lattice but it is not, mathematically. However, it is still a highly symmetric structure, any incident pair of a vertex, moreover the diamond crystal as a network in space has a strong isotropic property. Another crystal with this property is the Laves graph, the compressive strength and hardness of diamond and various other materials, such as boron nitride, is attributed to the diamond cubic structure
2.
Cubic crystal system
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In crystallography, the cubic crystal system is a crystal system where the unit cell is in the shape of a cube. This is one of the most common and simplest shapes found in crystals and minerals, there are three main varieties of these crystals, Primitive cubic Body-centered cubic, Face-centered cubic Each is subdivided into other variants listed below. Note that although the cell in these crystals is conventionally taken to be a cube. This is related to the fact that in most cubic crystal systems, a classic isometric crystal has square or pentagonal faces. The three Bravais lattices in the crystal system are, The primitive cubic system consists of one lattice point on each corner of the cube. Each atom at a point is then shared equally between eight adjacent cubes, and the unit cell therefore contains in total one atom. The body-centered cubic system has one point in the center of the unit cell in addition to the eight corner points. It has a net total of 2 lattice points per unit cell, Each sphere in a cF lattice has coordination number 12. The face-centered cubic system is related to the hexagonal close packed system. The plane of a cubic system is a hexagonal grid. Attempting to create a C-centered cubic crystal system would result in a simple tetragonal Bravais lattice, there are a total 36 cubic space groups. Other terms for hexoctahedral are, normal class, holohedral, ditesseral central class, a simple cubic unit cell has a single cubic void in the center. Additionally, there are 24 tetrahedral voids located in a square spacing around each octahedral void and these tetrahedral voids are not local maxima and are not technically voids, but they do occasionally appear in multi-atom unit cells. A face-centered cubic unit cell has eight tetrahedral voids located midway between each corner and the center of the cell, for a total of eight net tetrahedral voids. One important characteristic of a structure is its atomic packing factor. This is calculated by assuming all the atoms are identical spheres. The atomic packing factor is the proportion of space filled by these spheres, assuming one atom per lattice point, in a primitive cubic lattice with cube side length a, the sphere radius would be a⁄2 and the atomic packing factor turns out to be about 0.524. Similarly, in a bcc lattice, the atomic packing factor is 0.680, as a rule, since atoms in a solid attract each other, the more tightly packed arrangements of atoms tend to be more common
3.
Crystallography
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Crystallography is the experimental science of determining the arrangement of atoms in the crystalline solids. The word crystallography derives from the Greek words crystallon cold drop, frozen drop, with its meaning extending to all solids with some degree of transparency, and graphein to write. In July 2012, the United Nations recognised the importance of the science of crystallography by proclaiming that 2014 would be the International Year of Crystallography, X-ray crystallography is used to determine the structure of large biomolecules such as proteins. Before the development of X-ray diffraction crystallography, the study of crystals was based on measurements of their geometry. This involved measuring the angles of crystal faces relative to other and to theoretical reference axes. This physical measurement is carried out using a goniometer, the position in 3D space of each crystal face is plotted on a stereographic net such as a Wulff net or Lambert net. The pole to face is plotted on the net. Each point is labelled with its Miller index, the final plot allows the symmetry of the crystal to be established. Crystallographic methods now depend on analysis of the patterns of a sample targeted by a beam of some type. X-rays are most commonly used, other beams used include electrons or neutrons and this is facilitated by the wave properties of the particles. Crystallographers often explicitly state the type of beam used, as in the terms X-ray crystallography and these three types of radiation interact with the specimen in different ways. X-rays interact with the distribution of electrons in the sample. Electrons are charged particles and therefore interact with the charge distribution of both the atomic nuclei and the electrons of the sample. Neutrons are scattered by the atomic nuclei through the nuclear forces, but in addition. They are therefore also scattered by magnetic fields, when neutrons are scattered from hydrogen-containing materials, they produce diffraction patterns with high noise levels. However, the material can sometimes be treated to substitute deuterium for hydrogen, because of these different forms of interaction, the three types of radiation are suitable for different crystallographic studies. An image of an object is made using a lens to focus the beam. However, the wavelength of light is three orders of magnitude longer than the length of typical atomic bonds and atoms themselves
4.
Space group
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In mathematics, physics and chemistry, a space group is the symmetry group of a configuration in space, usually in three dimensions. In three dimensions, there are 219 distinct types, or 230 if chiral copies are considered distinct, Space groups are also studied in dimensions other than 3 where they are sometimes called Bieberbach groups, and are discrete cocompact groups of isometries of an oriented Euclidean space. In crystallography, space groups are called the crystallographic or Fedorov groups. A definitive source regarding 3-dimensional space groups is the International Tables for Crystallography, in 1879 Leonhard Sohncke listed the 65 space groups whose elements preserve the orientation. More accurately, he listed 66 groups, but Fedorov and Schönflies both noticed that two of them were really the same, the space groups in 3 dimensions were first enumerated by Fedorov, and shortly afterwards were independently enumerated by Schönflies. The correct list of 230 space groups was found by 1892 during correspondence between Fedorov and Schönflies, burckhardt describes the history of the discovery of the space groups in detail. The space groups in three dimensions are made from combinations of the 32 crystallographic point groups with the 14 Bravais lattices, the combination of all these symmetry operations results in a total of 230 different space groups describing all possible crystal symmetries. The elements of the space group fixing a point of space are rotations, reflections, the identity element, the translations form a normal abelian subgroup of rank 3, called the Bravais lattice. There are 14 possible types of Bravais lattice, the quotient of the space group by the Bravais lattice is a finite group which is one of the 32 possible point groups. Translation is defined as the moves from one point to another point. A glide plane is a reflection in a plane, followed by a parallel with that plane. This is noted by a, b or c, depending on which axis the glide is along. There is also the n glide, which is a glide along the half of a diagonal of a face, and the d glide, the latter is called the diamond glide plane as it features in the diamond structure. In 17 space groups, due to the centering of the cell, the glides occur in two directions simultaneously, i. e. the same glide plane can be called b or c, a or b. For example, group Abm2 could be also called Acm2, group Ccca could be called Cccb, in 1992, it was suggested to use symbol e for such planes. The symbols for five groups have been modified, A screw axis is a rotation about an axis. These are noted by a number, n, to describe the degree of rotation, the degree of translation is then added as a subscript showing how far along the axis the translation is, as a portion of the parallel lattice vector. So,21 is a rotation followed by a translation of 1/2 of the lattice vector
5.
Bravais lattice
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This discrete set of vectors must be closed under vector addition and subtraction. For any choice of position vector R, the lattice looks exactly the same, when the discrete points are atoms, ions, or polymer strings of solid matter, the Bravais lattice concept is used to formally define a crystalline arrangement and its frontiers. A crystal is made up of an arrangement of one or more atoms repeated at each lattice point. Consequently, the crystal looks the same when viewed from any equivalent lattice point, two Bravais lattices are often considered equivalent if they have isomorphic symmetry groups. In this sense, there are 14 possible Bravais lattices in three-dimensional space, the 14 possible symmetry groups of Bravais lattices are 14 of the 230 space groups. In two-dimensional space, there are 5 Bravais lattices, grouped into four crystal families, the unit cells are specified according to the relative lengths of the cell edges and the angle between them. The area of the cell can be calculated by evaluating the norm || a × b ||. The properties of the families are given below, In three-dimensional space. These are obtained by combining one of the six families with one of the centering types. For example, the monoclinic I lattice can be described by a monoclinic C lattice by different choice of crystal axes, similarly, all A- or B-centred lattices can be described either by a C- or P-centering. This reduces the number of combinations to 14 conventional Bravais lattices, the unit cells are specified according to the relative lengths of the cell edges and the angles between them. The volume of the cell can be calculated by evaluating the triple product a ·, where a, b. The properties of the families are given below, In four dimensions. Of these,23 are primitive and 41 are centered, ten Bravais lattices split into enantiomorphic pairs. Bravais, A. Mémoire sur les systèmes formés par les points distribués régulièrement sur un plan ou dans lespace, hahn, Theo, ed. International Tables for Crystallography, Volume A, Space Group Symmetry. Catalogue of Lattices Smith, Walter Fox
6.
Point group
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In geometry, a point group is a group of geometric symmetries that keep at least one point fixed. Point groups can exist in a Euclidean space with any dimension, point groups can be realized as sets of orthogonal matrices M that transform point x into point y, y = Mx where the origin is the fixed point. Point-group elements can either be rotations or else reflections, or improper rotations and these are the crystallographic point groups. Point groups can be classified into groups and achiral groups. The chiral groups are subgroups of the orthogonal group SO, they contain only orientation-preserving orthogonal transformations. The achiral groups contain also transformations of determinant −1, in an achiral group, the orientation-preserving transformations form a subgroup of index 2. Finite Coxeter groups or reflection groups are those point groups that are generated purely by a set of reflectional mirrors passing through the same point, a rank n Coxeter group has n mirrors and is represented by a Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. Coxeter notation offers a bracketed notation equivalent to the Coxeter diagram, with symbols for rotational. There are only two one-dimensional point groups, the identity group and the reflection group, point groups in two dimensions, sometimes called rosette groups. The subset of pure reflectional point groups, defined by 1 or 2 mirrors, can also be given by their Coxeter group and related polygons. The symmetry of the groups can be doubled by an isomorphism. Point groups in three dimensions, sometimes called point groups after their wide use in studying the symmetries of small molecules. They come in 7 infinite families of axial or prismatic groups, the reflection point groups, defined by 1 to 3 mirror planes, can also be given by their Coxeter group and related polyhedra. The group can be doubled, written as, mapping the first and last mirrors onto each other, doubling the symmetry to 48, the four-dimensional point groups are listed in Conway and Smith, Section 4, Tables 4. 1-4.3. The following list gives the four-dimensional reflection groups, each group is specified as a Coxeter group, and like the polyhedral groups of 3D, it can be named by its related convex regular 4-polytope. Front-back symmetric groups like and can be doubled, shown as double brackets in Coxeters notation, the following table gives the five-dimensional reflection groups, by listing them as Coxeter groups. The following table gives the six-dimensional reflection groups, by listing them as Coxeter groups, the following table gives the seven-dimensional reflection groups, by listing them as Coxeter groups. The following table gives the eight-dimensional reflection groups, by listing them as Coxeter groups, S. M. Coxeter, Kaleidoscopes, Selected Writings of H. S. M. Coxeter, edited by F. Arthur Sherk, Peter McMullen, Anthony C
7.
