1.
Casas Grandes Municipality
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Casas Grandes Municipality is located in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. The municipal seat is the town of Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, the pre-Columbian archaeological zone Casas Grandes and its central site, after which the municipality is named, is located within the municipalitys territory. The municipality of Casas Grandes is situated in the sector of Chihuahua state. Casas Grandes, the capital and its most populous localidad, is approximately 359 kilometres to the northwest of the states capital. Casas Grandes is bounded by the municipalities of Janos to the north, Galeana, Nuevo Casas Grandes and Madera, Chihuahua to the east, on its western flank Casas Grandes adjoins municipalities within the state of Sonora. As of 2010, the municipality had a population of 10,587. As of 2010, the town of Casas Grandes had a population of 5,256, other than the town of Casas Grandes, the municipality had 296 localities, the largest of which were, Juan Mata Ortíz and Colonia Juárez, classified as rural
2.
Chihuahua (state)
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Chihuahua, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua, is one of the 32 states of Mexico. Its capital city is Chihuahua City and it is located in Northwestern Mexico and is bordered by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the southwest, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east. To the north and northeast, it has a border with the U. S. adjacent to the U. S. states of New Mexico. Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico by area, with an area of 247,455 square kilometres, the state is consequently known under the nickname El Estado Grande. Although Chihuahua is primarily identified with the Chihuahuan Desert for namesake, it has more forests than any state in Mexico. Due to its variant climate, the state has a variety of fauna. The state is characterized by rugged mountainous terrain and wide river valleys. On the slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains, there are vast prairies of short yellow grass, most of the inhabitants live along the Rio Grande Valley and the Conchos River Valley. The etymology of the name Chihuahua has long disputed by historians. The most accepted theory explains that the name was derived from the Nahuatl language meaning The place where the water of the rivers meet, Chihuahua has a diversified state economy. The three most important economic centers in the state are, Ciudad Juárez, a manufacturing center, Chihuahua, the state capital, and Delicias. Today Chihuahua serves as an important commercial route prospering from billions of dollars from international trade as a result of NAFTA, on the other hand the state suffers the fallout of illicit trade and activities especially at the border. The earliest evidence of inhabitants of modern day Chihuahua was discovered in the area of Samalayuca. Clovis points have been found in northeastern Chihuahua that have dated from 12,000 BC to 7000 BC. It is thought that these inhabitants were hunter gatherers, inhabitants of the state later developed farming with the domestication of corn. An archeological site in northern Chihuahua known as Cerro Juanaqueña revealed squash cultivation, irrigation techniques, between AD300 and 1300 in the northern part of the state along the wide, fertile valley on the San Miguel River the Casas Grandes culture developed into an advanced civilization. The Casas Grandes civilization is part of a prehistoric archaeological culture known as Mogollon which is related to the Ancestral Pueblo culture. Paquime was the center of the Casas Grandes civilization, extensive archaeological evidence shows commerce, agriculture, and hunting at Paquime and Cuarenta Casas
3.
Mexico
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Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a federal republic in the southern half of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States, to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean, to the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea, and to the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometers, Mexico is the sixth largest country in the Americas by total area, Mexico is a federation comprising 31 states and a federal district that is also its capital and most populous city. Other metropolises include Guadalajara, Monterrey, Puebla, Toluca, Tijuana, pre-Columbian Mexico was home to many advanced Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Olmec, Toltec, Teotihuacan, Zapotec, Maya and Aztec before first contact with Europeans. In 1521, the Spanish Empire conquered and colonized the territory from its base in Mexico-Tenochtitlan, Three centuries later, this territory became Mexico following recognition in 1821 after the colonys Mexican War of Independence. The tumultuous post-independence period was characterized by instability and many political changes. The Mexican–American War led to the cession of the extensive northern borderlands, one-third of its territory. The Pastry War, the Franco-Mexican War, a civil war, the dictatorship was overthrown in the Mexican Revolution of 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the countrys current political system. Mexico has the fifteenth largest nominal GDP and the eleventh largest by purchasing power parity, the Mexican economy is strongly linked to those of its North American Free Trade Agreement partners, especially the United States. Mexico was the first Latin American member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and it is classified as an upper-middle income country by the World Bank and a newly industrialized country by several analysts. By 2050, Mexico could become the fifth or seventh largest economy. The country is considered both a power and middle power, and is often identified as an emerging global power. Due to its culture and history, Mexico ranks first in the Americas. Mexico is a country, ranking fourth in the world by biodiversity. In 2015 it was the 9th most visited country in the world, Mexico is a member of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the G8+5, the G20, the Uniting for Consensus and the Pacific Alliance. Mēxihco is the Nahuatl term for the heartland of the Aztec Empire, namely, the Valley of Mexico, and its people, the Mexica and this became the future State of Mexico as a division of New Spain prior to independence. It is generally considered to be a toponym for the valley became the primary ethnonym for the Aztec Triple Alliance as a result. After New Spain won independence from Spain, representatives decided to name the new country after its capital and this was founded in 1524 on top of the ancient Mexica capital of Mexico-Tenochtitlan
4.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
5.
Mogollon culture
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The Mogollon culture is one of the major prehistoric Southwestern cultural divisions of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico. The culture flourished from the period, c.200 CE, to either 1450 or 1540 CE. The name Mogollon comes from the Mogollon Mountains, which were named after Don Juan Ignacio Flores Mogollón, the name was chosen and defined in 1936 by archaeologist Emil W. Haury. Key differences included brown-paste, coil-and-scrape pottery, deeply excavated semi-subterranean pithouses, eight decades of subsequent research have confirmed Haurys initial findings. The earliest Mogollon pithouses were deep and either circular or oval-shaped, over time, Mogollon people built rectangular houses with rounded corners and not as deep. Their villages also had kivas, or round, semi-subterranean ceremonial structures, Mogollon origins remain a matter of speculation. One model holds that the Mogollon emerged from a preceding Desert Archaic tradition that links Mogollon ancestry with the first prehistoric human occupations of the area, in this model, cultural distinctions emerged in the larger region when populations grew great enough to establish villages and even larger communities. The Mogollon were, initially, foragers who augmented their subsistence efforts by farming, through the first millennium CE, however, dependence on farming probably increased. Water control features are common among Mimbres branch sites from the 10th through 12th centuries CE, the nature and density of Mogollon residential villages changed through time. The earliest Mogollon villages are small hamlets composed of several pithouses, village sizes increased over time and by the 11th century surface pueblos became common. Cliff-dwellings became common during the 13th and 14th centuries, Research on Mogollon culture has led to the recognition of regional variants, of which the most widely recognized in popular media is the Mimbres culture. Others include the Jornada, Forestdale, Reserve, Point of Pines, San Simon, an alternate way of viewing Mogollon culture is through three periods of housing types, Early Pithouse Late Pithouse Mogollon Pueblo. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument in southwestern New Mexico was established as a National Monument on 16 November 1907 and it contains several archaeological sites attributed to the Mimbres branch. At the headwaters of the Gila, Mimbres populations adjoined another more northern branch of the Mogollon culture, the TJ Ruin, for example, is a Classic Mimbres phase pueblo, however the cliff dwellings are Tularosa phase. The Hueco Tanks State Historic Site is approximately 32 mi northeast of El Paso, Mimbres may, depending on its context, refer to a tradition within a subregion of the Mogollon culture area or to an interval of time, the Classic Mimbres phase within the Mimbres branch. Classic Mimbres phase pottery is particularly famous pottery, and Classic Mimbres pottery designs were imitated on Santa Fe Railroad Mimbreños china dinnerware from 1936 to 1970, three Circle phase pithouse villages within the Mimbres branch are distinctive. Houses are quadrilateral, usually with sharply-angled corners, plastered floors and walls, local pottery styles include early forms of Mimbres black and white, red-on-cream, and textured plainware. Large ceremonial structures are dug deeply into the ground and often include distinctive ceremonial features such as foot drums, Classic Mimbres phase pueblos can be quite large, with some composed of clusters of communities, each containing up to 150 rooms and all grouped around an open plaza
6.
