1.
Casas Grandes Municipality
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Casas Grandes Municipality is located in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. The municipal seat is the town of Casas Grandes, Chihuahua, the pre-Columbian archaeological zone Casas Grandes and its central site, after which the municipality is named, is located within the municipalitys territory. The municipality of Casas Grandes is situated in the sector of Chihuahua state. Casas Grandes, the capital and its most populous localidad, is approximately 359 kilometres to the northwest of the states capital. Casas Grandes is bounded by the municipalities of Janos to the north, Galeana, Nuevo Casas Grandes and Madera, Chihuahua to the east, on its western flank Casas Grandes adjoins municipalities within the state of Sonora. As of 2010, the municipality had a population of 10,587. As of 2010, the town of Casas Grandes had a population of 5,256, other than the town of Casas Grandes, the municipality had 296 localities, the largest of which were, Juan Mata Ortíz and Colonia Juárez, classified as rural
Casas Grandes Municipality
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location within the state of Chihuahua
2.
Chihuahua (state)
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Chihuahua, officially the Free and Sovereign State of Chihuahua, is one of the 32 states of Mexico. Its capital city is Chihuahua City and it is located in Northwestern Mexico and is bordered by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the southwest, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east. To the north and northeast, it has a border with the U. S. adjacent to the U. S. states of New Mexico. Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico by area, with an area of 247,455 square kilometres, the state is consequently known under the nickname El Estado Grande. Although Chihuahua is primarily identified with the Chihuahuan Desert for namesake, it has more forests than any state in Mexico. Due to its variant climate, the state has a variety of fauna. The state is characterized by rugged mountainous terrain and wide river valleys. On the slope of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountains, there are vast prairies of short yellow grass, most of the inhabitants live along the Rio Grande Valley and the Conchos River Valley. The etymology of the name Chihuahua has long disputed by historians. The most accepted theory explains that the name was derived from the Nahuatl language meaning The place where the water of the rivers meet, Chihuahua has a diversified state economy. The three most important economic centers in the state are, Ciudad Juárez, a manufacturing center, Chihuahua, the state capital, and Delicias. Today Chihuahua serves as an important commercial route prospering from billions of dollars from international trade as a result of NAFTA, on the other hand the state suffers the fallout of illicit trade and activities especially at the border. The earliest evidence of inhabitants of modern day Chihuahua was discovered in the area of Samalayuca. Clovis points have been found in northeastern Chihuahua that have dated from 12,000 BC to 7000 BC. It is thought that these inhabitants were hunter gatherers, inhabitants of the state later developed farming with the domestication of corn. An archeological site in northern Chihuahua known as Cerro Juanaqueña revealed squash cultivation, irrigation techniques, between AD300 and 1300 in the northern part of the state along the wide, fertile valley on the San Miguel River the Casas Grandes culture developed into an advanced civilization. The Casas Grandes civilization is part of a prehistoric archaeological culture known as Mogollon which is related to the Ancestral Pueblo culture. Paquime was the center of the Casas Grandes civilization, extensive archaeological evidence shows commerce, agriculture, and hunting at Paquime and Cuarenta Casas
Chihuahua (state)
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Paquimé artifact found at
Casas Grandes
Chihuahua (state)
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Flag
Chihuahua (state)
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Cliff dwellings at Las Jarillas Cave, part of the
Cuarenta Casas archeological site.
Chihuahua (state)
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Antonio de Deza y Ulloa the founder of
Chihuahua City
3.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
Geographic coordinate system
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Longitude lines are perpendicular and latitude lines are parallel to the equator.
4.