Crystal
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A crystal or crystalline solid is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all directions. In addition, macroscopic single crystals are usually identifiable by their geometrical shape, the scientific study of crystals and crystal formation is known as crystallography. The process of crystal formation via mechanisms of crystal growth is called crystallization or solidification, the word crystal derives from the Ancient Greek word κρύσταλλος, meaning both ice and rock crystal, from κρύος, icy cold, frost. Examples of large crystals include snowflakes, diamonds, and table salt, most inorganic solids are not crystals but polycrystals, i. e. many microscopic crystals fused together into a single solid. Examples of polycrystals include most metals, rocks, ceramics, a third category of solids is amorphous solids, where the atoms have no periodic structure whatsoever. Examples of amorphous solids include glass, wax, and many plastics, Crystals are often used in pseudoscientific practices such as crystal therapy, and, along with gemstones, are sometimes associated with spellwork in Wiccan beliefs and related religious movements. The scientific definition of a crystal is based on the arrangement of atoms inside it. A crystal is a solid where the form a periodic arrangement. For example, when liquid water starts freezing, the change begins with small ice crystals that grow until they fuse. Most macroscopic inorganic solids are polycrystalline, including almost all metals, ceramics, ice, rocks, solids that are neither crystalline nor polycrystalline, such as glass, are called amorphous solids, also called glassy, vitreous, or noncrystalline. These have no periodic order, even microscopically, there are distinct differences between crystalline solids and amorphous solids, most notably, the process of forming a glass does not release the latent heat of fusion, but forming a crystal does. A crystal structure is characterized by its cell, a small imaginary box containing one or more atoms in a specific spatial arrangement. The unit cells are stacked in three-dimensional space to form the crystal, the symmetry of a crystal is constrained by the requirement that the unit cells stack perfectly with no gaps. There are 219 possible crystal symmetries, called space groups. These are grouped into 7 crystal systems, such as cubic crystal system or hexagonal crystal system, Crystals are commonly recognized by their shape, consisting of flat faces with sharp angles. Euhedral crystals are those with obvious, well-formed flat faces, anhedral crystals do not, usually because the crystal is one grain in a polycrystalline solid. The flat faces of a crystal are oriented in a specific way relative to the underlying atomic arrangement of the crystal. This occurs because some surface orientations are more stable than others, as a crystal grows, new atoms attach easily to the rougher and less stable parts of the surface, but less easily to the flat, stable surfaces
8.
Trigonal crystal system
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In crystallography, the hexagonal crystal family is one of the 6 crystal families. In the hexagonal family, the crystal is described by a right rhombic prism unit cell with two equal axes, an included angle of 120° and a height perpendicular to the two base axes. There are 52 space groups associated with it, which are exactly those whose Bravais lattice is either hexagonal or rhombohedral, the hexagonal crystal family consists of two lattice systems, hexagonal and rhombohedral. Each lattice system consists of one Bravais lattice, hence, there are 3 lattice points per unit cell in total and the lattice is non-primitive. The Bravais lattices in the hexagonal crystal family can also be described by rhombohedral axes, the unit cell is a rhombohedron. This is a cell with parameters a = b = c, α = β = γ ≠ 90°. In practice, the description is more commonly used because it is easier to deal with a coordinate system with two 90° angles. However, the axes are often shown in textbooks because this cell reveals 3m symmetry of crystal lattice. However, such a description is rarely used, the hexagonal crystal family consists of two crystal systems, trigonal and hexagonal. A crystal system is a set of point groups in which the point groups themselves, the trigonal crystal system consists of the 5 point groups that have a single three-fold rotation axis. The crystal structures of alpha-quartz in the example are described by two of those 18 space groups associated with the hexagonal lattice system. The hexagonal crystal system consists of the seven point groups such that all their groups have the hexagonal lattice as underlying lattice. Graphite is an example of a crystal that crystallizes in the crystal system. Note that the atom in the center of the HCP unit cell in the hexagonal lattice system does not appear in the unit cell of the hexagonal lattice. It is part of the two atom motif associated with each point in the underlying lattice. The trigonal crystal system is the crystal system whose point groups have more than one lattice system associated with their space groups. The 5 point groups in this system are listed below, with their international number and notation, their space groups in name. The point groups in this system are listed below, followed by their representations in Hermann–Mauguin or international notation and Schoenflies notation
9.
Rhombohedral lattice system
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In crystallography, the hexagonal crystal family is one of the 6 crystal families. In the hexagonal family, the crystal is described by a right rhombic prism unit cell with two equal axes, an included angle of 120° and a height perpendicular to the two base axes. There are 52 space groups associated with it, which are exactly those whose Bravais lattice is either hexagonal or rhombohedral, the hexagonal crystal family consists of two lattice systems, hexagonal and rhombohedral. Each lattice system consists of one Bravais lattice, hence, there are 3 lattice points per unit cell in total and the lattice is non-primitive. The Bravais lattices in the hexagonal crystal family can also be described by rhombohedral axes, the unit cell is a rhombohedron. This is a cell with parameters a = b = c, α = β = γ ≠ 90°. In practice, the description is more commonly used because it is easier to deal with a coordinate system with two 90° angles. However, the axes are often shown in textbooks because this cell reveals 3m symmetry of crystal lattice. However, such a description is rarely used, the hexagonal crystal family consists of two crystal systems, trigonal and hexagonal. A crystal system is a set of point groups in which the point groups themselves, the trigonal crystal system consists of the 5 point groups that have a single three-fold rotation axis. The crystal structures of alpha-quartz in the example are described by two of those 18 space groups associated with the hexagonal lattice system. The hexagonal crystal system consists of the seven point groups such that all their groups have the hexagonal lattice as underlying lattice. Graphite is an example of a crystal that crystallizes in the crystal system. Note that the atom in the center of the HCP unit cell in the hexagonal lattice system does not appear in the unit cell of the hexagonal lattice. It is part of the two atom motif associated with each point in the underlying lattice. The trigonal crystal system is the crystal system whose point groups have more than one lattice system associated with their space groups. The 5 point groups in this system are listed below, with their international number and notation, their space groups in name. The point groups in this system are listed below, followed by their representations in Hermann–Mauguin or international notation and Schoenflies notation
10.
Hanksite
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Hanksite is a sulfate mineral, distinguished as one of only a handful that contain both carbonate and sulfate ion groups. It has the formula, Na22K92Cl. It was first described in 1888 for an occurrence in Searles Lake, California, Hanksite is normally found in crystal form as evaporite deposits. Hanksite crystals are large but not complex in structure and it is often found in Searles Lake, Soda Lake, Mono Lake, and in Death Valley. It is associated with halite, borax, trona and aphthitalite in the Searles Lake area, Hanksite can be colorless, white, gray, green or yellow and is transparent or translucent. The minerals hardness is approximately 3 to 3.5, the specific gravity is approximately 2.5. It is salty to the taste and sometimes pale yellow in ultra-violet light. Typical growth habits are hexagonal prisms or tabular with pyramidal terminations, the streak of Hanksite is white. It can contain inclusions of clay that the crystal formed around while developing
11.
Point groups in three dimensions
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In geometry, a point group in three dimensions is an isometry group in three dimensions that leaves the origin fixed, or correspondingly, an isometry group of a sphere. It is a subgroup of the orthogonal group O, the group of all isometries that leave the origin fixed, or correspondingly, O itself is a subgroup of the Euclidean group E of all isometries. Symmetry groups of objects are isometry groups, accordingly, analysis of isometry groups is analysis of possible symmetries. All isometries of a bounded 3D object have one or more fixed points. We choose the origin as one of them, the rotation group of an object is equal to its full symmetry group if and only if the object is chiral. Finite Coxeter groups are a set of point groups generated purely by a set of reflectional mirrors passing through the same point. A rank n Coxeter group has n mirrors and is represented by a Coxeter–Dynkin diagram, Coxeter notation offers a bracketed notation equivalent to the Coxeter diagram, with markup symbols for rotational and other subsymmetry point groups. SO is a subgroup of E+, which consists of direct isometries, i. e. isometries preserving orientation, it contains those that leave the origin fixed. O is the product of SO and the group generated by inversion. An example would be C4 for H and S4 for M, Thus M is obtained from H by inverting the isometries in H ∖ L. This is clarifying when categorizing isometry groups, see below, in 2D the cyclic group of k-fold rotations Ck is for every positive integer k a normal subgroup of O and SO. Accordingly, in 3D, for every axis the cyclic group of rotations about that axis is a normal subgroup of the group of all rotations about that axis. e. See also the similar overview including translations, when comparing the symmetry type of two objects, the origin is chosen for each separately, i. e. they need not have the same center. Moreover, two objects are considered to be of the symmetry type if their symmetry groups are conjugate subgroups of O. The conjugacy definition would allow a mirror image of the structure, but this is not needed. For example, if a symmetry group contains a 3-fold axis of rotation, there are many infinite isometry groups, for example, the cyclic group generated by a rotation by an irrational number of turns about an axis. We may create non-cyclical abelian groups by adding more rotations around the same axis, there are also non-abelian groups generated by rotations around different axes. They will be infinite unless the rotations are specially chosen, all the infinite groups mentioned so far are not closed as topological subgroups of O
12.