Oasisamerica
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Oasisamerica is a term used by some scholars, primarily Mexican anthropologists, for the broad cultural area defining pre-Columbian southwestern North America. It extends from modern-day Utah down to southern Chihuahua, and from the coast on the Gulf of California eastward to the Río Bravo river valley and its name comes from its position in relationship with the similar regions of Mesoamerica and mostly nomadic Aridoamerica. The term Greater Southwest is often used to describe this region by American anthropologists, as opposed to their nomadic Aridoamerican neighbors, the Oasisamericans primarily had agricultural societies. The term Oasisamerica is derived from a combination of the terms oasis and it refers to a wild land dominated by the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre Occidental. To the east and west of these mountain ranges stretch the grand arid plains of the Sonora, Chihuahua. Despite being a dry land, Oasisamerica contains several bodies of water like rivers, Yaqui, Rio Grande, Colorado, Conchos. The presence of these rivers, combined with a climate that was much milder that eastern Aridoamerica, the story of the origins of the cultural superarea of Mesoamerica takes place some 2000 years after the separation of Mesoamerica and Aridoamerica. Some of the Aridoamerican communities farmed as a complement to their hunter-gatherer economy and those communities, among whom one finds adherents to the Desert Tradition, later would become more truly agricultural and form Oasisamerica. Based on maize remnants found in Bat Cave, Arizona, it appears that agriculture practices date back to at least 3500 BCE. Given that the oldest traces of maize in North America date back to the year 5000 BCE and it is less certain who brought the agricultural technology and what role they played in the development of the high cultures of Oasisamerica. At least three hypotheses have proposed to explain the birth of the cultures of Oasisamerica. One, a model, posits an independent cultural development whose roots lie deep in antiquity. From this point of view, thanks to a superior climate, a second hypothesis presupposes that the nomads of the Mesoamerican culture slowly moved northward over time. Thus, the Oasisamericans would be an offshoot of their neighbors to the south, there are many indications of a close relationship between the two great cultural regions of North America. For one, the turquoise that the Mesoamericans prized so dearly came almost exclusively from southern New Mexico, demand for this mineral alone may have played a large part in establishing trade relationships between the two cultural areas. The area encompassed by Oasisamerica fostered the growth of major cultural groups, the Ancestral Pueblo people, Hohokam, Mogollon, Pataya. Smaller cultures within this region include the Sinagua, Ancestral Pueblo cultures flourished in the region currently known as the Four Corners. The Ancestral Pueblo society is one of the most complex to be found in Oasisamerica, the Ancestral Pueblo is considered to be the most intensely studied Pre-Columbian culture in the United States
7.
Casas Grandes
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Casas Grandes is a prehistoric archaeological site in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. Construction of the site is attributed to the Mogollon culture, Casas Grandes has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is under the purview of INAH. Casas Grandes is one of the largest and most complex Mogollon culture sites in the region, settlement began after 1130 CE, and would see the larger buildings developed into multi-storied dwellings after 1350 CE. The community was abandoned approximately 1450 CE, Casas Grandes complex is located in a wide, fertile valley on the Casas Grandes or San Miguel River,35 miles south of Janos and 150 miles northwest of the state capital, the city of Chihuahua. The settlement relied on irrigation to support its agriculture, the archaeological zone is contained within the eponymous modern municipio of Casas Grandes. The valley and region have been inhabited by groups for thousands of years. Between CE1130 and 1300, the inhabitants began to congregate in small settlements in this wide fertile valley. The largest identified settlement is today as Paquimé or Casas Grandes. It began as a group of 20 or more house clusters, each with a plaza and these single-story adobe dwellings shared a common water system. Evidence shows that Paquimé had a water control system that included underground drain systems, reservoirs, channels for water to get to the homes. After being burned about 1340, Casas Grandes was rebuilt with multi-story apartment buildings to replace the small buildings, Casas Grandes consisted of about 2,000 adjoining rooms built of adobe, I-shaped Mesoamerican ballcourts, stone-faced platforms, effigy mounds, and a market area. About 350 other, smaller settlement sites have found in the Casas Grandes area. Archaeologists believe that the area controlled by Casas Grandes was relatively small. The population may have been about 2,500 in Casas Grandes with perhaps 10,000 people living within its area of control, specialized craft activities included the production of copper bells and ornaments, extensive pottery, and beads from marine molluscs. These crafts were probably distributed by a trading network. Casas Grandes pottery has a white or reddish surface, with ornamentation in blue, red, brown and it is sometimes considered of better manufacture than the modern pottery in the area. Effigy bowls and vessels were formed in the shape of a painted human figure. Casas Grandes pottery was traded among prehistoric peoples as far north as present-day New Mexico and Arizona, the archaeologist Stephen Lekson has noted that Paquimé is aligned on roughly the same longitudinal axis as Chaco Canyon and Aztec Ruins, with an error of only a few miles
8.
Cliff dwelling
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In archeology, cliff dwellings are dwellings formed by using niches or caves in high cliffs, with more or less excavation or with additions in the way of masonry. The area in which they occur coincides with that in which traces of the Pueblo tribes have been found. The niches that were used are often of considerable size, occurring in cliffs to a thousand feet in height, guide to Prehistoric Ruins of the Southwest
9.
Ciudad Madera, Chihuahua
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Madera is a town and seat of the municipality of Madera in the mountains of the northwestern Mexican state of Chihuahua. As of 2010, the city of Madera had a population of 15,447 and it is a logging town, located in the mountains and the lumber industry is still very important. New manufacturing industries have created new employment for the residents and it is at 2112 metres above sea level and was founded in 1906. The town is located 276 kilometres northwest of the capital, Chihuahua. Madera has been the point of the Cabalgata Binacional Villista. Madera is a city surrounded by the great Sierra Madre mountains. Madera’s high altitude gives it a subtropical highland climate, characterised by somewhat warm, wet summers and cold. Frost occurs most mornings from October to April, but daytime temperatures remain mild, snow falls on about 7 days per year on average
10.
Sierra Madre Occidental
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The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera, that runs northwest–southeast through Northwestern and Western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California. The Spanish name sierra madre means mother mountains and occidental means western in English, the range extends from northern Sonora state near the Mexico-U. S. Border at Arizona, southeastwards to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre del Sur ranges, the high plateau that is formed by the range is cut by deep river valleys. This plateau is formed from volcanic rock overlying a basement of metamorphic rock and this uplift has caused changes in weather patterns, increased rainfall occurring in the mountains has provided areas where ecosystems can form in wetter areas than surrounding land. This water-source forms watersheds that provide the arid surroundings with water makes it possible to irrigate. The wet ecosystems are islands of biodiversity, differing significantly from what would otherwise be a desert landscape, oak forests are the predominant plant life and extend into the low land deserts. The major industries in the area now are agriculture and forestry, which have become contentious because of land degradation, the range trends from the north to southeast. Canyons cut by the rivers of the wet western slopes exist in addition to those of the northeast slopes, the mountains range from 300 km from the Gulf of California in the north, but begin to approach within 50 km of the Pacific in the south. These mountains are considered to be part of the much larger American cordillera. The Sierra Tarahumara or Tarahumara range is the name for the region of the Sierra Madre beginning at the Durango border and this name comes from the Tarahumara natives. This is a landscape of steep mountains formed by a high plateau that has been cut through with canyons including Copper Canyon, larger and, in places. This plateau has an elevation of 2,250 m with most of the more eroded canyons on the western slope. The highest elevations occur in the Tarahumara range, the exact elevations of the highest peaks are not known within accurate enough ranges to determine the relative elevation of peaks. The highest point is probably Cerro Mohinora, located at 25°57′N 107°03′W, estimates for the height of the mountain start around 3,040 m and go up to 3,300 m. However, Cerro Barajas, at 26°24′N 106°5′W, may be as high as 3,300 m although other sources give 3,170 m as the elevation, Cerro Gordo, at 23°12′N 104°57′W, may have an elevation between 3,350 m and 3,340 m. The southern end of the mountains may be referred to as the Sierra Huichola, in this area the Sierra Madre begin to give way to the basin and range province. Subranges of this include the Sierra de Alica and the Sierra Pajaritos both in Nayarit. The mountains act as a source of water, in an arid environment from the increased precipitation from the mountain range
11.