Mogollon culture
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The Mogollon culture is one of the major prehistoric Southwestern cultural divisions of the Southwestern United States and Northern Mexico. The culture flourished from the period, c.200 CE, to either 1450 or 1540 CE. The name Mogollon comes from the Mogollon Mountains, which were named after Don Juan Ignacio Flores Mogollón, the name was chosen and defined in 1936 by archaeologist Emil W. Haury. Key differences included brown-paste, coil-and-scrape pottery, deeply excavated semi-subterranean pithouses, eight decades of subsequent research have confirmed Haurys initial findings. The earliest Mogollon pithouses were deep and either circular or oval-shaped, over time, Mogollon people built rectangular houses with rounded corners and not as deep. Their villages also had kivas, or round, semi-subterranean ceremonial structures, Mogollon origins remain a matter of speculation. One model holds that the Mogollon emerged from a preceding Desert Archaic tradition that links Mogollon ancestry with the first prehistoric human occupations of the area, in this model, cultural distinctions emerged in the larger region when populations grew great enough to establish villages and even larger communities. The Mogollon were, initially, foragers who augmented their subsistence efforts by farming, through the first millennium CE, however, dependence on farming probably increased. Water control features are common among Mimbres branch sites from the 10th through 12th centuries CE, the nature and density of Mogollon residential villages changed through time. The earliest Mogollon villages are small hamlets composed of several pithouses, village sizes increased over time and by the 11th century surface pueblos became common. Cliff-dwellings became common during the 13th and 14th centuries, Research on Mogollon culture has led to the recognition of regional variants, of which the most widely recognized in popular media is the Mimbres culture. Others include the Jornada, Forestdale, Reserve, Point of Pines, San Simon, an alternate way of viewing Mogollon culture is through three periods of housing types, Early Pithouse Late Pithouse Mogollon Pueblo. Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument in southwestern New Mexico was established as a National Monument on 16 November 1907 and it contains several archaeological sites attributed to the Mimbres branch. At the headwaters of the Gila, Mimbres populations adjoined another more northern branch of the Mogollon culture, the TJ Ruin, for example, is a Classic Mimbres phase pueblo, however the cliff dwellings are Tularosa phase. The Hueco Tanks State Historic Site is approximately 32 mi northeast of El Paso, Mimbres may, depending on its context, refer to a tradition within a subregion of the Mogollon culture area or to an interval of time, the Classic Mimbres phase within the Mimbres branch. Classic Mimbres phase pottery is particularly famous pottery, and Classic Mimbres pottery designs were imitated on Santa Fe Railroad Mimbreños china dinnerware from 1936 to 1970, three Circle phase pithouse villages within the Mimbres branch are distinctive. Houses are quadrilateral, usually with sharply-angled corners, plastered floors and walls, local pottery styles include early forms of Mimbres black and white, red-on-cream, and textured plainware. Large ceremonial structures are dug deeply into the ground and often include distinctive ceremonial features such as foot drums, Classic Mimbres phase pueblos can be quite large, with some composed of clusters of communities, each containing up to 150 rooms and all grouped around an open plaza
Mogollon culture
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Kinishba ruins near Fort Apache, Arizona
Mogollon culture
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Mimbres sub-group pictorial pot, depicting a mythical fish
Mogollon culture
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Cliff dwellings at Las Jarillas Cave, part of the
Forty houses, Chihuahua archeological site.
Mogollon culture
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The rock wall of the canyon, the Cueva de las Ventanas cliff-dwelling is located left of center above a debris-covered cone.
5.
Oasisamerica
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Oasisamerica is a term used by some scholars, primarily Mexican anthropologists, for the broad cultural area defining pre-Columbian southwestern North America. It extends from modern-day Utah down to southern Chihuahua, and from the coast on the Gulf of California eastward to the Río Bravo river valley and its name comes from its position in relationship with the similar regions of Mesoamerica and mostly nomadic Aridoamerica. The term Greater Southwest is often used to describe this region by American anthropologists, as opposed to their nomadic Aridoamerican neighbors, the Oasisamericans primarily had agricultural societies. The term Oasisamerica is derived from a combination of the terms oasis and it refers to a wild land dominated by the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Madre Occidental. To the east and west of these mountain ranges stretch the grand arid plains of the Sonora, Chihuahua. Despite being a dry land, Oasisamerica contains several bodies of water like rivers, Yaqui, Rio Grande, Colorado, Conchos. The presence of these rivers, combined with a climate that was much milder that eastern Aridoamerica, the story of the origins of the cultural superarea