Crystal family
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In crystallography, the terms crystal system, crystal family and lattice system each refer to one of several classes of space groups, lattices, point groups or crystals. Informally, two crystals are in the crystal system if they have similar symmetries, though there are many exceptions to this. Space groups and crystals are divided into seven crystal systems according to their point groups, five of the crystal systems are essentially the same as five of the lattice systems, but the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems differ from the hexagonal and rhombohedral lattice systems. The six crystal families are formed by combining the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems into one hexagonal family, a lattice system is a class of lattices with the same set of lattice point groups, which are subgroups of the arithmetic crystal classes. The 14 Bravais lattices are grouped into seven lattice systems, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, rhombohedral, hexagonal, in a crystal system, a set of point groups and their corresponding space groups are assigned to a lattice system. Of the 32 point groups that exist in three dimensions, most are assigned to only one system, in which case both the crystal and lattice systems have the same name. However, five point groups are assigned to two systems, rhombohedral and hexagonal, because both exhibit threefold rotational symmetry. These point groups are assigned to the crystal system. In total there are seven crystal systems, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal, a crystal family is determined by lattices and point groups. It is formed by combining crystal systems which have space groups assigned to a lattice system. In three dimensions, the families and systems are identical, except the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems. In total there are six families, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, hexagonal. Spaces with less than three dimensions have the number of crystal systems, crystal families and lattice systems. In one-dimensional space, there is one crystal system, in 2D space, there are four crystal systems, oblique, rectangular, square and hexagonal. The relation between three-dimensional crystal families, crystal systems and lattice systems is shown in the table, Note. To avoid confusion of terminology, the term trigonal lattice is not used, if the original structure and inverted structure are identical, then the structure is centrosymmetric. Still, even for non-centrosymmetric case, inverted structure in some cases can be rotated to align with the original structure and this is the case of non-centrosymmetric achiral structure. If the inverted structure cannot be rotated to align with the structure, then the structure is chiral
13.
Crystallographic point group
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For a periodic crystal, the group must also be consistent with maintenance of the three-dimensional translational symmetry that defines crystallinity. The macroscopic properties of a crystal would look exactly the same before, in the classification of crystals, each point group is also known as a crystal class. There are infinitely many three-dimensional point groups, however, the crystallographic restriction of the infinite families of general point groups results in there being only 32 crystallographic point groups. These 32 point groups are one-and-the same as the 32 types of morphological crystalline symmetries derived in 1830 by Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel from a consideration of observed crystal forms, the point groups are denoted by their component symmetries. There are a few standard notations used by crystallographers, mineralogists, for the correspondence of the two systems below, see crystal system. In Schoenflies notation, point groups are denoted by a symbol with a subscript. The symbols used in crystallography mean the following, Cn indicates that the group has a rotation axis. Cnh is Cn with the addition of a plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. Cnv is Cn with the addition of n mirror planes parallel to the axis of rotation, s2n denotes a group that contains only a 2n-fold rotation-reflection axis. Dn indicates that the group has a rotation axis plus n twofold axes perpendicular to that axis. Dnh has, in addition, a plane perpendicular to the n-fold axis. Dnd has, in addition to the elements of Dn, mirror planes parallel to the n-fold axis, the letter T indicates that the group has the symmetry of a tetrahedron. Td includes improper rotation operations, T excludes improper rotation operations, the letter O indicates that the group has the symmetry of an octahedron, with or without improper operations. Due to the crystallographic restriction theorem, n =1,2,3,4, d4d and D6d are actually forbidden because they contain improper rotations with n=8 and 12 respectively. The 27 point groups in the table plus T, Td, Th, O, an abbreviated form of the Hermann–Mauguin notation commonly used for space groups also serves to describe crystallographic point groups. Group names are Molecular symmetry Point group Space group Point groups in three dimensions Crystal system Point-group symbols in International Tables for Crystallography,12.1, pp. 818-820 Names and symbols of the 32 crystal classes in International Tables for Crystallography. 10.1, p.794 Pictorial overview of the 32 groups Point Groups - Flow Chart Inorganic Chemistry Group Theory Practice Problems
14.
Lattice system
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In crystallography, the terms crystal system, crystal family and lattice system each refer to one of several classes of space groups, lattices, point groups or crystals. Informally, two crystals are in the crystal system if they have similar symmetries, though there are many exceptions to this. Space groups and crystals are divided into seven crystal systems according to their point groups, five of the crystal systems are essentially the same as five of the lattice systems, but the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems differ from the hexagonal and rhombohedral lattice systems. The six crystal families are formed by combining the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems into one hexagonal family, a lattice system is a class of lattices with the same set of lattice point groups, which are subgroups of the arithmetic crystal classes. The 14 Bravais lattices are grouped into seven lattice systems, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, rhombohedral, hexagonal, in a crystal system, a set of point groups and their corresponding space groups are assigned to a lattice system. Of the 32 point groups that exist in three dimensions, most are assigned to only one system, in which case both the crystal and lattice systems have the same name. However, five point groups are assigned to two systems, rhombohedral and hexagonal, because both exhibit threefold rotational symmetry. These point groups are assigned to the crystal system. In total there are seven crystal systems, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal, a crystal family is determined by lattices and point groups. It is formed by combining crystal systems which have space groups assigned to a lattice system. In three dimensions, the families and systems are identical, except the hexagonal and trigonal crystal systems. In total there are six families, triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, hexagonal. Spaces with less than three dimensions have the number of crystal systems, crystal families and lattice systems. In one-dimensional space, there is one crystal system, in 2D space, there are four crystal systems, oblique, rectangular, square and hexagonal. The relation between three-dimensional crystal families, crystal systems and lattice systems is shown in the table, Note. To avoid confusion of terminology, the term trigonal lattice is not used, if the original structure and inverted structure are identical, then the structure is centrosymmetric. Still, even for non-centrosymmetric case, inverted structure in some cases can be rotated to align with the original structure and this is the case of non-centrosymmetric achiral structure. If the inverted structure cannot be rotated to align with the structure, then the structure is chiral
15.
Triclinic
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In crystallography, the triclinic crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. A crystal system is described by three basis vectors, in the triclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal length, as in the orthorhombic system. In addition, no vector is at right angles orthogonal to another, the triclinic lattice is the least symmetric of the 14 three-dimensional Bravais lattices. It is the lattice type that itself has no mirror planes. There are a total 2 space groups, with each only one space group is associated. Pinacoidal is also known as triclinic normal, pedial is also triclinic hemihedral Mineral examples include plagioclase, microcline, rhodonite, turquoise, wollastonite and amblygonite, all in triclinic normal. Crystal structure Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Klein, Cornelis,1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed. pp.64 –65, ISBN 0-471-80580-7
16.
Monoclinic
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In crystallography, the monoclinic crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. A crystal system is described by three vectors, in the monoclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal lengths, as in the orthorhombic system. They form a rectangular prism with a parallelogram as its base, hence two vectors are perpendicular, while the third vector meets the other two at an angle other than 90°. There is only one monoclinic Bravais lattice in two dimensions, the oblique lattice, two monoclinic Bravais lattices exist, the primitive monoclinic and the centered monoclinic lattices. In this axis setting, the primitive and base-centered lattices interchange in centering type, sphenoidal is also monoclinic hemimorphic, Domatic is also monoclinic hemihedral, Prismatic is also monoclinic normal. Crystal structure Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Klein, Cornelis, hahn, Theo, ed. International Tables for Crystallography, Volume A, Space Group Symmetry
17.
Rotational symmetry
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Rotational symmetry, also known as radial symmetry in biology, is the property a shape has when it looks the same after some rotation by a partial turn. An objects degree of symmetry is the number of distinct orientations in which it looks the same. Formally the rotational symmetry is symmetry with respect to some or all rotations in m-dimensional Euclidean space, rotations are direct isometries, i. e. isometries preserving orientation. With the modified notion of symmetry for vector fields the symmetry group can also be E+, for symmetry with respect to rotations about a point we can take that point as origin. These rotations form the orthogonal group SO, the group of m×m orthogonal matrices with determinant 1. For m =3 this is the rotation group SO, for chiral objects it is the same as the full symmetry group. Laws of physics are SO-invariant if they do not distinguish different directions in space, because of Noethers theorem, rotational symmetry of a physical system is equivalent to the angular momentum conservation law. Note that 1-fold symmetry is no symmetry, the notation for n-fold symmetry is Cn or simply n. The actual symmetry group is specified by the point or axis of symmetry, for each point or axis of symmetry, the abstract group type is cyclic group of order n, Zn. The fundamental domain is a sector of 360°/n, if there is e. g. rotational symmetry with respect to an angle of 100°, then also with respect to one of 20°, the greatest common divisor of 100° and 360°. A typical 3D object with rotational symmetry but no mirror symmetry is a propeller and this is the rotation group of a regular prism, or regular bipyramid. 4×3-fold and 3×2-fold axes, the rotation group T of order 12 of a regular tetrahedron, the group is isomorphic to alternating group A4. 3×4-fold, 4×3-fold, and 6×2-fold axes, the rotation group O of order 24 of a cube, the group is isomorphic to symmetric group S4. 6×5-fold, 10×3-fold, and 15×2-fold axes, the rotation group I of order 60 of a dodecahedron, the group is isomorphic to alternating group A5. The group contains 10 versions of D3 and 6 versions of D5, in the case of the Platonic solids, the 2-fold axes are through the midpoints of opposite edges, the number of them is half the number of edges. Rotational symmetry with respect to any angle is, in two dimensions, circular symmetry, the fundamental domain is a half-line. In three dimensions we can distinguish cylindrical symmetry and spherical symmetry and that is, no dependence on the angle using cylindrical coordinates and no dependence on either angle using spherical coordinates. The fundamental domain is a half-plane through the axis, and a radial half-line, axisymmetric or axisymmetrical are adjectives which refer to an object having cylindrical symmetry, or axisymmetry
18.