Chihuahua City
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The city of Chihuahua is the state capital of the Mexican state of Chihuahua. It has a population of about 925,970, the predominant activity is industry, including domestic heavy, light industries, consumer goods production, and to a smaller extent maquiladoras. It has been said that the name derives from the Nahuatl language, meaning between two waters, other accepted definitions are place of the holed-rock or from Tarahumara, dry, the name itself is older than the Spanish conquest of Mexico. The city was founded on October 12,1709, by Blas Cano de los Rios and Antonio Deza y Ulloa, don Ildefonso de Irigoyen donated the land for the city foundation. The town was erected a Villa in 1718 with the name of San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua, the location was chosen because it is the intersection of the rivers Chuviscar and Sacramento. It is also the midpoint between the Río Bravo del Norte and the then-important mining city of Hidalgo del Parral, during the War of Independence, the city saw little action. During the Mexican-American War, Chihuahua fell to U. S. forces in 1847, during the French invasion, President Benito Juárez made the city the seat of his government-in-exile from 1864 to 1867. During the presidency of Porfirio Díaz the city experienced explosive growth, the city became the seat for important banks and wealthy families. The city was involved during the Mexican Revolution, for it became at times the operations base for the División del Norte. Many sites and memories remain of the Revolutionary era, the most important of these is the Historical Museum of the Mexican Revolution at Villas former estate house near downtown Chihuahua, La Quinta Luz was turned into a museum by his widow, Sra. María Luz Corral de Villa, and is now managed by the federal government, during the 20th century, the city grew in population and learned to take advantage of its proximity with the U. S. border. Until the establishment of manufacturing plants in the 1970s, the city was largely a trade post for cattle. In 2002, Mayor Jorge Barousse Moreno from the Institutional Revolutionary Party died and was succeeded by Alejandro Cano Ricaud, during Canos administration, the city experienced dramatic growth in the security sector when the Police Department was certified by the ISO and surveillance aircraft bought. In 2004 Juan Blanco Zaldivar, of the National Action Party, the turnout of registered voters, at about 41%, was the lowest in years. In January,2010, Mayor Carlos Borruel submitted his resignation in order to campaign for election to the office of Governor of Chihuahua, alvaro Guillermo Madero Muñoz, assumed the office of mayor for the balance of his term. On July 4,2013, Javier Garfio of the PRI won election for a 3-year term as mayor, as of 2010, the city of Chihuahua had a population of 809,232. A substantial population is from the U. S, the literacy rate in the city is among the highest in the country at 98%, 35% of the population is aged 14 or below, 60% between 15 and 65 and 5% over 65. The life expectancy for males is 72 years and for women is 79 years, the city of Chihuahua has achieved great advances in human and social development
12.
Mesa Verde National Park
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Mesa Verde National Park is a National Park and World Heritage Site located in Montezuma County, Colorado. It protects some of the best preserved Ancestral Puebloan archaeological sites in the United States, created by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906, the park occupies 52,485 acres near the Four Corners region of the American Southwest. With more than 4,300 sites, including 600 cliff dwellings, Mesa Verde is best known for structures such as Cliff Palace, thought to be the largest cliff dwelling in North America. Starting c. 7500 BCE, Mesa Verde was seasonally inhabited by a group of nomadic Paleo-Indians known as the Foothills Mountain Complex. The variety of points found in the region indicates they were influenced by surrounding areas, including the Great Basin, the San Juan Basin. Later, Archaic people established semi-permanent rockshelters in and around the mesa, by 1000 BCE, the Basketmaker culture emerged from the local Archaic population, and by 750 CE the Ancestral Puebloans had developed from the Basketmaker culture. The Mesa Verdeans survived using a combination of hunting, gathering, and subsistence farming of crops such as corn, beans, and squash. They built the mesas first pueblos sometime after 650, and by the end of the 12th century, the first occupants of the Mesa Verde region, which spans from southeastern Utah to northwestern New Mexico, were nomadic Paleo-Indians who arrived in the area c. 9500 BCE. They followed herds of big game and camped near rivers and streams, the earliest Paleo-Indians were the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition, defined largely by the way in which they fashioned projectile points. Although they left evidence of their presence throughout the region, there is indication that they lived in central Mesa Verde during this time. After 9600 BCE, the environment grew warmer and drier, a change that brought to central Mesa Verde pine forests. Paleo-Indians began inhabiting the mesa in increasing numbers c. 7500, development of the atlatl during this period made it easier for them to hunt smaller game, a crucial advance at a time when most of the regions big game had disappeared from the landscape. 6000 BCE marks the beginning of the Archaic period in North America, the Archaic people probably developed locally, but were also influenced by contact, trade, and intermarriage with immigrants from these outlying areas. The early Archaic people living near Mesa Verde utilized the atlatl and harvested a variety of plants and animals than the Paleo-Indians had. Environmental stability during the period drove population expansion and migration, by the late Archaic, more people were living in semi-permanent rockshelters that preserved perishable goods such as baskets, sandals, and mats. They started to make a variety of figurines that usually resembled sheep or deer. The late Archaic is marked by increased trade in materials such as obsidian. Marine shells and abalone from the Pacific coast made their way to Mesa Verde from Arizona, Rock art flourished, and people lived in rudimentary houses made of mud and wood
13.
Bandelier National Monument
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Bandelier National Monument is a 33, 677-acre United States National Monument near Los Alamos in Sandoval and Los Alamos Counties, New Mexico. The monument preserves the homes and territory of the Ancestral Puebloans of an era in the Southwest. Most of the structures date to two eras, dating between 1150 and 1600 AD. The Monument is 50 square miles of the Pajarito Plateau, on the slopes of the Jemez Volcanic field in the Jemez Mountains, there are three miles of road, and more than 70 miles of hiking trails. The Monument protects Ancestral Pueblo archeological sites, a diverse and scenic landscape, the park infrastructure was developed in the 1930s by crews of the Civilian Conservation Corps, and are a National Historic Landmark for their well-preserved architecture. The National Park Service co-operates with surrounding pueblos, other federal agencies, the monument received 193,914 visitors in 2011. In October 1976, roughly seventy percent of the monument,23,267 acres, was included within the National Wilderness Preservation System, the parks elevations range from about 5,000 feet at the Rio Grande to over 10,200 feet at the summit of Cerro Grande. The Valles Caldera National Preserve adjoins the monument on the north and west, much of the area was covered with volcanic ash from an eruption of the Valles Caldera volcano 1.14 million years ago. The tuff overlays shales and sandstones deposited during the Permian Period, the volcanic outflow varied in hardness, the Ancestral Pueblo People broke up the firmer materials to use as bricks, while they carved out dwellings from the softer material. Human presence in the area has been dated to over 10,000 years before present, permanent settlements by ancestors of the Puebloan peoples have been dated to 1150 CE, these settlers had moved closer to the Rio Grande by 1550. Spanish colonial settlers arrived in the 18th century, the Pueblo Jose Montoya brought Adolph Bandelier to visit the area in 1880. Looking over the dwellings, Bandelier said, It is the grandest thing I ever saw. Based on documentation and research by Bandelier, there was support for preserving the area, supporting infrastructure, including a lodge, was built during the 1920s and 1930s. This group of 31 buildings illustrates the principles of National Park Service Rustic architecture, being based on local materials. It has been designated as a National Landmark District, Frijoles Canyon contains a number of ancestral pueblo homes, kivas, rock paintings, and petroglyphs. Some of the dwellings were rock structures built on the floor, others were cavates produced by voids in the volcanic tuff of the canyon wall. A1. 2-mile, predominantly paved, Main Loop Trail from the visitor center affords access to these features. A trail extending beyond this leads to Alcove House, a shelter cave produced by erosion of the soft rock and containing a small
14.
Adobe
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Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
15.
Pacific Ocean
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The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
16.
Gulf of California
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The Gulf of California is a body of water that separates the Baja California Peninsula from the Mexican mainland. It is bordered by the states of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, rivers which flow into the Gulf of California include the Colorado, Fuerte, Mayo, Sinaloa, Sonora, and the Yaqui. The gulfs surface area is about 160,000 km2, the Gulf is thought to be one of the most diverse seas on the planet, and is home to more than 5,000 species of micro-invertebrates. Home to over a people, Baja California is one of the longest peninsulas in the world. Parts of the Gulf of California are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the southern limit of the Gulf of California as, A line joining Piastla Point in Mexico, and the southern extreme of Lower California. The Gulf of California is 1,126 km long and 48–241 km wide, with an area of 177,000 km2, a depth of 818.08 m. Transition zones exist between regions, and they usually vary for each individual species. The temperature of the water in the Gulf of California generally experiences lows of 16 °C in winter, but temperatures can vary greatly in the gulf, and the water is almost always warmer by the coast than the open ocean. For example, the waters surrounding La Paz reach 30 °C in August, while the waters in neighboring city Cabo San Lucas, occasionally, the northern Gulf of California will go through significantly cold winters. The water in the Northern Gulf can sometimes drop below 8 °C, the animals most susceptible to the large decrease in water temperature include macroscopic algae and plankton. As part of process, the East Pacific Rise propagated up the middle of the Gulf along the seabed. This extension of the East Pacific Rise is often referred to as the Gulf of California Rift Zone, the Gulf would extend as far as Indio, California, except for the tremendous delta created by the Colorado River. This delta blocks the sea from flooding the Mexicali and Imperial Valleys, volcanism dominates the East Pacific Rise. The island of Isla Tortuga is one example of ongoing volcanic activity. Furthermore, hydrothermal vents due to extension tectonic regime, related to the opening of the Gulf of California, are found in the Bahía de Concepción, the narrow sea is home to a unique and rich ecosystem. The unusual resident populations of fin whales and sperm whales do not migrate annually, the area near the delta of the Colorado river has a small remnant population of the totoaba fish. This region has historically been a magnet for world-class sport fishing activities, the region also has a rich history as a commercial fishery. However, the data vary wildly according to the species being studied, moreover, changes in terrestrial ecology, such as the vast reduction in flow from the Colorado River into the Gulf, have negatively affected fisheries, particularly in the northern region
17.