of Mesoamerica takes place some 2000 years after the separation of Mesoamerica and Aridoamerica. Some of the Aridoamerican communities farmed as a complement to their hunter-gatherer economy and those communities, among whom one finds adherents to the Desert Tradition, later would become more truly agricultural and form Oasisamerica. Based on maize remnants found in Bat Cave, Arizona, it appears that agriculture practices date back to at least 3500 BCE. Given that the oldest traces of maize in North America date back to the year 5000 BCE and it is less certain who brought the agricultural technology and what role they played in the development of the high cultures of Oasisamerica. At least three hypotheses have proposed to explain the birth of the cultures of Oasisamerica. One, a model, posits an independent cultural development whose roots lie deep in antiquity. From this point of view, thanks to a superior climate, a second hypothesis presupposes that the nomads of the Mesoamerican culture slowly moved northward over time. Thus, the Oasisamericans would be an offshoot of their neighbors to the south, there are many indications of a close relationship between the two great cultural regions of North America. For one, the turquoise that the Mesoamericans prized so dearly came almost exclusively from southern New Mexico, demand for this mineral alone may have played a large part in establishing trade relationships between the two cultural areas. The area encompassed by Oasisamerica fostered the growth of major cultural groups, the Ancestral Pueblo people, Hohokam, Mogollon, Pataya. Smaller cultures within this region include the Sinagua, Ancestral Pueblo cultures flourished in the region currently known as the Four Corners. The Ancestral Pueblo society is one of the most complex to be found in Oasisamerica, the Ancestral Pueblo is considered to be the most intensely studied Pre-Columbian culture in the United States
Oasisamerica
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A pebble of
turquoise
Oasisamerica
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Oasisamerica
cultural areas in southwestern
North America.
Oasisamerica
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Ceramic bowl from
Chaco Canyon in New Mexico which belonged to the Pueblo III phase
Oasisamerica
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Archaeological site at Chaco Canyon, one of the principal sites of Ancestral Pueblo culture
6.
Casas Grandes
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Casas Grandes is a prehistoric archaeological site in the northern Mexican state of Chihuahua. Construction of the site is attributed to the Mogollon culture, Casas Grandes has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is under the purview of INAH. Casas Grandes is one of the largest and most complex Mogollon culture sites in the region, settlement began after 1130 CE, and would see the larger buildings developed into multi-storied dwellings after 1350 CE. The community was abandoned approximately 1450 CE, Casas Grandes complex is located in a wide, fertile valley on the Casas Grandes or San Miguel River,35 miles south of Janos and 150 miles northwest of the state capital, the city of Chihuahua. The settlement relied on irrigation to support its agriculture, the archaeological zone is contained within the eponymous modern municipio of Casas Grandes. The valley and region have been inhabited by groups for thousands of years. Between CE1130 and 1300, the inhabitants began to congregate in small settlements in this wide fertile valley. The largest identified settlement is today as Paquimé or Casas Grandes. It began as a group of 20 or more house clusters, each with a plaza and these single-story adobe dwellings shared a common water system. Evidence shows that Paquimé had a water control system that included underground drain systems, reservoirs, channels for water to get to the homes. After being burned about 1340, Casas Grandes was rebuilt with multi-story apartment buildings to replace the small buildings, Casas Grandes consisted of about 2,000 adjoining rooms built of adobe, I-shaped Mesoamerican ballcourts, stone-faced platforms, effigy mounds, and a market area. About 350 other, smaller settlement sites have found in the Casas Grandes area. Archaeologists believe that the area controlled by Casas Grandes was relatively small. The population may have been about 2,500 in Casas Grandes with perhaps 10,000 people living within its area of control, specialized craft activities included the production of copper bells and ornaments, extensive pottery, and beads from marine molluscs. These crafts were probably distributed by a trading network. Casas Grandes pottery has a white or reddish surface, with ornamentation in blue, red, brown and it is sometimes considered of better manufacture than the modern pottery in the area. Effigy bowls and vessels were formed in the shape of a painted human figure. Casas Grandes pottery was traded among prehistoric peoples as far north as present-day New Mexico and Arizona, the archaeologist Stephen Lekson has noted that Paquimé is aligned on roughly the same longitudinal axis as Chaco Canyon and Aztec Ruins, with an error of only a few miles
Casas Grandes
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A view of Paquimé, Casas Grandes
Casas Grandes
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Zoomorphic Figure
Casas Grandes
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Ramos Polychrome olla with macaw symbols
7.