Reflection symmetry
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Reflection symmetry, line symmetry, mirror symmetry, mirror-image symmetry, is symmetry with respect to reflection. That is, a figure which does not change upon undergoing a reflection has reflectional symmetry, in 2D there is a line/axis of symmetry, in 3D a plane of symmetry. An object or figure which is indistinguishable from its image is called mirror symmetric. The set of operations that preserve a property of the object form a group. Two objects are symmetric to each other with respect to a group of operations if one is obtained from the other by some of the operations. Another way to think about the function is that if the shape were to be folded in half over the axis. Thus a square has four axes of symmetry, because there are four different ways to fold it and have the edges all match, a circle has infinitely many axes of symmetry. Triangles with reflection symmetry are isosceles, quadrilaterals with reflection symmetry are kites, deltoids, rhombuses, and isosceles trapezoids. All even-sided polygons have two simple reflective forms, one with lines of reflections through vertices, and one through edges, for an arbitrary shape, the axiality of the shape measures how close it is to being bilaterally symmetric. It equals 1 for shapes with reflection symmetry, and between 2/3 and 1 for any convex shape, for each line or plane of reflection, the symmetry group is isomorphic with Cs, one of the three types of order two, hence algebraically C2. The fundamental domain is a half-plane or half-space, in certain contexts there is rotational as well as reflection symmetry. Then mirror-image symmetry is equivalent to inversion symmetry, in contexts in modern physics the term parity or P-symmetry is used for both. For more general types of reflection there are more general types of reflection symmetry. For example, with respect to a non-isometric affine involution with respect to circle inversion, most animals are bilaterally symmetric, likely because this supports forward movement and streamlining. Mirror symmetry is used in architecture, as in the facade of Santa Maria Novella. It is also found in the design of ancient structures such as Stonehenge, Symmetry was a core element in some styles of architecture, such as Palladianism. Patterns in nature Point reflection symmetry Stewart, Ian, weidenfeld & Nicolson. is potty Weyl, Hermann. Mapping with symmetry - source in Delphi Reflection Symmetry Examples from Math Is Fun
19.
Orthorhombic
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In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. All three bases intersect at 90° angles, so the three lattice vectors remain mutually orthogonal, there are two orthorhombic Bravais lattices in two dimensions, Primitive rectangular and centered rectangular. The primitive rectangular lattice can also be described by a centered rhombic unit cell, there are four orthorhombic Bravais lattices, primitive orthorhombic, base-centered orthorhombic, body-centered orthorhombic, and face-centered orthorhombic. In this axis setting, the primitive and base-centered lattices interchange in centering type, crystal structure Overview of all space groups Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Klein, Cornelis. Hahn, Theo, ed. International Tables for Crystallography, Volume A, Space Group Symmetry
20.
Tetragonal
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In crystallography, the tetragonal crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. Tetragonal crystal lattices result from stretching a cubic lattice along one of its vectors, so that the cube becomes a rectangular prism with a square base. There is only one tetragonal Bravais lattice in two dimensions, the square lattice, there are two tetragonal Bravais lattices, the simple tetragonal and the centered tetragonal. One might suppose stretching face-centered cubic would result in face-centered tetragonal, BCT is considered more fundamental, so that is the standard terminology. Crystal structure point groups Bravais lattices
21.
Hexagonal crystal family
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In crystallography, the hexagonal crystal family is one of the 6 crystal families. In the hexagonal family, the crystal is described by a right rhombic prism unit cell with two equal axes, an included angle of 120° and a height perpendicular to the two base axes. There are 52 space groups associated with it, which are exactly those whose Bravais lattice is either hexagonal or rhombohedral, the hexagonal crystal family consists of two lattice systems, hexagonal and rhombohedral. Each lattice system consists of one Bravais lattice, hence, there are 3 lattice points per unit cell in total and the lattice is non-primitive. The Bravais lattices in the hexagonal crystal family can also be described by rhombohedral axes, the unit cell is a rhombohedron. This is a cell with parameters a = b = c, α = β = γ ≠ 90°. In practice, the description is more commonly used because it is easier to deal with a coordinate system with two 90° angles. However, the axes are often shown in textbooks because this cell reveals 3m symmetry of crystal lattice. However, such a description is rarely used, the hexagonal crystal family consists of two crystal systems, trigonal and hexagonal. A crystal system is a set of point groups in which the point groups themselves, the trigonal crystal system consists of the 5 point groups that have a single three-fold rotation axis. The crystal structures of alpha-quartz in the example are described by two of those 18 space groups associated with the hexagonal lattice system. The hexagonal crystal system consists of the seven point groups such that all their groups have the hexagonal lattice as underlying lattice. Graphite is an example of a crystal that crystallizes in the crystal system. Note that the atom in the center of the HCP unit cell in the hexagonal lattice system does not appear in the unit cell of the hexagonal lattice. It is part of the two atom motif associated with each point in the underlying lattice. The trigonal crystal system is the crystal system whose point groups have more than one lattice system associated with their space groups. The 5 point groups in this system are listed below, with their international number and notation, their space groups in name. The point groups in this system are listed below, followed by their representations in Hermann–Mauguin or international notation and Schoenflies notation
22.
Orbifold notation
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Groups representable in this notation include the point groups on the sphere, the frieze groups and wallpaper groups of the Euclidean plane, and their analogues on the hyperbolic plane. e. All translations which occur are assumed to form a subgroup of the group symmetries being described. The symbol ×, which is called a miracle and represents a topological crosscap where a pattern repeats as an image without crossing a mirror line. A string written in boldface represents a group of symmetries of Euclidean 3-space, a string not written in boldface represents a group of symmetries of the Euclidean plane, which is assumed to contain two independent translations. By abuse of language, we say that such a group is a subgroup of symmetries of the Euclidean plane with only one independent translation. The frieze groups occur in this way, the exceptional symbol o indicates that there are precisely two linearly independent translations. An orbifold symbol is called if it is not one of the following, p, pq, *p, *pq, for p, q>=2. An object is chiral if its symmetry group contains no reflections, the corresponding orbifold is orientable in the chiral case and non-orientable otherwise. The Euler characteristic of an orbifold can be read from its Conway symbol, as follows. Each feature has a value, n without or before an asterisk counts as n −1 n n after an asterisk counts as n −12 n asterisk, subtracting the sum of these values from 2 gives the Euler characteristic. If the sum of the values is 2, the order is infinite. Indeed, Conways Magic Theorem indicates that the 17 wallpaper groups are exactly those with the sum of the feature values equal to 2, otherwise, the order is 2 divided by the Euler characteristic. The following groups are isomorphic, 1* and *1122 and 221 *22 and *221 2* and this is because 1-fold rotation is the empty rotation. The symmetry of a 2D object without translational symmetry can be described by the 3D symmetry type by adding a dimension to the object which does not add or spoil symmetry. The bullet is added on one- and two-dimensional groups to imply the existence of a fixed point, thus the discrete symmetry groups in one dimension are *•, *1•, ∞• and *∞•. Another way of constructing a 3D object from a 1D or 2D object for describing the symmetry is taking the Cartesian product of the object, on Three-dimensional Orbifolds and Space Groups. Contributions to Algebra and Geometry,42, 475-507,2001, J. H. Conway, D. H. Huson. The Orbifold Notation for Two-Dimensional Groups, structural Chemistry,13, 247-257, August 2002
23.
Coxeter notation
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The notation is named after H. S. M. Coxeter, and has been more comprehensively defined by Norman Johnson. For Coxeter groups defined by pure reflections, there is a correspondence between the bracket notation and Coxeter-Dynkin diagram. The numbers in the notation represent the mirror reflection orders in the branches of the Coxeter diagram. It uses the same simplification, suppressing 2s between orthogonal mirrors, the Coxeter notation is simplified with exponents to represent the number of branches in a row for linear diagram. So the An group is represented by, to imply n nodes connected by n-1 order-3 branches, example A2 = = or represents diagrams or. Coxeter initially represented bifurcating diagrams with vertical positioning of numbers, but later abbreviated with an exponent notation, like, Coxeter allowed for zeros as special cases to fit the An family, like A3 = = = =, like = =. Coxeter groups formed by cyclic diagrams are represented by parenthesese inside of brackets, if the branch orders are equal, they can be grouped as an exponent as the length the cycle in brackets, like =, representing Coxeter diagram or. More complicated looping diagrams can also be expressed with care, the paracompact complete graph diagram or, is represented as with the superscript as the symmetry of its regular tetrahedron coxeter diagram. The Coxeter diagram usually leaves order-2 branches undrawn, but the bracket notation includes an explicit 2 to connect the subgraphs, so the Coxeter diagram = A2×A2 = 2A2 can be represented by × =2 =. For the affine and hyperbolic groups, the subscript is one less than the number of nodes in each case, Coxeters notation represents rotational/translational symmetry by adding a + superscript operator outside the brackets which cuts the order of the group in half. This is called a direct subgroup because what remains are only direct isometries without reflective symmetry, + operators can also be applied inside of the brackets, and creates semidirect subgroups that include both reflective and nonreflective generators. Semidirect subgroups can only apply to Coxeter group subgroups that have even order branches next to it, the subgroup index is 2n for n + operators. So the snub cube, has symmetry +, and the tetrahedron, has symmetry. Johnson extends the + operator to work with a placeholder 1 nodes, in general this operation only applies to mirrors bounded by all even-order branches. The 1 represents a mirror so can be seen as, or, like diagram or, the effect of a mirror removal is to duplicate connecting nodes, which can be seen in the Coxeter diagrams, =, or in bracket notation, = =. Each of these mirrors can be removed so h = = = and this can be shown in a Coxeter diagram by adding a + symbol above the node, = =. If both mirrors are removed, a subgroup is generated, with the branch order becoming a gyration point of half the order, q = = +. For example, = = = ×, order 4. = +, the opposite to halving is doubling which adds a mirror, bisecting a fundamental domain, and doubling the group order
24.