Kiva
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A kiva is a room used by Puebloans for religious rituals and political meetings, many of them associated with the kachina belief system. Among the modern Hopi and most other Pueblo peoples, kivas are square-walled and underground, similar subterranean rooms are found among ruins in the American Southwest, indicating uses by the ancient peoples of the region including the Ancestral Puebloans, the Mogollon, and the Hohokam. Those used by the ancient Pueblos of the Pueblo I Era and following, designated by the Pecos Classification system developed by archaeologists, were usually round and evolved from simpler pithouses. For the Ancestral Puebloans, these rooms are believed to have had a variety of functions, during the late eighth century, Mesa Verdeans started building square pit structures that archeologists call protokivas. They were typically 3 or 4 feet deep and 12 to 20 feet in diameter, by the mid-10th and early 11th centuries, these had evolved into smaller circular structures called kivas, which were usually 12 to 15 feet across. When designating an ancient room as a kiva, archaeologists make assumptions about the original functions. The kachina belief system appears to have emerged in the Southwest around AD1250 and this suggests that the rooms older functions may have been changed or adapted to suit the new religious practice. As cultural changes occurred, particularly during the Pueblo III period between 1150 and 1300 AD, kivas continued to have a prominent place in the community, however, some kivas were built above ground. Kiva architecture became more elaborate, with tower kivas and great kivas incorporating specialized floor features, for example, kivas found in Mesa Verde were generally keyhole-shaped. In most larger communities, it was normal to find one kiva for each five or six rooms, Kiva destruction, primarily by burning, has been seen as a strong archaeological indicator of conflict and warfare among people of the Southwest during this period. Fifteen top rooms encircle the central chamber of the vast Great Kiva at Aztec Ruins National Monument, each had an exterior doorway to the plaza. Four massive pillars of alternating masonry and horizontal poles held up the ceiling beams, each pillar rested on four shaped-stone disks, weighing about 355 pounds apiece. These discs are of limestone, which came from mountains at least 40 miles away, after 1325 or 1350, except in the Hopi and Pueblo region, the ratio changed from 60 to 90 rooms for each kiva. This may indicate a religious or organizational change within the society, perhaps affecting the status, Great kivas differ from regular kivas, which archeologists call Chaco-style kivas, in several ways, first and foremost, great kivas are always much larger and deeper than Chaco-style kivas. Whereas the walls of great kivas always extend above the landscape, the walls of Chaco-style kivas do not. Chaco-style kivas are often incorporated into the central room blocks of great houses. Great kivas almost always have a bench that encircles the inner space, Great kivas also tend to include floor vaults, which might have served as foot drums for ceremonial dancers, but Chaco-style kivas do not. Great kivas are believed to be the first public buildings constructed in the Mesa Verde region, brave New World by Aldous Huxley page 58
18.
Pinole
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Pinole, also called pinol or pinolillo, is an ancient grain originating with the Aztecs, who spread it throughout Mesoamerica. It is made principally of a unique roasted ground maize, which is mixed with a combination of cocoa, agave, cinnamon, chia seeds, vanilla. The resulting powder is used as a nutrient-dense ingredient to make different foods, such as cereals, baked goods, tortillas. The name comes from the Nahuatl word pinolli, meaning cornmeal, today, pinole is generally made by hand using wood-burning adobe ovens and a stone and pestle, and is still consumed in certain, often rural, parts of Latin America. In fact, pinole is considered the national beverage of Nicaragua, depending on the type of pinole and the quality of its ingredients, pinole can be high in key vitamins and nutrients, including protein, amino acids, fiber, and antioxidants. Due to the amount of fiber and the slow digestion of the maize, pinole also has a very high satiety effect. For many indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America, it is relied upon as a key source of nutrition, along with chia, pinole is a staple food of the Tarahumara Indians. The Tarahumara usually consume pinole as a beverage and use it as fuel for their runs, the recorded history of Pinole, California dates back to the early 1700s when a Spanish commandant, Don Pedro Fages, led an exploration through the Contra Costa shoreline of California. With a small band of soldiers and an Indian guide, Don Pedro Fages left Monterey, according to legend, the soldiers ran out of provisions on their march and found a village of Indians who gave them food. This food consisted of a form of meal, made from acorns, seeds, and wild grain, which they called “pinole” Thus, the soldiers named their camp “El Pinole, ” and Pinole received its name. In parts of central Mexico, groups of rowdy youths traditionally went from house to house during Carnival to demand pinole and this custom may have given rise to the popular saying, El que tiene más saliva, traga más pinole. Authentic pinole can occasionally be found in markets throughout Mexico. It is generally made by hand and sold as a powder in burlap pouches, a sugar-heavy, mass-market version can also sometimes be found in Latin American supermarkets under brands such as Don Julio. A premium version of pinole that is said to mimic the original Aztec variety is produced and distributed by Native State Foods, gofio List of porridges Hominy Francisco J. Santamaría, Diccionario de mejicanismos, Mexico City, Editorial Porrúa,1959,1978. Pinole, The Ultimate Bugout Food pinole. weebly. com
19.
Hohokam
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The Hohokam were an ancient Native American culture centered in the present US state of Arizona. The Hohokam are one of the four cultures of the American Southwest. Variant spellings in current, official usage include Hobokam, Huhugam, according to the National Park Service Website, Hohokam is an Oodham word used by archaeologists to identify a group of people who lived in the Sonoran Desert. According to local tradition, the Hohokam may be the ancestors of the historic Pima. Recent academic research focused on the Sobaipuri, ancient ancestors of the modern Pima, Hohokam, a term borrowed from the Oodham language, is used to define an archaeological culture that existed from the beginning of the common era to about the middle of the 15th century. As an abstract construct, this culture was centered on the middle Gila and this is referred to as the Hohokam Core Area, as opposed to the Hohokam Peripheries, or adjacent regions into which the Hohokam Culture extended. Collectively, the Core and Peripheries formed what is referred to as the Hohokam Regional System, the Hohokam also extended into the Mogollon Rim region. This prehistoric group from the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year round in sedentary villages, the Hohokam used the waters of the Salt and Gila Rivers and constructed an assortment of simple canals combined with weirs in their various agricultural pursuits. These were constructed using relatively simple excavation tools, without the benefit of advanced engineering technologies, and achieved drops of a few feet per mile, balancing erosion and siltation. Over 70 years of research has revealed that the Hohokam cultivated varieties of cotton, tobacco, maize, beans. Late in the Hohokam Chronological Sequence, they used extensive dry-farming systems, primarily to grow agave for food. But, by the century, a distinct Hohokam architectural tradition emerged. Hohokam burial practices varied over time, initially, the primary method employed was flexed inhumation, similar to the tradition used by the southern Mogollon culture, located immediately to the east. Although the particulars of the practice changed somewhat, the Hohokam cremation tradition remained dominant until around 1300, at this time, extended inhumation, similar to that used by the Salado tradition to the north and northeast, was quickly adopted. Also, many of the details of the late Hohokam burial patterns were similar to the tradition practiced by the historic Tohono. This section provides an outline of the Hohokam chronological sequence. As an archaeological construct, the HCS uses a culture history-based period/phase scheme designed to provide a narrative of what has been perceived as a sequence of significant cultural change. Overall, the reason the HCS is confusing is that two primary methods of expressing this information are used, and within context, a vast plethora of theoretical variants have been posited
20.
International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
21.
OCLC
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The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
22.
Bandiagara Escarpment
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The Bandiagara Escarpment is an escarpment in the Dogon country of Mali. The sandstone cliff rises about 500 meters above the sandy flats to the south. It has a length of approximately 150 kilometers, the area of the escarpment is inhabited today by the Dogon people. Before the Dogon, the escarpment was inhabited by the Tellem, many structures remain from the Tellem. The Bandiagara Escarpment was listed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1989, the Cliffs of Bandiagara are a sandstone chain ranging from south to northeast over 200 km and extending to the Grandamia massif. The end of the massif is marked by the Hombori Tondo, because of its archaeological, ethnological and geological characteristics, the entire site is one of the most imposing in West Africa. The cave-dwelling Tellem, a group later pushed out by the arrival of the Dogons. The Tellem legacy is evident in the caves carved into the cliffs so that they could bury their dead high up. Dozens of villages are located along the cliff, such as Kani Bonzon and it was near to this village that the Dogons arrived in the 14th century, and from there they spread over the plateau, the escarpment and the plains of the Seno-Gondo. Today, local guides can take tourist groups on trips along the escarpment to visit the Dogon villages, a series of trails runs along the cliffs, and hostels in each village provide food and lodging. The host villages receive income from the hostels and the tourist tax, large increases in tourism to the area are expected, as a new highway is constructed, putting pressure on local, traditional cultures. In addition, The Independent reports that looting of ancient artifacts is widespread in the area, to call attention to the issue of uncontrolled tourist visitation, the World Monuments Fund included the Bandiagara Escarpment in the 2004 World Monuments Watch. In 2005, WMF provided a grant from American Express to the Mission Culturelle de Bandiagara for the development of a management plan, for the Dogon cliff-dwellers who live there, the future hangs in the balance. ICON Magazine, Fall 2005, p. 38-45
23.