Cliff dwelling
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In archeology, cliff dwellings are dwellings formed by using niches or caves in high cliffs, with more or less excavation or with additions in the way of masonry. The area in which they occur coincides with that in which traces of the Pueblo tribes have been found. The niches that were used are often of considerable size, occurring in cliffs to a thousand feet in height, guide to Prehistoric Ruins of the Southwest
Cliff dwelling
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Sinagua cliff dwelling (
Montezuma Castle), Arizona.
Cliff dwelling
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Cavates and pathways in soft
tuff at
Tsankawi, New Mexico
8.
Ciudad Madera, Chihuahua
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Madera is a town and seat of the municipality of Madera in the mountains of the northwestern Mexican state of Chihuahua. As of 2010, the city of Madera had a population of 15,447 and it is a logging town, located in the mountains and the lumber industry is still very important. New manufacturing industries have created new employment for the residents and it is at 2112 metres above sea level and was founded in 1906. The town is located 276 kilometres northwest of the capital, Chihuahua. Madera has been the point of the Cabalgata Binacional Villista. Madera is a city surrounded by the great Sierra Madre mountains. Madera’s high altitude gives it a subtropical highland climate, characterised by somewhat warm, wet summers and cold. Frost occurs most mornings from October to April, but daytime temperatures remain mild, snow falls on about 7 days per year on average
Ciudad Madera, Chihuahua
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Madera
9.
Sierra Madre Occidental
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The Sierra Madre Occidental is a major mountain range system of the North American Cordillera, that runs northwest–southeast through Northwestern and Western Mexico, and along the Gulf of California. The Spanish name sierra madre means mother mountains and occidental means western in English, the range extends from northern Sonora state near the Mexico-U. S. Border at Arizona, southeastwards to the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt and Sierra Madre del Sur ranges, the high plateau that is formed by the range is cut by deep river valleys. This plateau is formed from volcanic rock overlying a basement of metamorphic rock and this uplift has caused changes in weather patterns, increased rainfall occurring in the mountains has provided areas where ecosystems can form in wetter areas than surrounding land. This water-source forms watersheds that provide the arid surroundings with water makes it possible to irrigate. The wet ecosystems are islands of biodiversity, differing significantly from what would otherwise be a desert landscape, oak forests are the predominant plant life and extend into the low land deserts. The major industries in the area now are agriculture and forestry, which have become contentious because of land degradation, the range trends from the north to southeast. Canyons cut by the rivers of the wet western slopes exist in addition to those of the northeast slopes, the mountains range from 300 km from the Gulf of California in the north, but begin to approach within 50 km of the Pacific in the south. These mountains are considered to be part of the much larger American cordillera. The Sierra Tarahumara or Tarahumara range is the name for the region of the Sierra Madre beginning at the Durango border and this name comes from the Tarahumara natives. This is a landscape of steep mountains formed by a high plateau that has been cut through with canyons including Copper Canyon, larger and, in places. This plateau has an elevation of 2,250 m with most of the more eroded canyons on the western slope. The highest elevations occur in the Tarahumara range, the exact elevations of the highest peaks are not known within accurate enough ranges to determine the relative elevation of peaks. The highest point is probably Cerro Mohinora, located at 25°57′N 107°03′W, estimates for the height of the mountain start around 3,040 m and go up to 3,300 m. However, Cerro Barajas, at 26°24′N 106°5′W, may be as high as 3,300 m although other sources give 3,170 m as the elevation, Cerro Gordo, at 23°12′N 104°57′W, may have an elevation between 3,350 m and 3,340 m. The southern end of the mountains may be referred to as the Sierra Huichola, in this area the Sierra Madre begin to give way to the basin and range province. Subranges of this include the Sierra de Alica and the Sierra Pajaritos both in Nayarit. The mountains act as a source of water, in an arid environment from the increased precipitation from the mountain range
Sierra Madre Occidental
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Río Grande de Santiago winding through the Sierra Madre Occidental, forming part of the border between
Nayarit and
Jalisco.
Sierra Madre Occidental
Sierra Madre Occidental
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Copper Canyon in Chihuahua, Mexico
Sierra Madre Occidental
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Basaseachic Falls
10.