Group theory
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In mathematics and abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups. Groups recur throughout mathematics, and the methods of group theory have influenced many parts of algebra, linear algebraic groups and Lie groups are two branches of group theory that have experienced advances and have become subject areas in their own right. Various physical systems, such as crystals and the hydrogen atom, thus group theory and the closely related representation theory have many important applications in physics, chemistry, and materials science. Group theory is central to public key cryptography. The first class of groups to undergo a systematic study was permutation groups, given any set X and a collection G of bijections of X into itself that is closed under compositions and inverses, G is a group acting on X. If X consists of n elements and G consists of all permutations, G is the symmetric group Sn, in general, an early construction due to Cayley exhibited any group as a permutation group, acting on itself by means of the left regular representation. In many cases, the structure of a group can be studied using the properties of its action on the corresponding set. For example, in this way one proves that for n ≥5 and this fact plays a key role in the impossibility of solving a general algebraic equation of degree n ≥5 in radicals. The next important class of groups is given by matrix groups, here G is a set consisting of invertible matrices of given order n over a field K that is closed under the products and inverses. Such a group acts on the vector space Kn by linear transformations. In the case of groups, X is a set, for matrix groups. The concept of a group is closely related with the concept of a symmetry group. The theory of groups forms a bridge connecting group theory with differential geometry. A long line of research, originating with Lie and Klein, the groups themselves may be discrete or continuous. Most groups considered in the first stage of the development of group theory were concrete, having been realized through numbers, permutations, or matrices. It was not until the nineteenth century that the idea of an abstract group as a set with operations satisfying a certain system of axioms began to take hold. A typical way of specifying an abstract group is through a presentation by generators and relations, a significant source of abstract groups is given by the construction of a factor group, or quotient group, G/H, of a group G by a normal subgroup H. Class groups of algebraic number fields were among the earliest examples of factor groups, of much interest in number theory
25.
Triclinic crystal system
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In crystallography, the triclinic crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. A crystal system is described by three basis vectors, in the triclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal length, as in the orthorhombic system. In addition, no vector is at right angles orthogonal to another, the triclinic lattice is the least symmetric of the 14 three-dimensional Bravais lattices. It is the lattice type that itself has no mirror planes. There are a total 2 space groups, with each only one space group is associated. Pinacoidal is also known as triclinic normal, pedial is also triclinic hemihedral Mineral examples include plagioclase, microcline, rhodonite, turquoise, wollastonite and amblygonite, all in triclinic normal. Crystal structure Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Klein, Cornelis,1985, Manual of Mineralogy, 20th ed. pp.64 –65, ISBN 0-471-80580-7
26.
Chirality (chemistry)
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Chirality /kaɪˈrælɪti/ is a geometric property of some molecules and ions. A chiral molecule/ion is non-superposable on its mirror image, the presence of an asymmetric carbon center is one of several structural features that induce chirality in organic and inorganic molecules. The term chirality is derived from the Greek word for hand, the mirror images of a chiral molecule/ion are called enantiomers or optical isomers. Individual enantiomers are often designated as either right- or left-handed, Chirality is an essential consideration when discussing the stereochemistry in organic and inorganic chemistry. The concept is of practical importance because most biomolecules and pharmaceuticals are chiral. Chirality is based on molecular symmetry elements, specifically, a chiral compound can contain no improper axis of rotation, which includes planes of symmetry and inversion center. Chiral molecules are always dissymmetric but not always asymmetric, in general, chiral molecules have point chirality at a single stereogenic atom, which has four different substituents. The two enantiomers of such compounds are said to have different absolute configurations at this center, the stereogenic atom is usually carbon, as in many biological molecules. However chirality can exist in any atom, including metals, phosphorus, Chiral nitrogen is equally possible, although the effects of nitrogen inversion can make many of these compounds impossible to isolate. While the presence of a stereogenic atom describes the great majority of cases, for instance it is not necessary for the chiral substance to have a stereogenic atom. Examples include 1-bromo-1-chloro-1-fluoroadamantane, methylethylphenyltetrahedrane, certain calixarenes and fullerenes, which have inherent chirality, the C2-symmetric species 1, 1-bi-2-naphthol,1, 3-dichloro-allene have axial chirality. -cyclooctene and many ferrocenes have planar chirality, when the optical rotation for an enantiomer is too low for practical measurement, the species is said to exhibit cryptochirality. Even isotopic differences must be considered when examining chirality, illustrative is the derivative of benzyl alcohol PhCHDOH is chiral. The S enantiomer has D = +0. 715°, many biologically active molecules are chiral, including the naturally occurring amino acids and sugars. In biological systems, most of these compounds are of the chirality, most amino acids are levorotatory. Typical naturally occurring proteins, made of L amino acids, are known as left-handed proteins, d-amino acids are very rare in nature and have only been found in small peptides attached to bacteria cell walls. The origin of this homochirality in biology is the subject of much debate, however, there is some suggestion that early amino acids could have formed in comet dust. Enzymes, which are chiral, often distinguish between the two enantiomers of a chiral substrate, one could imagine an enzyme as having a glove-like cavity that binds a substrate
27.
Centrosymmetric
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In crystallography, a point group which contains an inversion center as one of its symmetry elements is centrosymmetric. In such a point group, for point in the unit cell there is an indistinguishable point. Such point groups are said to have inversion symmetry. Point reflection is a term used in geometry. Crystals with an inversion center cannot display certain properties, such as the piezoelectric effect, point groups lacking an inversion center are further divided into polar and chiral types. A chiral point group is one without any rotoinversion symmetry elements, rotoinversion is rotation followed by inversion, for example, a mirror reflection corresponds to a twofold rotoinversion. Chiral point groups must therefore only contain rotational symmetry and these arise from the crystal point groups 1,2,3,4,6,222,422,622,32,23, and 432. Chiral molecules such as proteins crystallize in chiral point groups, the term polar is often used for those point groups which are neither centrosymmetric nor chiral. However, the term is more used for any point group containing a unique anisotropic axis. These occur in crystal point groups 1,2,3,4,6, m, mm2, 3m, 4mm, thus some chiral space groups are also polar
28.
Cyclic group
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In algebra, a cyclic group or monogenous group is a group that is generated by a single element. Each element can be written as a power of g in multiplicative notation and this element g is called a generator of the group. Every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to the group of Z. Every finite cyclic group of n is isomorphic to the additive group of Z/nZ. Every cyclic group is a group, and every finitely generated abelian group is a direct product of cyclic groups. A group G is called if there exists an element g in G such that G = ⟨g⟩ =. Since any group generated by an element in a group is a subgroup of that group, for example, if G = is a group of order 6, then g6 = g0, and G is cyclic. In fact, G is essentially the same as the set with addition modulo 6, for example,1 +2 ≡3 corresponds to g1 · g2 = g3, and 2 +5 ≡1 corresponds to g2 · g5 = g7 = g1, and so on. One can use the isomorphism χ defined by χ = i, the name cyclic may be misleading, it is possible to generate infinitely many elements and not form any literal cycles, that is, every gn is distinct. A group generated in this way is called a cyclic group. The French mathematicians known as Nicolas Bourbaki referred to a group as a monogenous group. The set of integers, with the operation of addition, forms a group and it is an infinite cyclic group, because all integers can be written as a finite sum or difference of copies of the number 1. In this group,1 and −1 are the only generators, every infinite cyclic group is isomorphic to this group. For every positive n, the set of integers modulo n, again with the operation of addition, forms a finite cyclic group. An element g is a generator of this group if g is relatively prime to n, thus, the number of different generators is φ, where φ is the Euler totient function, the function that counts the number of numbers modulo n that are relatively prime to n. Every finite cyclic group is isomorphic to a group Z/n, where n is the order of the group, the integer and modular addition operations, used to define the cyclic groups, are both the addition operations of commutative rings, also denoted Z and Z/n. If p is a prime, then Z/p is a finite field, every field with p elements is isomorphic to this one. For every positive n, the subset of the integers modulo n that are relatively prime to n, with the operation of multiplication
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Monoclinic crystal system
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In crystallography, the monoclinic crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. A crystal system is described by three vectors, in the monoclinic system, the crystal is described by vectors of unequal lengths, as in the orthorhombic system. They form a rectangular prism with a parallelogram as its base, hence two vectors are perpendicular, while the third vector meets the other two at an angle other than 90°. There is only one monoclinic Bravais lattice in two dimensions, the oblique lattice, two monoclinic Bravais lattices exist, the primitive monoclinic and the centered monoclinic lattices. In this axis setting, the primitive and base-centered lattices interchange in centering type, sphenoidal is also monoclinic hemimorphic, Domatic is also monoclinic hemihedral, Prismatic is also monoclinic normal. Crystal structure Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Klein, Cornelis, hahn, Theo, ed. International Tables for Crystallography, Volume A, Space Group Symmetry
30.