Ellora Caves
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Ellora is one of the largest rock-cut monastery-temple caves complexes in the world, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Maharashtra, India. The site presents monuments and artwork of Buddhism, Hinduism and Jainism from the 600-1000 CE period, Cave 16 of Ellora features the largest single monolithic rock excavation in the world, the Kailasha temple, a chariot shaped monument dedicated to Shiva. The Kailasha temple excavation also presents the gods, goddesses and mythologies found in Vaishnavism, Shaktism, the site features over 100 caves, of which 34 caves are open to public. These were excavated out of the basalt cliff in the Charanandri hills. These consist of 12 Buddhist,17 Hindu and 5 Jain caves, each group presents the respective deities and mythologies prevalent in 1st millennium CE, as well as the monasteries of that religion. They were built in proximity and illustrate the religious harmony prevalent in ancient India. All Ellora monuments were built by Hindu dynasties, such as the Rashtrakuta dynasty who built some of the Hindu & Buddhist group of caves, Ellora was an important historic commercial center of the Deccan region, located on an ancient trade route of South Asia. The caves served as monasteries for monks, temples for prayers and a place for pilgrims to rest and it is 29 kilometres north-west of the city of Aurangabad, and about 300 kilometres east-northeast from Mumbai. Ellora Caves, along with the nearby Ajanta Caves, form one of the major tourist attractions in Marathwada region of Maharashtra, Ellora is a protected monument under the Archaeological Survey of India. In the Indian tradition, each cave is named and has a suffix Guha, Lena or Leni, Ellora caves are located in the Indian state of Maharashtra. They are about 29 kilometres northwest from the city of Aurangabad,300 kilometres east-northeast from Mumbai, Ellora occupies a relatively flat rocky region of the Western Ghats. Ancient volcanic activity in this area created many layered basalt formations, formed during the volcanic activity of the Cretaceous geological period, one such west-facing cliff houses the Ellora Caves. Its vertical face made access to many layers of rock formations easier, the disagreements have broadly been two fold. One being whether Buddhist or Hindu caves were carved first, the earliest Ellora caves may have been built during the rule of the Hindu dynasties of Vakataka and Traikutakas. The later Hindu caves and early Jaina caves were built by the Hindu Rashtrakuta dynasty and these caves are located on the southern side of the Ellora cave collection, and were built between 600-730 CE. It was initially thought that the Buddhist caves were the earliest structures that were created between the fifth and eighth centuries, with caves 1-5 in the first phase and 6-12 in the later phase, modern scholarship places some of the Hindu caves before the Buddhist caves were built. The earliest Buddhist cave is Cave 6, chronologically followed by 5,2,3,5,4,7,8,10 and 9, Caves 11 and 12, also called the Do Thal and Tin Thal respectively, were the last. All the Buddhist caves were constructed between 630-700, the monastery caves have shrines including carvings of Gautama Buddha, bodhisattvas and saints
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Petra
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Petra, originally known to the Nabataeans as Raqmu, is a historical and archaeological city in southern Jordan. The city is famous for its architecture and water conduit system. Another name for Petra is the Rose City due to the color of the out of which it is carved. Established possibly as early as 312 BC as the city of the Arab Nabataeans, it is a symbol of Jordan. The Nabataeans were nomadic Arabs who took advantage of Petras proximity to trade routes to establish it as a major trading hub. The Nabataeans are also known for their ability in constructing efficient water-collecting methods in the barren deserts. Petra lies on the slope of Jebel al-Madhbah in a basin among the mountains form the eastern flank of Arabah. It has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1985, the site remained unknown to the western world until 1812, when it was introduced by Swiss explorer Johann Ludwig Burckhardt. It was described as a rose-red city half as old as time in a Newdigate Prize-winning poem by John William Burgon, UNESCO has described it as one of the most precious cultural properties of mans cultural heritage. Petra was named amongst the New7Wonders of the World in 2007 and was chosen by the Smithsonian Magazine as one of the 28 Places to See Before You Die. Pliny the Elder and other writers identify Petra as the capital of the Nabataeans, excavations have demonstrated that it was the ability of the Nabataeans to control the water supply that led to the rise of the desert city, creating an artificial oasis. The area is visited by flash floods, and archaeological evidence demonstrates the Nabataeans controlled these floods by the use of dams, cisterns and these innovations stored water for prolonged periods of drought and enabled the city to prosper from its sale. Another approach was possibly from the plateau to the north. Today, most modern visitors approach the site from the east, at the end of the narrow gorge stands Petras most elaborate ruin, Al Khazneh, hewn into the sandstone cliff. A little farther from the Treasury, at the foot of the mountain called en-Nejr, is a massive theatre, at the point where the valley opens out into the plain, the site of the city is revealed with striking effect. The amphitheatre has been cut into the hillside and into several of the tombs during its construction, rectangular gaps in the seating are still visible. Almost enclosing it on three sides are rose-colored mountain walls, divided into groups by deep fissures and lined with knobs cut from the rock in the form of towers. By 2010 BC, some of the earliest recorded farmers had settled in Beidha, Petra is listed in Egyptian campaign accounts and the Amarna letters as Pel, Sela or Seir
25.
Delicias, Chihuahua
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Delicias is a city in the Mexican state of Chihuahua and serves as the seat of the municipality of the same name. It is located southeast of the capital, Chihuahua. Delicias was declared a municipality of the state of Chihuahua on January 7,1935. Delicias is small city and a major agricultural center located in the Conchos River Valley. As of 2010, the city of Delicias had a population of 118,071 and it was founded on 30 April 1933, making it one of Mexicos youngest cities. The municipality of Delicias is one of the smallest in the state, prehistoric artifacts have been found in the Conchos River Valley that show evidence that indigenous people lived in the area for centuries before European settlers arrived in the area. Several indigenous mummies were found in the valley and are on display in the Museum of Paleontology in Delicias, in 1888, German settlers arrived in the area and built Hacienda Polvorosa, they began to prepare food items, brew beer, and produce steel instruments. However, the German settlers were forced to leave after continuous persecution by the Villistas, the Old Delicias Hacienda and Hacienda Polvorosa were the beginnings of the Delicias settlement. Later Hacienda Polvorosa was renamed El Hotel del Norte, this is now a museum in town. During the next few decades, the area began to grow and many small municipalities like Rosales, Meoqui. In 1932, the Chihuahua State Congress recognized this area as an important agricultural region, the city of Delicias was founded in 1933 after the Mexican Revolution and was officially declared a municipality on January 7,1935. In 1939 cotton in the Conchos River Valley helped build a foundation for an industrial sector in Delicias. Cotton Gins and American Petroleum Refineries were built to provide services, madero Dam was built, which increased crop yields and grew the population in the valley. During the 1940s, Cotton became such a dominant cash crop that by 1943 it replaced many vineyards in the surrounding area. Cotton continued to be the dominant crop of the Conchos River Valley until 1953, the modern layout of Delicias was designed by Carlos G. Blake and was approved by the National Commission of Irrigation on September 30,1960. The Chihuahua State Congress recognized Delicias as a city on October 29,1960 and that same year, a geological study on the Conchos River was conducted in Region 5 in attempts to build the largest dam in the state of Chihuahua. By 1960, Delicias was the fourth most populous city in the state of Chihuahua, Delicias continued to grow in population and as a successful agricultural center. Delicias had an agricultural based economy until 1980 when important exporting maquiladoras moved to the city helped increase the manufacturing sector
26.