Chihuahua, Chihuahua
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The city of Chihuahua is the state capital of the Mexican state of Chihuahua. It has a population of about 925,970, the predominant activity is industry, including domestic heavy, light industries, consumer goods production, and to a smaller extent maquiladoras. It has been said that the name derives from the Nahuatl language, meaning between two waters, other accepted definitions are place of the holed-rock or from Tarahumara, dry, the name itself is older than the Spanish conquest of Mexico. The city was founded on October 12,1709, by Blas Cano de los Rios and Antonio Deza y Ulloa, don Ildefonso de Irigoyen donated the land for the city foundation. The town was erected a Villa in 1718 with the name of San Felipe el Real de Chihuahua, the location was chosen because it is the intersection of the rivers Chuviscar and Sacramento. It is also the midpoint between the Río Bravo del Norte and the then-important mining city of Hidalgo del Parral, during the War of Independence, the city saw little action. During the Mexican-American War, Chihuahua fell to U. S. forces in 1847, during the French invasion, President Benito Juárez made the city the seat of his government-in-exile from 1864 to 1867. During the presidency of Porfirio Díaz the city experienced explosive growth, the city became the seat for important banks and wealthy families. The city was involved during the Mexican Revolution, for it became at times the operations base for the División del Norte. Many sites and memories remain of the Revolutionary era, the most important of these is the Historical Museum of the Mexican Revolution at Villas former estate house near downtown Chihuahua, La Quinta Luz was turned into a museum by his widow, Sra. María Luz Corral de Villa, and is now managed by the federal government, during the 20th century, the city grew in population and learned to take advantage of its proximity with the U. S. border. Until the establishment of manufacturing plants in the 1970s, the city was largely a trade post for cattle. In 2002, Mayor Jorge Barousse Moreno from the Institutional Revolutionary Party died and was succeeded by Alejandro Cano Ricaud, during Canos administration, the city experienced dramatic growth in the security sector when the Police Department was certified by the ISO and surveillance aircraft bought. In 2004 Juan Blanco Zaldivar, of the National Action Party, the turnout of registered voters, at about 41%, was the lowest in years. In January,2010, Mayor Carlos Borruel submitted his resignation in order to campaign for election to the office of Governor of Chihuahua, alvaro Guillermo Madero Muñoz, assumed the office of mayor for the balance of his term. On July 4,2013, Javier Garfio of the PRI won election for a 3-year term as mayor, as of 2010, the city of Chihuahua had a population of 809,232. A substantial population is from the U. S, the literacy rate in the city is among the highest in the country at 98%, 35% of the population is aged 14 or below, 60% between 15 and 65 and 5% over 65. The life expectancy for males is 72 years and for women is 79 years, the city of Chihuahua has achieved great advances in human and social development
Chihuahua, Chihuahua
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City of Chihuahua
Chihuahua, Chihuahua
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Antonio Deza y Ulloa, founder of Chihuahua
Chihuahua, Chihuahua
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Execution of
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla depicted in a mural by
Aarón Piña Mora in the
Government Palace of Chihuahua.
Chihuahua, Chihuahua
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Battle of the Sacramento, 1847
11.