Prism (geometry)
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In geometry, a prism is a polyhedron comprising an n-sided polygonal base, a second base which is a translated copy of the first, and n other faces joining corresponding sides of the two bases. All cross-sections parallel to the bases are translations of the bases, prisms are named for their bases, so a prism with a pentagonal base is called a pentagonal prism. The prisms are a subclass of the prismatoids, a right prism is a prism in which the joining edges and faces are perpendicular to the base faces. This applies if the faces are rectangular. If the joining edges and faces are not perpendicular to the base faces, for example a parallelepiped is an oblique prism of which the base is a parallelogram, or equivalently a polyhedron with six faces which are all parallelograms. A truncated prism is a prism with nonparallel top and bottom faces, some texts may apply the term rectangular prism or square prism to both a right rectangular-sided prism and a right square-sided prism. A right p-gonal prism with rectangular sides has a Schläfli symbol ×, a right rectangular prism is also called a cuboid, or informally a rectangular box. A right square prism is simply a box, and may also be called a square cuboid. A right rectangular prism has Schläfli symbol ××, an n-prism, having regular polygon ends and rectangular sides, approaches a cylindrical solid as n approaches infinity. The term uniform prism or semiregular prism can be used for a prism with square sides. A uniform p-gonal prism has a Schläfli symbol t, right prisms with regular bases and equal edge lengths form one of the two infinite series of semiregular polyhedra, the other series being the antiprisms. The dual of a prism is a bipyramid. The volume of a prism is the product of the area of the base, the volume is therefore, V = B ⋅ h where B is the base area and h is the height. The volume of a prism whose base is a regular n-sided polygon with side s is therefore. The surface area of a prism is 2 · B + P · h, where B is the area of the base, h the height. The surface area of a prism whose base is a regular n-sided polygon with side length s and height h is therefore. The rotation group is Dn of order 2n, except in the case of a cube, which has the symmetry group O of order 24. The symmetry group Dnh contains inversion iff n is even, a prismatic polytope is a higher-dimensional generalization of a prism
31.
Klein four-group
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In mathematics, the Klein four-group is the group Z2 × Z2, the direct product of two copies of the cyclic group of order 2. It was named Vierergruppe by Felix Klein in 1884, with four elements, the Klein four-group is the smallest non-cyclic group, and the cyclic group of order 4 and the Klein four-group are, up to isomorphism, the only groups of order 4. The smallest non-abelian group is the group of degree 3. The Klein groups Cayley table is given by, The Klein four-group is also defined by the group presentation V = ⟨ a, b ∣ a 2 = b 2 =2 = e ⟩. All non-identity elements of the Klein group have order 2, thus any two non-identity elements can serve as generators in the above presentation, the Klein four-group is the smallest non-cyclic group. It is however a group, and isomorphic to the dihedral group of order 4, Dih2, other than the group of order 2. The Klein four-group is also isomorphic to the direct sum Z2 ⊕ Z2, so that it can be represented as the pairs under component-wise addition modulo 2, the Klein four-group is thus an example of an elementary abelian 2-group, which is also called a Boolean group. Another numerical construction of the Klein four-group is the set, with the operation being multiplication modulo 8, here a is 3, b is 5, and c = ab is 3 ×5 =15 ≡7. The three elements of two in the Klein four-group are interchangeable, the automorphism group of V is the group of permutations of these three elements. In fact, it is the kernel of a group homomorphism from S4 to S3. In the construction of finite rings, eight of the rings with four elements have the Klein four-group as their additive substructure. The quotient group / is isomorphic to the Klein four-group, in a similar fashion, the group of units of the split-complex number ring, when divided by its identity component, also results in the Klein four-group. The Klein four-group as a subgroup of the alternating group A4 is not the group of any simple graph. It is, however, the group of a two-vertex graph where the vertices are connected to each other with two edges, making the graph non-simple. A. Armstrong Groups and Symmetry, Springer Verlag, page 53, W. E. Barnes Introduction to Abstract Algebra, D. C
32.
Orthorhombic crystal system
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In crystallography, the orthorhombic crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. All three bases intersect at 90° angles, so the three lattice vectors remain mutually orthogonal, there are two orthorhombic Bravais lattices in two dimensions, Primitive rectangular and centered rectangular. The primitive rectangular lattice can also be described by a centered rhombic unit cell, there are four orthorhombic Bravais lattices, primitive orthorhombic, base-centered orthorhombic, body-centered orthorhombic, and face-centered orthorhombic. In this axis setting, the primitive and base-centered lattices interchange in centering type, crystal structure Overview of all space groups Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Klein, Cornelis. Hahn, Theo, ed. International Tables for Crystallography, Volume A, Space Group Symmetry
33.
Pyramid (geometry)
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In geometry, a pyramid is a polyhedron formed by connecting a polygonal base and a point, called the apex. Each base edge and apex form a triangle, called a lateral face and it is a conic solid with polygonal base. A pyramid with a base has n +1 vertices, n +1 faces. A right pyramid has its apex directly above the centroid of its base, nonright pyramids are called oblique pyramids. A regular pyramid has a polygon base and is usually implied to be a right pyramid. When unspecified, a pyramid is usually assumed to be a square pyramid. A triangle-based pyramid is often called a tetrahedron. Among oblique pyramids, like acute and obtuse triangles, a pyramid can be called if its apex is above the interior of the base and obtuse if its apex is above the exterior of the base. A right-angled pyramid has its apex above an edge or vertex of the base, in a tetrahedron these qualifiers change based on which face is considered the base. Pyramids are a subclass of the prismatoids, pyramids can be doubled into bipyramids by adding a second offset point on the other side of the base plane. A right pyramid with a base has isosceles triangle sides, with symmetry is Cnv or. It can be given an extended Schläfli symbol ∨, representing a point, a join operation creates a new edge between all pairs of vertices of the two joined figures. The trigonal or triangular pyramid with all equilateral triangles faces becomes the regular tetrahedron, a lower symmetry case of the triangular pyramid is C3v, which has an equilateral triangle base, and 3 identical isosceles triangle sides. The square and pentagonal pyramids can also be composed of convex polygons. Right pyramids with regular star polygon bases are called star pyramids, for example, the pentagrammic pyramid has a pentagram base and 5 intersecting triangle sides. A right pyramid can be named as ∨P, where is the point, ∨ is a join operator. It has C1v symmetry from two different base-apex orientations, and C2v in its full symmetry, a rectangular right pyramid, written as ∨, and a rhombic pyramid, as ∨, both have symmetry C2v. The volume of a pyramid is V =13 b h and this works for any polygon, regular or non-regular, and any location of the apex, provided that h is measured as the perpendicular distance from the plane containing the base
34.
Bipyramid
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An n-gonal bipyramid or dipyramid is a polyhedron formed by joining an n-gonal pyramid and its mirror image base-to-base. An n-gonal bipyramid has 2n triangle faces, 3n edges, and 2 + n vertices, the referenced n-gon in the name of the bipyramids is not an external face but an internal one, existing on the primary symmetry plane which connects the two pyramid halves. A right bipyramid has two points above and below the centroid of its base, nonright bipyramids are called oblique bipyramids. A regular bipyramid has a regular polygon internal face and is implied to be a right bipyramid. A right bipyramid can be represented as + P for internal polygon P, a concave bipyramid has a concave interior polygon. The face-transitive regular bipyramids are the dual polyhedra of the uniform prisms, a bipyramid can be projected on a sphere or globe as n equally spaced lines of longitude going from pole to pole, and bisected by a line around the equator. Bipyramid faces, projected as spherical triangles, represent the fundamental domains in the dihedral symmetry Dnh, the volume of a bipyramid is V =2/3Bh where B is the area of the base and h the height from the base to the apex. This works for any location of the apex, provided that h is measured as the distance from the plane which contains the base. The volume of a bipyramid whose base is a regular n-sided polygon with side length s and whose height is h is therefore, only three kinds of bipyramids can have all edges of the same length, the triangular, tetragonal, and pentagonal bipyramids. The rotation group is Dn of order 2n, except in the case of an octahedron, which has the larger symmetry group O of order 24. The digonal faces of a spherical 2n-bipyramid represents the fundamental domains of symmetry in three dimensions, Dnh, order 4n. The reflection domains can be shown as alternately colored triangles as mirror images, a scalenohedron is topologically identical to a 2n-bipyramid, but contains congruent scalene triangles. In one type the 2n vertices around the center alternate in rings above, in the other type, the 2n vertices are on the same plane, but alternate in two radii. The first has 2-fold rotation axes mid-edge around the sides, reflection planes through the vertices, in crystallography, 8-sided and 12-sided scalenohedra exist. All of these forms are isohedra, the second has symmetry Dn, order 2n. The smallest scalenohedron has 8 faces and is identical to the regular octahedron. The second type is a rhombic bipyramid, the first type has 6 vertices can be represented as, where z is a parameter between 0 and 1, creating a regular octahedron at z =0, and becoming a disphenoid with merged coplanar faces at z =1. For z >1, it becomes concave, self-intersecting bipyramids exist with a star polygon central figure, defined by triangular faces connecting each polygon edge to these two points
35.
Tetragonal crystal system
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In crystallography, the tetragonal crystal system is one of the 7 crystal systems. Tetragonal crystal lattices result from stretching a cubic lattice along one of its vectors, so that the cube becomes a rectangular prism with a square base. There is only one tetragonal Bravais lattice in two dimensions, the square lattice, there are two tetragonal Bravais lattices, the simple tetragonal and the centered tetragonal. One might suppose stretching face-centered cubic would result in face-centered tetragonal, BCT is considered more fundamental, so that is the standard terminology. Crystal structure point groups Bravais lattices
36.