Parral, Chihuahua
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Hidalgo del Parral, is a city and seat of the municipality of Hidalgo del Parral in the Mexican state of Chihuahua. It is located in the part of the state,220 kilometres from the state capital. As of 2010, the city of Hidalgo del Parral had a population of 104,836, the municipality includes numerous very small outlying communities in addition to the city. The city was founded as San José del Parral, the name was changed after independence from Spain, in honour of Fr Miguel Hidalgo, widely considered the Father of the Country. The city is one of the most European-fashioned in all Mexico, because of the presence of Spaniards. According to legend, Juan Rangel de Biezma came here in 1629, picked up a rock on the “Cerro la Prieta”, licked it, Parral was once a bustling center for silver mining. As early as 1567, the mines at Santa Barbara were established in the territory of the Conchos Indians. However, in 1631, a vast new silver strike was made in what is now southern Chihuahua, the large area of southern Chihuahua inhabited by the Tarahumara people included the highway between the mining districts of Parral, Cusihuiriachic, and Chihuahua. After the end of the mining boom, Parral was almost completely abandoned in the early 1930s It is now a small city mainly dedicated to commerce. Currently, Parral is a town in the state of Chihuahua and is an important regional center for trade between the southern regions of Chihuahua and northern Durango. It received its first local station in 1969, the now-defunct XHJMA-TV channel 3. It belonged to one of the most prominent families in Parral, the palace was constructed by Federico Amérigo Rouvier and it is now a museum and cultural center. It has preserved much of the original European-made furniture, the walls of the patio were painted by Italian painter Antionio Decanini between 1946 and 1948. This historical building was a gift from Don Pedro Alvarado to Pancho Villa and is located next to the Plaza Guillermo Baca and this is where Elisa Griensen was born. She distinguished herself in Parral history by fighting against a contingent of U. S. soldiers sent to capture Pancho Villa after he crossed the border and attacked Columbus, New Mexico. The Francisco Villa Museum is a building located on the street near the spot where Villa’s enemies waited days for him to pass. Every year in July, his death is reenacted here, the annual staging of the Murder of Francisco Villa, a recreation using props from the era, in the exact place of the historical event. The annual Cabalgata Villista, is a horse ride with statewide massive participation
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Timeline of Chihuahua, Chihuahua history
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The following is a timeline of the history of the city of Chihuahua, Mexico. 1707 - Settlement founded by Francisco Munoz,1709 - San Francisco de Cuellar community founded by Antonio de Deza y Ulloa. 1718 - Settlement named San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua,1717 - Church of Saint Francis of Assisi construction begins. 1731 - Santa Rita Church built,1741 - Church of San Francisco built. 1811 - Execution of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla,1826 Church of Saint Francis of Assisi construction completed. 1835 - Literary and Scientific Institute of Chihuahua founded,1847 February 28, Battle of the Sacramento River occurs near town. March, Town taken by United States forces under command of Alexander William Doniphan,1864 - Town becomes temporary capital of Mexico. 1882 - Paso del Norte-Chihuahua City railroad begins operating,1891 Government Palace of Chihuahua built. 1902 - El Correo de Chihuahua newspaper begins publication,1905 - American Smelting and Refining Company facility built. 1907 - City Hall of Chihuahua built,1908 - March 1, Banco Minero robbed. 1910 - Federal Palace and Quinta Gameros mansion built,1913 - Headquarters of Pancho Villa established in city. 1921 - Antonio Guizar y Valencia becomes Catholic bishop of Chihuahua,1926 - Escuela Benito Juárez active. 1948 - Chihuahua Institute of Technology established,1949 - Del Real Hotel built. 1954 - University of Chihuahua established,1969 - Adalberto Almeida y Merino becomes Catholic archbishop of Chihuahua. 1972 - Museo Casa Juárez established,1990 - Catholic Pope John Paul II visits city. 1997 - Archivo Histórico del Instituto Chihuahuense de la Cultura established,1998 - Gate to Chihuahua sculpture installed. 2001 - Tribunales Federales building constructed,2002 - Alejandro Cano Ricaud becomes municipal president. 2003 - Angel of Liberty monument erected,2004 - Juan Blanco Zaldivar becomes municipal president
28.
Lake Arareco
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Lake Arareco is a lake high in the Sierra Madre Occidental range, within Chihuahua state in northwestern Mexico. It is surrounded by rock formations, and a fragrant pine forest. It is located about 14 kilometres s south of Creel A few kilometres away a scenic canyon has the Cascada Cusárare waterfall, which drops 30 metres
29.
Basaseachic Falls
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It is 246 meters tall, second in Mexico only to the Cascada de Piedra Volada. Basaseachic Falls is located in the mountains of the Sierra Madre Occidental, in the Municipality of Ocampo,3 km from Basaseachi community. It is reached via Federal Highway 16 and its surroundings make up the Basaseachic Falls National Park, the waterfall is made by two streams, Arroyo del Durazno and Arroyo de Basaseachic, which merge in the high mountains and then fall down the canyon wall. Past the falls, the stream is called Río Candameña, which is the namesake of the canyon it flows through, Candamena River contributes to the formation of Río Mayo. Basaseachic Falls was considered the tallest waterfall in México until the measurement in September,1994 of the Cascada de Piedra Volada, both of these waterfalls are seasonal, drying up in the Spring and Autumn dry seasons. Cascada de Basaseachi Cascada de Basaseachi en México Desconocido
30.
Copper Canyon
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Copper Canyon is a group of canyons consisting of six distinct canyons in the Sierra Madre Occidental in the southwestern part of the state of Chihuahua in northwestern Mexico. The canyons were formed by six rivers that drain the western side of the Sierra Tarahumara, all six rivers merge into the Rio Fuerte and empty into the Gulf of California. The walls of the canyon are a color, which is where the name originates. The New Spanish arrived in the Copper Canyon area in the 17th century, for the New Spanish, America was a new land to explore for gold and silver and also to spread Christianity. The New Spanish named the people they encountered Tarahumara, derived from the word Rarámuri, some scholars theorize that this word may mean ‘The running people. During the 17th century, silver was discovered by the Hispanic in the land of the Tarahumara tribe, some were enslaved for mining efforts. There were small uprisings by the Tarahumara, but to little avail and they eventually were forced off the more desirable lands and up into the canyon cliffs. The alpine climate of the regions of Copper Canyon has moderate temperatures from October to November. The bottom of the canyons are humid and warm and remain that way throughout the year, during the warmest months, April through June, drought is a chronic problem with little rainfall until July when the rainy season begins. The Sierra Tarahumara Occidental region contains some species of pine. Mexican Douglas-fir trees cover the plateaus in altitudes over 8,000 feet. Cougars live in the remotest of regions and are rarely seen, after the summer rainy season these upper regions blossom with wildflowers until October. From 4, 000–8,000 feet, oak trees grow in the forests as well as the more shade-tolerant types of trees. In the fall the forests become brilliant with color from Andean alder, brushwood and scrubby trees grow on the canyon slopes, which can accommodate the dry season. Huge fig and palm trees thrive at the bottom water is plentiful. Due to increases in population, there are many threats to the ecosystems of the Sierra Tarahumara Occidental region. The government funding to build a “tourist friendly” atmosphere poses threats to the environment, roads have been built in the former isolated mountainous zones. Agriculture and grazing as well as the cutting of hardwoods and other trees for firewood has accelerated a soil erosion problem, mesquite and desert ironwood trees are cut and exported primarily to the U. S. for charcoal
31.
Cueva de la Olla (archaeological site)
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Cueva de la Olla is an archaeological site located in the northwest of the Chihuahua State, some 47 km southwest of Nuevo Casas Grandes near the Ignacio Zaragoza Ejido. To get there, take the road from Casas Grandes to Colonia Juarez, the Site is located within the natural shelter of the cave. This site received its name because it has a rounded shape structure and it is a Cuexcomate, or large barn type facility, with a shape that resembles a large vase. Similar granaries were located in scattered caves sites of the Sierra Madre Occidental, one of the particularities of the Valle de las Cuevas is the presence of a site where a sequence of very long human occupation has been detected. Human groups that lived in the region used a maize ancestor variety, due to the cold winter, there was the need to store food, hence they built the barn which can still be seen, although very deteriorated. Cueva de la Olla belongs to an earlier occupation stage called “Perros Bravos”, Mogollon culture evidences have been found, simple ceramic fragments and other more scarce luxury type materials, characteristic of the Paquime culture. Consumed wild plants such as acorns and palm, important evidence exists of northern Mexico settlers, of the Casas Grandes culture, sub-region of the Mogollon culture, that along with the Anasazi and the Hohokam comprise the Oasisamerica area. The northern cultural region is known in Mexico as “Gran Chichimeca”, sites of culture are located in the State of Chihuahua, Paquimé was the head and commercial center of the region. The first settlements in this culture are dated 1000 BCE, since the late archaic, the difficult nature of this area shaped the distinctive traits of its inhabitants, who developed from nomadic hunter-gatherers to sedentary, farmed the land and animals. Sites of the culture are found from the Pacific Ocean coast to the Sierra Madre Occidental, passing through all kinds of ecological, the first stage is called desert, the ancient natives made petroglyphs and cave paintings for ceremonial hunting events. The Mountain Stage”, is part of the houses, on top of canyons. Caves and holes became shelters and housing, it was required to be comfortable in extreme temperatures, the main development of this culture occurred in Paquimé, a large commercial city with three story buildings which gave name to the Casas Grandes culture. In addition to testimonies, left important artistic creations, such as their fine ceramic. The Paquimé culture is classified as part of the Mogollon cultures group, the culture reached its apogee in the Casas Grandes region, Chihuahua, México, and in the human settlement known as Paquimé. Archaeologist Charles Di Peso, has studied the area, and proposed six stages for the culture development and its beginning is unknown, concluded between 100 and 200 CE. During this period the first villages were established and its settlers practiced season agriculture, the period subdivides in, Convent Phase. During this phase increased the size of houses, began building next to each other, decorated pottery was present in this period, also appear pieces of shell necklaces, small turquoise beads and copper. The social organization and city appearance was transformed, the period is subdivided in, Buena Fe Phase
32.