Mesa Verde National Park
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Mesa Verde National Park is a National Park and World Heritage Site located in Montezuma County, Colorado. It protects some of the best preserved Ancestral Puebloan archaeological sites in the United States, created by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1906, the park occupies 52,485 acres near the Four Corners region of the American Southwest. With more than 4,300 sites, including 600 cliff dwellings, Mesa Verde is best known for structures such as Cliff Palace, thought to be the largest cliff dwelling in North America. Starting c. 7500 BCE, Mesa Verde was seasonally inhabited by a group of nomadic Paleo-Indians known as the Foothills Mountain Complex. The variety of points found in the region indicates they were influenced by surrounding areas, including the Great Basin, the San Juan Basin. Later, Archaic people established semi-permanent rockshelters in and around the mesa, by 1000 BCE, the Basketmaker culture emerged from the local Archaic population, and by 750 CE the Ancestral Puebloans had developed from the Basketmaker culture. The Mesa Verdeans survived using a combination of hunting, gathering, and subsistence farming of crops such as corn, beans, and squash. They built the mesas first pueblos sometime after 650, and by the end of the 12th century, the first occupants of the Mesa Verde region, which spans from southeastern Utah to northwestern New Mexico, were nomadic Paleo-Indians who arrived in the area c. 9500 BCE. They followed herds of big game and camped near rivers and streams, the earliest Paleo-Indians were the Clovis culture and Folsom tradition, defined largely by the way in which they fashioned projectile points. Although they left evidence of their presence throughout the region, there is indication that they lived in central Mesa Verde during this time. After 9600 BCE, the environment grew warmer and drier, a change that brought to central Mesa Verde pine forests. Paleo-Indians began inhabiting the mesa in increasing numbers c. 7500, development of the atlatl during this period made it easier for them to hunt smaller game, a crucial advance at a time when most of the regions big game had disappeared from the landscape. 6000 BCE marks the beginning of the Archaic period in North America, the Archaic people probably developed locally, but were also influenced by contact, trade, and intermarriage with immigrants from these outlying areas. The early Archaic people living near Mesa Verde utilized the atlatl and harvested a variety of plants and animals than the Paleo-Indians had. Environmental stability during the period drove population expansion and migration, by the late Archaic, more people were living in semi-permanent rockshelters that preserved perishable goods such as baskets, sandals, and mats. They started to make a variety of figurines that usually resembled sheep or deer. The late Archaic is marked by increased trade in materials such as obsidian. Marine shells and abalone from the Pacific coast made their way to Mesa Verde from Arizona, Rock art flourished, and people lived in rudimentary houses made of mud and wood
Mesa Verde National Park
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Mesa Verde from the northeast
Mesa Verde National Park
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Paleo-Indians hunting a
glyptodont, by
Heinrich Harder c. 1920
Mesa Verde National Park
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Archaic
pictographs, c. 2500 BCE, Sego Canyon, Utah
Mesa Verde National Park
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Basketmaker II basket, c. 1 to 500
12.
Bandelier National Monument
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Bandelier National Monument is a 33, 677-acre United States National Monument near Los Alamos in Sandoval and Los Alamos Counties, New Mexico. The monument preserves the homes and territory of the Ancestral Puebloans of an era in the Southwest. Most of the structures date to two eras, dating between 1150 and 1600 AD. The Monument is 50 square miles of the Pajarito Plateau, on the slopes of the Jemez Volcanic field in the Jemez Mountains, there are three miles of road, and more than 70 miles of hiking trails. The Monument protects Ancestral Pueblo archeological sites, a diverse and scenic landscape, the park infrastructure was developed in the 1930s by crews of the Civilian Conservation Corps, and are a National Historic Landmark for their well-preserved architecture. The National Park Service co-operates with surrounding pueblos, other federal agencies, the monument received 193,914 visitors in 2011. In October 1976, roughly seventy percent of the monument,23,267 acres, was included within the National Wilderness Preservation System, the parks elevations range from about 5,000 feet at the Rio Grande to over 10,200 feet at the summit of Cerro Grande. The Valles Caldera National Preserve adjoins the monument on the north and west, much of the area was covered with volcanic ash from an eruption of the Valles Caldera volcano 1.14 million years ago. The tuff overlays shales and sandstones deposited during the Permian Period, the volcanic outflow varied in hardness, the Ancestral Pueblo People broke up the firmer materials to use as bricks, while they carved out dwellings from the softer material. Human presence in the area has been dated to over 10,000 years before present, permanent settlements by ancestors of the Puebloan peoples have been dated to 1150 CE, these settlers had moved closer to the Rio Grande by 1550. Spanish colonial settlers arrived in the 18th century, the Pueblo Jose Montoya brought Adolph Bandelier to visit the area in 1880. Looking over the dwellings, Bandelier said, It is the grandest thing I ever saw. Based on documentation and research by Bandelier, there was support for preserving the area, supporting infrastructure, including a lodge, was built during the 1920s and 1930s. This group of 31 buildings illustrates the principles of National Park Service Rustic architecture, being based on local materials. It has been designated as a National Landmark District, Frijoles Canyon contains a number of ancestral pueblo homes, kivas, rock paintings, and petroglyphs. Some of the dwellings were rock structures built on the floor, others were cavates produced by voids in the volcanic tuff of the canyon wall. A1. 2-mile, predominantly paved, Main Loop Trail from the visitor center affords access to these features. A trail extending beyond this leads to Alcove House, a shelter cave produced by erosion of the soft rock and containing a small
Bandelier National Monument
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Reconstructed kiva at Alcove House
Bandelier National Monument
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Multistory dwellings at Bandelier. Rock wall foundations and beam holes and cavates carved into tuff from upper floors.