Non-centrosymmetric
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In crystallography, a point group which contains an inversion center as one of its symmetry elements is centrosymmetric. In such a point group, for point in the unit cell there is an indistinguishable point. Such point groups are said to have inversion symmetry. Point reflection is a term used in geometry. Crystals with an inversion center cannot display certain properties, such as the piezoelectric effect, point groups lacking an inversion center are further divided into polar and chiral types. A chiral point group is one without any rotoinversion symmetry elements, rotoinversion is rotation followed by inversion, for example, a mirror reflection corresponds to a twofold rotoinversion. Chiral point groups must therefore only contain rotational symmetry and these arise from the crystal point groups 1,2,3,4,6,222,422,622,32,23, and 432. Chiral molecules such as proteins crystallize in chiral point groups, the term polar is often used for those point groups which are neither centrosymmetric nor chiral. However, the term is more used for any point group containing a unique anisotropic axis. These occur in crystal point groups 1,2,3,4,6, m, mm2, 3m, 4mm, thus some chiral space groups are also polar
37.
Dihedral group
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In mathematics, a dihedral group is the group of symmetries of a regular polygon, which includes rotations and reflections. Dihedral groups are among the simplest examples of groups, and they play an important role in group theory, geometry. The notation for the group of order n differs in geometry. In geometry, Dn or Dihn refers to the symmetries of the n-gon, in abstract algebra, Dn refers to the dihedral group of order n. The geometric convention is used in this article, a regular polygon with n sides has 2 n different symmetries, n rotational symmetries and n reflection symmetries. Usually, we take n ≥3 here. The associated rotations and reflections make up the dihedral group D n, if n is odd, each axis of symmetry connects the midpoint of one side to the opposite vertex. If n is even, there are n/2 axes of symmetry connecting the midpoints of opposite sides, in either case, there are n axes of symmetry and 2 n elements in the symmetry group. Reflecting in one axis of symmetry followed by reflecting in another axis of symmetry produces a rotation through twice the angle between the axes, as with any geometric object, the composition of two symmetries of a regular polygon is again a symmetry of this object. With composition of symmetries to produce another as the binary operation, the following Cayley table shows the effect of composition in the group D3. R0 denotes the identity, r1 and r2 denote counterclockwise rotations by 120° and 240° respectively, for example, s2s1 = r1, because the reflection s1 followed by the reflection s2 results in a rotation of 120°. The order of elements denoting the composition is right to left, the composition operation is not commutative. In all cases, addition and subtraction of subscripts are to be performed using modular arithmetic with modulus n, if we center the regular polygon at the origin, then elements of the dihedral group act as linear transformations of the plane. This lets us represent elements of Dn as matrices, with composition being matrix multiplication and this is an example of a group representation. For example, the elements of the group D4 can be represented by the eight matrices. In general, the matrices for elements of Dn have the following form, rk is a rotation matrix, expressing a counterclockwise rotation through an angle of 2πk/n. Sk is a reflection across a line makes an angle of πk/n with the x-axis. Further equivalent definitions of Dn are, D1 is isomorphic to Z2, D2 is isomorphic to K4, the Klein four-group. D1 and D2 are exceptional in that, D1 and D2 are the only abelian dihedral groups, Dn is a subgroup of the symmetric group Sn for n ≥3
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Alternating group
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In mathematics, an alternating group is the group of even permutations of a finite set. The alternating group on a set of n elements is called the group of degree n, or the alternating group on n letters. For n >1, the group An is the subgroup of the symmetric group Sn with index 2 and has therefore n. It is the kernel of the signature group homomorphism sgn. The group An is abelian if and only if n ≤3 and simple if, a5 is the smallest non-abelian simple group, having order 60, and the smallest non-solvable group. The group A4 has a Klein four-group V as a normal subgroup, namely the identity and the double transpositions. As in the group, the conjugacy classes in An consist of elements with the same cycle shape. Examples, The two permutations and are not conjugates in A3, although they have the same cycle shape, the permutation is not conjugate to its inverse in A8, although the two permutations have the same cycle shape, so they are conjugate in S8. An is generated by 3-cycles, since 3-cycles can be obtained by combining pairs of transpositions and this generating set is often used to prove that An is simple for n ≥5. For n =1 and 2, the group is trivial. For n =3 the automorphism group is Z2, with trivial inner automorphism group, the outer automorphism group of A6 is the Klein four-group V = Z2 × Z2, and is related to the outer automorphism of S6. The extra outer automorphism in A6 swaps the 3-cycles with elements of shape 32, there are some exceptional isomorphisms between some of the small alternating groups and small groups of Lie type, particularly projective special linear groups. These are, A4 is isomorphic to PSL2 and the group of chiral tetrahedral symmetry. A5 is isomorphic to PSL2, PSL2, and the group of chiral icosahedral symmetry. A6 is isomorphic to PSL2 and PSp4, more obviously, A3 is isomorphic to the cyclic group Z3, and A0, A1, and A2 are isomorphic to the trivial group. A subgroup of three elements with any additional element generates the whole group, for all n ≠4, An has no nontrivial normal subgroups. Thus, An is a group for all n ≠4. A5 is the smallest non-solvable group, the group homology of the alternating groups exhibits stabilization, as in stable homotopy theory, for sufficiently large n, it is constant. However, there are some low-dimensional exceptional homology, note that the homology of the symmetric group exhibits similar stabilization, but without the low-dimensional exceptions
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Symmetric group
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Since there are n. possible permutation operations that can be performed on a tuple composed of n symbols, it follows that the order of the symmetric group Sn is n. For the remainder of this article, symmetric group will mean a group on a finite set. The symmetric group is important to diverse areas of such as Galois theory, invariant theory, the representation theory of Lie groups. Cayleys theorem states that every group G is isomorphic to a subgroup of the group on G. The symmetric group on a finite set X is the group elements are all bijective functions from X to X. For finite sets, permutations and bijective functions refer to the same operation, the symmetric group of degree n is the symmetric group on the set X =. The symmetric group on a set X is denoted in various ways including SX,
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Polarization density
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In classical electromagnetism, polarization density is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced electric dipole moments in a dielectric material. When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, its molecules gain electric dipole moment. The electric dipole moment induced per unit volume of the material is called the electric polarization of the dielectric. It can be compared to magnetization, which is the measure of the response of a material to a magnetic field in magnetism. The SI unit of measure is coulombs per square meter, an external electric field that is applied to a dielectric material, causes a displacement of bound charged elements. These are elements which are bound to molecules and are not free to move around the material, positive charged elements are displaced in the direction of the field, and negative charged elements are displaced opposite to the direction of the field. The molecules may remain neutral in charge, yet an electric dipole moment forms and this definition of polarization as a dipole moment per unit volume is widely adopted, though in some cases it can bring to ambiguities and paradoxes. Let a volume dV be isolated inside the dielectric, due to polarization the positive bound charge d q b + will be displaced a distance d relative to the negative bound charge d q b −, giving rise to a dipole moment d p = d q b d. Note that in this case χ simplifies to a scalar, although generally it is a tensor. This is a case due to the isotropy of the dielectric. And since free charges can get as close to the dielectric as to its topmost surface, it follows that polarization only gives rise to surface bound charge density. σ b may be related to P by the following equation, the class of dielectrics where the polarization density and the electric field are not in the same direction are known as anisotropic materials. The case of a dielectric medium is described by the field of crystal optics. The polarizability of individual particles in the medium can be related to the average susceptibility, in general, the susceptibility is a function of the frequency ω of the applied field. When the field is a function of time t, the polarization is a convolution of the Fourier transform of χ with the E. This reflects the fact that the dipoles in the material cannot respond instantaneously to the applied field, if the polarization P is not linearly proportional to the electric field E, the medium is termed nonlinear and is described by the field of nonlinear optics. In ferroelectric materials, there is no correspondence between P and E at all because of hysteresis. The behavior of electric fields, magnetic fields, charge density, in terms of volume charge densities, the free charge density ρ f is given by ρ f = ρ − ρ b where ρ is the total charge density
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Pyroelectricity
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Pyroelectricity is the property of certain crystals which are naturally electrically polarized and as a result contain large electric fields. The most important example is the gallium nitride semiconductor, the large electric fields in this material are unwanted for light emitting diodes, but are very helpful for the fabrication of power transistors. Alternatively, pyroelectricity is interpreted as the ability of materials to generate a temporary voltage when they are heated or cooled. The change in temperature modifies the positions of the atoms slightly within the crystal structure and this polarization change gives rise to a voltage across the crystal. If the temperature stays constant at its new value, the pyroelectric voltage gradually disappears due to leakage current, pyroelectricity can be visualized as one side of a triangle, where each corner represents energy states in the crystal, kinetic, electrical and thermal energy. The side between electrical and thermal corners represents the effect and produces no kinetic energy. The side between kinetic and electrical corners represents the effect and produces no heat. Although artificial pyroelectric materials have been engineered, the effect was first discovered in such as tourmaline. The pyroelectric effect is present in bone and tendon. Pyroelectric charge in minerals develops on the faces of asymmetric crystals. These materials are said to exhibit ferroelectricity, all pyroelectric materials are also piezoelectric, the two properties being closely related. However, note that some materials have a crystal symmetry that does not allow pyroelectricity. Very small changes in temperature can produce a potential, due to a materials pyroelectricity. Passive infrared sensors are designed around pyroelectric materials, as the heat of a human or animal from several feet away is enough to generate a difference in charge. The first reference to the effect is in writings by Theophrastus in 314 BC. Tourmalines properties were rediscovered in 1707 by Johann Georg Schmidt, who noted that the stone attracted only hot ashes, not cold ones. In 1717 Louis Lemery noticed, as Schmidt had, that small scraps of non-conducting material were first attracted to tourmaline, in 1747 Linnaeus first related the phenomenon to electricity, although this was not proven until 1756 by Franz Ulrich Theodor Aepinus. Research in pyroelectricity became more sophisticated in the 19th century, in 1824 Sir David Brewster gave the effect the name it has today
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Crystal structure