Cumbres de Majalca National Park
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The Cumbres de Majalca National Park is a national park in the Mexican state of Chihuahua located 88 km northwest of the city of Chihuahua. The park showcases extraordinary rock formations that have been shaped by wind, the park was created by presidential decree in 1939 encompassing 4,772 hectares to protect the endemic flora and fauna. The park is characterized by pine and oak forest, the park is one of the few areas in Mexico that are inhabited by black bear. The park is frequented by residents of the capital city. The area is popular with climbers, hikers, and campers, there are 53 km of roads for hiking. Camping including backcountry camping is permitted and there are cabins available. Access to the park is by highway number 45 that goes from Chihuahua to Ciudad Juárez. The Cumbres de Majalca National Park was created by the government on September 1,1939. The protected zone encompassed an area of 4,772 hectares, the park was created to help preserve natural habitat for many species of animals and plants. After the creation of the park during the mid 20th century. Cumbres de Majalca National Park is located in the part of the state of Chihuahua near the city of Chihuahua. The park is found in the Sierra de Majalca mountain range a subdivision of the Sierra Madre Occidental, mountain peaks in the park reach an elevation of 2,600 meters above sea level. The park is part of the dominant Transition Bavícora-Bustillos Transition which is characterized by many small elevated valleys surrounded by volcanic mountains. The mountains in the park are not of notable rank in the state, but the highest peaks in the park are, Cerro Las Escobas, Cerro La Puerta, Cerro Los Almíceres, and Cerro del Agua. The park is almost completely covered by rocks that have been shaped into amazing formations by wind. Sierra de Majalca is the point of origin of the Sacramento River that flows towards the capital city. The Sacramento River empties into the Chuvíscar River before reaching Chihuahua, according to the Köppen climate classification, the park has two different climates. A semiarid climate occurs in the elevations in the park where temperatures can reach 35 °C in the summer
33.
Piedra Volada
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Piedra Volada Falls is a 366 meter tall plunge waterfall in the Barranca Candameña of the Sierra Madre Occidental range in Chihuahua, Mexico. The English translation of Piedra Volada is Flying Rock or Flying Stone, the falls are located in Cañon Candameña, a canyon of the Copper Canyon region, within the Ocampo Municipality of the State of Chihuahua. The head of the canyon is home to Cascada Basaseachi, Mexicos third highest waterfall at 243 meters, Piedra Volada is located on the left wall of the canyon 7 km downstream of the head of the canyon. See INEGI Instituto Nacionales de Estadistancia, Geografia e Informatica map H12D89 San Isidor Huahumar 1,50,000, Piedra Volada Falls are known to flow only during the wet season. The falls may be viewed from a distance from the brink of the canyon near Huahumar
34.
Samalayuca Dune Fields
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The dune fields are scattered over a wide expanse of desert to the south, southwest and southeast of Ciudad Juarez. The dune fields are located in a 2000 km2 area known as the Samalayuca Desert, the Samalayuca Desert and its dune fields are part of the much larger Chihuahua Desert region. The best known portion of the Samalayuca Dune Fields lie in and these dune fields are the most noticeable because they lie across the much traveled north-south route between Chihuahua City and El Paso del Norte. This portion of the dunes is also the most dramatic, having high dune profiles shaped by the wind in the lee of Cerro de Samalayuca, the dunes are composed of almost pure quartz. They are white or tan in appearance and they are fine and move with the wind. The wind has formed the dunes by carrying sand until it became deposited and concentrated in natural land depressions, the action of the wind continues to constantly reshape the dunes. Some of the dunes near Samalayuca are tall and dramatically shaped and marked by the wind, the high silica content of the sands has also attracted industrial interest. The sand dune area has traditionally referred to as Los Medanos or simply. The name Samalayuca Dune Fields is of recent origin. The name Los Medanos is more commonly used particularly in historical accounts, recently and increasingly the dune fields are referred by Spanish and non Spanish speakers as Medanos de Samalayuca. The field and the desert gets its name from the town of Samalayuca, there are historic springs in the area, which accounts for the location of the town. The town is adjacent to the high dunes that lies some 52 km directly south of Ciudad Juárez just east of Mexico Federal Highway 45. These high dunes are formed by the winds from the northwest dropping sands in the lee of Cerro de Samalayuca. The most dramatic portion of the Samalayuca dune fields lie east and west of Mexican Federal Highway 45 and the parallel Mexican Railway in an area 30 to 60 miles south of Juarez. This major north south highway and railroad, between Ciudad Juarez and the city of Chihuahua crosses through this area, and low dunes are visible for many kilometers on each side of the highway. The dramatic high dunes that exist close to the village of Samalayuca may be seen in the distance from Federal Highway 45 and these dune fields are formed by the prevailing wind from the northwest dropping sand particles in the lee of the Sierra Salamayuca. Besides the high dunes appearing in the area of the village of Salamayuca, a lesser known part of the Salamayuca dune field extends to the west from Samalayuca into the area southwest from Ciudad Juárez. This area is larger than the dramatic high dune area near Samalayuca
35.
Pre-Columbian era
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For this reason the alternative terms of Precontact Americas, Pre-Colonial Americas or Prehistoric Americas are also in use. In areas of Latin America the term used is Pre-Hispanic. Other civilizations were contemporary with the period and were described in European historical accounts of the time. A few, such as the Maya civilization, had their own written records, because many Christian Europeans of the time viewed such texts as heretical, men like Diego de Landa destroyed many texts in pyres, even while seeking to preserve native histories. Only a few documents have survived in their original languages, while others were transcribed or dictated into Spanish, giving modern historians glimpses of ancient culture. Indigenous American cultures continue to evolve after the pre-Columbian era, many of these peoples and their descendants continue traditional practices, while evolving and adapting new cultural practices and technologies into their lives. Now, the study of pre-Columbian cultures is most often based on scientific. Asian nomads are thought to have entered the Americas via the Bering Land Bridge, now the Bering Strait, genetic evidence found in Amerindians maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA supports the theory of multiple genetic populations migrating from Asia. Over the course of millennia, Paleo-Indians spread throughout North and South America, exactly when the first group of people migrated into the Americas is the subject of much debate. One of the earliest identifiable cultures was the Clovis culture, with sites dating from some 13,000 years ago, however, older sites dating back to 20,000 years ago have been claimed. Some genetic studies estimate the colonization of the Americas dates from between 40,000 and 13,000 years ago, the chronology of migration models is currently divided into two general approaches. The first is the short chronology theory with the first movement beyond Alaska into the New World occurring no earlier than 14, 000–17,000 years ago, followed by successive waves of immigrants. The second belief is the long chronology theory, which proposes that the first group of people entered the hemisphere at an earlier date, possibly 50. In that case, the Eskimo peoples would have arrived separately and at a later date, probably no more than 2,000 years ago. The North American climate was unstable as the ice age receded and it finally stabilized by about 10,000 years ago, climatic conditions were then very similar to todays. Within this timeframe, roughly pertaining to the Archaic Period, numerous archaeological cultures have been identified, the unstable climate led to widespread migration, with early Paleo-Indians soon spreading throughout the Americas, diversifying into many hundreds of culturally distinct tribes. The paleo-indians were hunter-gatherers, likely characterized by small, mobile bands consisting of approximately 20 to 50 members of an extended family and these groups moved from place to place as preferred resources were depleted and new supplies were sought. During much of the Paleo-Indian period, bands are thought to have subsisted primarily through hunting now-extinct giant land animals such as mastodon, Paleo-Indian groups carried a variety of tools
36.
Lithic stage
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The term lithic stage refers to the cultures of the post-glacial hunters and collectors in South America. The stage derived its name from the first appearance of Lithic flaked stone tools, throughout South America, there are stone tool traditions of the lithic stage, such as the fluted fishtail that reflect localized adaptations to the diverse habitats of the continent. During the lithic stage people lived in small, mobile groups that survived on hunting, fishing. The intensive and continual use of plants and animals eventually led to genetic changes to some of the species. This lifestyle continued until around 5000 BC when people started to use domesticated plants, one of the leading figures is Alex Krieger who has documented hundreds of sites that have yielded crude, percussion-flaked tools. The most convincing evidence for a stage is based upon data recovered from sites in South America where such crude tools have been found. Examples include the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition groups, the Lithic stage was followed by the Archaic stage
37.