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In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns that repeat along the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter. The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes the pattern is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell completely defines the symmetry and structure of the crystal lattice. The repeating patterns are said to be located at the points of the Bravais lattice, the lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles between them are the lattice constants, also called lattice parameters. The symmetry properties of the crystal are described by the concept of space groups, all possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space may be described by the 230 space groups. The crystal structure and symmetry play a role in determining many physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure. The crystal structure of a material can be described in terms of its unit cell, the unit cell is a box containing one or more atoms arranged in three dimensions. The unit cells stacked in three-dimensional space describe the arrangement of atoms of the crystal. Commonly, atomic positions are represented in terms of fractional coordinates, the atom positions within the unit cell can be calculated through application of symmetry operations to the asymmetric unit. The asymmetric unit refers to the smallest possible occupation of space within the unit cell and this does not, however imply that the entirety of the asymmetric unit must lie within the boundaries of the unit cell. Symmetric transformations of atom positions are calculated from the group of the crystal structure. Vectors and planes in a lattice are described by the three-value Miller index notation. It uses the indices ℓ, m, and n as directional parameters, which are separated by 90°, by definition, the syntax denotes a plane that intercepts the three points a1/ℓ, a2/m, and a3/n, or some multiple thereof. That is, the Miller indices are proportional to the inverses of the intercepts of the plane with the unit cell, if one or more of the indices is zero, it means that the planes do not intersect that axis. A plane containing a coordinate axis is translated so that it no longer contains that axis before its Miller indices are determined, the Miller indices for a plane are integers with no common factors. Negative indices are indicated with horizontal bars, as in, in an orthogonal coordinate system for a cubic cell, the Miller indices of a plane are the Cartesian components of a vector normal to the plane. Likewise, the planes are geometric planes linking nodes
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Protein
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Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar
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Cubic (crystal system)
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In crystallography, the cubic crystal system is a crystal system where the unit cell is in the shape of a cube. This is one of the most common and simplest shapes found in crystals and minerals, there are three main varieties of these crystals, Primitive cubic Body-centered cubic, Face-centered cubic Each is subdivided into other variants listed below. Note that although the cell in these crystals is conventionally taken to be a cube. This is related to the fact that in most cubic crystal systems, a classic isometric crystal has square or pentagonal faces. The three Bravais lattices in the crystal system are, The primitive cubic system consists of one lattice point on each corner of the cube. Each atom at a point is then shared equally between eight adjacent cubes, and the unit cell therefore contains in total one atom. The body-centered cubic system has one point in the center of the unit cell in addition to the eight corner points. It has a net total of 2 lattice points per unit cell, Each sphere in a cF lattice has coordination number 12. The face-centered cubic system is related to the hexagonal close packed system. The plane of a cubic system is a hexagonal grid. Attempting to create a C-centered cubic crystal system would result in a simple tetragonal Bravais lattice, there are a total 36 cubic space groups. Other terms for hexoctahedral are, normal class, holohedral, ditesseral central class, a simple cubic unit cell has a single cubic void in the center. Additionally, there are 24 tetrahedral voids located in a square spacing around each octahedral void and these tetrahedral voids are not local maxima and are not technically voids, but they do occasionally appear in multi-atom unit cells. A face-centered cubic unit cell has eight tetrahedral voids located midway between each corner and the center of the cell, for a total of eight net tetrahedral voids. One important characteristic of a structure is its atomic packing factor. This is calculated by assuming all the atoms are identical spheres. The atomic packing factor is the proportion of space filled by these spheres, assuming one atom per lattice point, in a primitive cubic lattice with cube side length a, the sphere radius would be a⁄2 and the atomic packing factor turns out to be about 0.524. Similarly, in a bcc lattice, the atomic packing factor is 0.680, as a rule, since atoms in a solid attract each other, the more tightly packed arrangements of atoms tend to be more common
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Geometry
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Geometry is a branch of mathematics concerned with questions of shape, size, relative position of figures, and the properties of space. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is called a geometer, Geometry arose independently in a number of early cultures as a practical way for dealing with lengths, areas, and volumes. Geometry began to see elements of mathematical science emerging in the West as early as the 6th century BC. By the 3rd century BC, geometry was put into a form by Euclid, whose treatment, Euclids Elements. Geometry arose independently in India, with texts providing rules for geometric constructions appearing as early as the 3rd century BC, islamic scientists preserved Greek ideas and expanded on them during the Middle Ages. By the early 17th century, geometry had been put on a solid footing by mathematicians such as René Descartes. Since then, and into modern times, geometry has expanded into non-Euclidean geometry and manifolds, while geometry has evolved significantly throughout the years, there are some general concepts that are more or less fundamental to geometry. These include the concepts of points, lines, planes, surfaces, angles, contemporary geometry has many subfields, Euclidean geometry is geometry in its classical sense. The mandatory educational curriculum of the majority of nations includes the study of points, lines, planes, angles, triangles, congruence, similarity, solid figures, circles, Euclidean geometry also has applications in computer science, crystallography, and various branches of modern mathematics. Differential geometry uses techniques of calculus and linear algebra to problems in geometry. It has applications in physics, including in general relativity, topology is the field concerned with the properties of geometric objects that are unchanged by continuous mappings. In practice, this often means dealing with large-scale properties of spaces, convex geometry investigates convex shapes in the Euclidean space and its more abstract analogues, often using techniques of real analysis. It has close connections to convex analysis, optimization and functional analysis, algebraic geometry studies geometry through the use of multivariate polynomials and other algebraic techniques. It has applications in areas, including cryptography and string theory. Discrete geometry is concerned mainly with questions of relative position of simple objects, such as points. It shares many methods and principles with combinatorics, Geometry has applications to many fields, including art, architecture, physics, as well as to other branches of mathematics. The earliest recorded beginnings of geometry can be traced to ancient Mesopotamia, the earliest known texts on geometry are the Egyptian Rhind Papyrus and Moscow Papyrus, the Babylonian clay tablets such as Plimpton 322. For example, the Moscow Papyrus gives a formula for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid, later clay tablets demonstrate that Babylonian astronomers implemented trapezoid procedures for computing Jupiters position and motion within time-velocity space
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Symmetry group
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In abstract algebra, the symmetry group of an object is the group of all transformations under which the object is invariant with composition as the group operation. For a space with a metric, it is a subgroup of the group of the space concerned. If not stated otherwise, this article considers symmetry groups in Euclidean geometry, the objects may be geometric figures, images, and patterns, such as a wallpaper pattern. The definition can be more precise by specifying what is meant by image or pattern. For symmetry of objects, one may also want to take their physical composition into account. The group of isometries of space induces an action on objects in it. The symmetry group is also called full symmetry group in order to emphasize that it includes the orientation-reversing isometries under which the figure is invariant. The subgroup of orientation-preserving isometries that leave the figure invariant is called its symmetry group. The proper symmetry group of an object is equal to its symmetry group if. The proper symmetry group is then a subgroup of the orthogonal group SO. A discrete symmetry group is a group such that for every point of the space the set of images of the point under the isometries in the symmetry group is a discrete set. There are also continuous symmetry groups, which contain rotations of arbitrarily small angles or translations of arbitrarily small distances, the group of all symmetries of a sphere O is an example of this, and in general such continuous symmetry groups are studied as Lie groups. With a categorization of subgroups of the Euclidean group corresponds a categorization of symmetry groups, for example, two 3D figures have mirror symmetry, but with respect to different mirror planes. Two 3D figures have 3-fold rotational symmetry, but with respect to different axes, two 2D patterns have translational symmetry, each in one direction, the two translation vectors have the same length but a different direction. When considering isometry groups, one may restrict oneself to those where for all points the set of images under the isometries is topologically closed. This includes all discrete isometry groups and also involved in continuous symmetries. A figure with this group is non-drawable and up to arbitrarily fine detail homogeneous. The group generated by all translations, this group cannot be the group of a pattern, it would be homogeneous
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Translational symmetry
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In geometry, a translation slides a thing by a, Ta = p + a. In physics and mathematics, continuous translational symmetry is the invariance of a system of equations under any translation, discrete translational symmetry is invariant under discrete translation. More precisely it must hold that ∀ δ A f = A, laws of physics are translationally invariant under a spatial translation if they do not distinguish different points in space. According to Noethers theorem, space translational symmetry of a system is equivalent to the momentum conservation law. Translational symmetry of a means that a particular translation does not change the object. Fundamental domains are e. g. H + a for any hyperplane H for which a has an independent direction. This is in 1D a line segment, in 2D an infinite strip, Note that the strip and slab need not be perpendicular to the vector, hence can be narrower or thinner than the length of the vector. In spaces with higher than 1, there may be multiple translational symmetry. For each set of k independent translation vectors the symmetry group is isomorphic with Zk, in particular the multiplicity may be equal to the dimension. This implies that the object is infinite in all directions, in this case the set of all translations forms a lattice. The absolute value of the determinant of the matrix formed by a set of vectors is the hypervolume of the n-dimensional parallelepiped the set subtends. This parallelepiped is a region of the symmetry, any pattern on or in it is possible. E. g. in 2D, instead of a and b we can take a. In general in 2D, we can take pa + qb and ra + sb for integers p, q, r and this ensures that a and b themselves are integer linear combinations of the other two vectors. If not, not all translations are possible with the other pair, each pair a, b defines a parallelogram, all with the same area, the magnitude of the cross product. One parallelogram fully defines the whole object, without further symmetry, this parallelogram is a fundamental domain. The vectors a and b can be represented by complex numbers, for two given lattice points, equivalence of choices of a third point to generate a lattice shape is represented by the modular group, see lattice. With rotational symmetry of order two of the pattern on the tile we have p2, the rectangle is a more convenient unit to consider as fundamental domain than a parallelogram consisting of part of a tile and part of another one