Archaic period (North America)
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The Archaic stage is characterized by subsistence economies supported through the exploitation of nuts, seeds, and shellfish. As its ending is defined by the adoption of sedentary farming and this classification system was first proposed by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in the widely accepted 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. In the organization of the system, the Archaic period followed the Lithic stage and is superseded by the Formative stage, the Lithic stage The Archaic stage The Formative stage The Classic stage The Post-Classic stage Numerous local variations have been identified within the cultural rankings. The period has been subdivided by region and then time, for instance, the Archaic Southwest tradition is subdivided into the Dieguito-Pinto, Oshara, Cochise and Chihuahua cultures. Such early mound sites as Frenchmans Bend and Hedgepeth were of time period. Watson Brake is now considered the oldest mound complex in the Americas, more than 100 sites have been identified as associated with the regional Poverty Point culture of the Late Archaic period, and it was part of a regional trading network across the Southeast. Across what is now the Southeastern United States, starting around 4000 BCE, people exploited wetland resources, middens developed along rivers, but there is limited evidence of Archaic peoples along coastlines prior to 3000 BCE. Archaic sites on the coast may have been inundated by rising sea levels, starting around 3000 BCE evidence of large-scale exploitation of oysters appears. During the period 3000 BCE to 1000 BCE shell rings, large shell middens more or less surrounding open centers, developed along the coast of the Southeastern United States. These shell rings are numerous in South Carolina and Georgia, but are found scattered around the Florida Peninsula. In some places, such as Horrs Island in Southwest Florida, four shell or sand mounds on Horrs Island have been dated to between 4,870 and 4,270 Before Present. The site which is considered to be one of the most significant centres of habitation and ceremonial burial in Canada, is located on the north side Rainy River in Northwestern Ontario. It became part of a trading network because of its strategic location at the centre of major North American waterways. In Glyn Edmund Daniel, Christopher Chippindale, feasting with Shellfish in the Southern Ohio Valley, Archaic Sacred Sites and Rituals. Knoxville, U of Tennessee P. ISBN 1-5723-3733-8, gainesville, Florida, The University Press of Florida
38.
Formative stage
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It is the third of five stages defined by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips in their 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. There are alternative classification systems, and this ranking would overlap what others classify as the Woodland period cultures, cultures of the Formative Stage are supposed to possess the technologies of pottery, weaving, and developed food production. Social organization is supposed to involve permanent towns and villages, as well as the first ceremonial centers, ideologically, an early priestly class or theocracy is often present or in development. Examples of cultures considered to be Formative include the Adena, Olmec, Old Copper, Oasisamerica, Woodland, sometimes also referred to as the Pre-Classic stage, it followed the Archaic stage and was superseded by the Classic stage
39.
Classic stage
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This stage is the fourth of five stages posited by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Cultures of the Classic Stage are supposed to possess craft specialization, social organization is supposed to involve the beginnings of urbanism and large ceremonial centers. Ideologically, Classic cultures should have a developed theocracy, the Classic Stage was initially defined as restricted to the complex societies of Mesoamerica and Peru. However, the period includes other advanced cultures, such as Hopewell, Teotihuacan. The Classic Stage followed the Formative stage and was superseded by the Post-Classic stage, there are alternative classification systems, and this ranking would overlap what others classify as the Woodland period and Mississippian cultures
40.
Post-Classic stage
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This stage is the fifth of five stages posited by Gordon Willey and Philip Phillips 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. Cultures of the Post-Classic Stage are defined distinctly by possessing developed metallurgy, social organization is supposed to involve complex urbanism and militarism. Ideologically, Post-Classic cultures are described as showing a tendency towards the secularization of society, examples of cultures considered to be Post-Classic include the Aztecs and the late Maya. The Post-Classic Stage followed the Classic stage and typically dates from AD1200 to modern times
41.
Adena culture
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The Adena culture was a Pre-Columbian Native American culture that existed from 1000 to 200 BC, in a time known as the Early Woodland period. The Adena culture refers to what were probably a number of related Native American societies sharing a burial complex, the Adena lived in an area including parts of present-day Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, West Virginia, Kentucky, New York, Pennsylvania and Maryland. The importance of the Adena complex comes from its influence on other contemporary. The Adena culture is seen as the precursor to the traditions of the Hopewell culture, the Adena culture was named for the large mound on Thomas Worthingtons early 19th-century estate called Adena, in Chillicothe, Ohio. Lasting traces of Adena culture are seen in their substantial earthworks. At one point, Adena mounds numbered in the hundreds, and these mounds generally ranged in size from 20 feet to 300 feet in diameter and served as burial structures, ceremonial sites, historical markers and possibly gathering places. These mounds were built using hundreds of thousands of full of specially selected and graded earth. According to archaeological investigations, Adena mounds were built as part of burial ritual. These mortuary buildings were intended to keep and maintain the dead until their burial was performed. Before the construction of the mounds, some utilitarian and grave goods would be placed on the floor of the structure, the mound would then be constructed, and often a new mortuary structure would be placed atop the new mound. After a series of repetitions, mound/mortuary/mound/mortuary, a quite prominent earthwork would remain, in the later Adena period, circular ridges of unknown function were sometimes constructed around the burial mounds. Adena mounds stood in isolation from domestic living areas, although the mounds are beautiful artistic achievements themselves, Adena artists created smaller, more personal pieces of art. Art motifs that became important to many later Native Americans began with the Adena, motifs such as the weeping eye and cross and circle design became mainstays in many succeeding cultures. Many pieces of art seemed to revolve around shamanic practices, and this may indicate a belief that the practice imparted the animals qualities to the wearer or holder of the objects. Deer antlers, both real and constructed of copper, wolf, deer and mountain lion jawbones, and many objects were fashioned into costumes, necklaces. Distinctive tubular smoking pipes, with flattened or blocked-end mouthpieces. The objective of pipe smoking may have been altered states of consciousness, all told, Adena was a manifestation of a broad regional increase in the number and kind of artifacts devoted to spiritual needs. The Adena also carved stone tablets, usually 4 or 5 inches by 3 or 4 inches by.5 inches thick
42.
Alachua culture
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The Alachua culture is defined as a Late Woodland Southeast period archaeological culture in north-central Florida, dating from around 600 to 1700. It is found in an area corresponding to present-day Alachua County, the northern half of Marion County. It was preceded by the Cades Pond culture, which inhabited approximately the same area, the archeologist Jerald Milanich suggests that the people of the Alachua culture were immigrants from what is now Georgia. Early Alachua culture pottery resembled that of the Ocmulgee culture found along the Ocmulgee River, in this scenario, the Ocmulgee immigrants were either already practicing agriculture or adopted it shortly after arriving, and settled in upland areas suitable for agriculture. These areas had been used by the Cades Pond people. The Cades Pond culture disappeared soon after the appearance of the Alachua culture, the precolumbian part of the Alachua culture period has been divided into the Hickory Pond period and the Alachua period. At the time of first contact with Spanish explorers, the Alachua culture area was occupied by the historical Potano Indians and they spoke the Potano dialect of the Timucua language. The sub-periods in the Alachua culture period are defined by the prevalence of different pottery types. The most common type of pottery during the Hickory Pond period was the Prairie Cord Marked style, the Alachua Cob Marked style became more prevalent in the Alachua sub-period. Other styles of pottery occurred throughout the Alachua culture period, the period after 1539 was characterized by the introduction of European artifacts and of pottery styles from other cultures. The Potano II period was marked by the almost complete replacement of traditional styles by Leon-Jefferson pottery styles. This suggests that the depopulated Potano Province was repopulated from Apalachee Province, stone and bone tools show little variation over the course of the period. The Alachua-culture people occupied hardwood hammocks, with sites on high ground. The village sites are often in clusters, which may have resulted from periodic relocation of a village in a small area, the village clusters tend to fall along lines, which may represent the lines of the hammocks, or the paths of trails. Other Alachua culture sites include Bolen Bluff, Fox Pond, Henderson Mound, Law School Mound, Rocky Point and Woodward Mound, the presence of Cob Marked pottery throughout the period indicates that the people of the Alachua culture grew maize. Middens contain few fresh water shells, and a number of animal species. This may indicate a reduction in hunting and gathering as food sources, a more detailed analysis of the food resources used by the Alachua culture people has not been made. Burial mounds are found in the area, but have not been extensively excavated, storage pits and indications of other structures, including a circular house at one site, have been found in villages
Mexico