Bandelier National Monument
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Detail of natural cavities and architectural carving into the soft tuff.
Bandelier National Monument
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Remnants of Tyuonyi Pueblo in Frijoles Canyon.
13.
Adobe
–
Adobe is a building material made from earth and often organic material. Adobe is among the earliest building materials, and is used throughout the world, modern methods of construction allow the pouring of whole adobe walls that are reinforced with steel. In dry climates, adobe structures are extremely durable, and account for some of the oldest existing buildings in the world. Adobe buildings offer significant advantages due to their greater thermal mass, cases where adobe structures were widely damaged during earthquakes include the 1976 Guatemala earthquake, the 2003 Bam earthquake and the 2010 Chile earthquake. Puebloan peoples built their structures with handfuls or basketfuls of adobe. Adobe bricks were used in Spain from the Late Bronze and Iron Ages and its wide use can be attributed to its simplicity of design and manufacture, and economics. A distinction is made between the smaller adobes, which are about the size of ordinary baked bricks, and the larger adobines. The word adobe /əˈdoʊbiː/ has existed for around 4000 years with little change in either pronunciation or meaning. The word can be traced from the Middle Egyptian word ɟbt mudbrick, Middle Egyptian evolved into Late Egyptian, Demotic or pre-Coptic, and finally to Coptic, where it appeared as τωωβε tōʾpə. This was borrowed into Arabic as الطوب aṭ-ṭawbu or aṭ-ṭūbu, with the definite article al- attached, tuba, English borrowed the word from Spanish in the early 18th century. In more modern English usage, the adobe has come to include a style of architecture popular in the desert climates of North America. An adobe brick is a material made of earth mixed with water. The soil composition typically contains sand, silt and clay, straw is useful in binding the brick together and allowing the brick to dry evenly, thereby preventing cracking due to uneven shrinkage rates through the brick. The most desirable soil texture for producing the mud of adobe is 15% clay, 10–30% silt, another source quotes 15–25% clay and the remainder sand and coarser particles up to cobbles 50 to 250 mm with no deleterious effect. Modern adobe is stabilized with either emulsified asphalt or Portland cement up to 10% by weight, no more than half the clay content should be expansive clays with the remainder non-expansive illite or kaolinite. Too much expansive clay results in uneven drying through the resulting in cracking. Typically the soils of the Southwest United States, where construction is in use, are an adequate composition. Adobe walls are bearing, i. e. they carry their own weight into the foundation rather than by another structure
Adobe
–
Renewal of the surface
coating of an adobe wall in
Chamisal,
New Mexico
Adobe
–
Church at
San Pedro de Atacama,
Chile
Adobe
–
Adobe style in
Santa Fe, New Mexico
Adobe
–
Cliff dwellings of poured or puddled adobe (cob) at
Cuarenta Casas in Mexico.
14.
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of the Earths oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean in the south and is bounded by Asia and Australia in the west, the Mariana Trench in the western North Pacific is the deepest point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,911 metres. Both the center of the Water Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere are in the Pacific Ocean, the oceans current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favourable winds on reaching the ocean. He called it Mar Pacífico, which in both Portuguese and Spanish means peaceful sea, important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric times. Long-distance trade developed all along the coast from Mozambique to Japan, trade, and therefore knowledge, extended to the Indonesian islands but apparently not Australia. By at least 878 when there was a significant Islamic settlement in Canton much of trade was controlled by Arabs or Muslims. In 219 BC Xu Fu sailed out into the Pacific searching for the elixir of immortality, from 1404 to 1433 Zheng He led expeditions into the Indian Ocean. The east side of the ocean was discovered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and he named it Mar del Sur because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where he first observed the Pacific. Later, Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan sailed the Pacific East to West on a Castilian expedition of world circumnavigation starting in 1519, Magellan called the ocean Pacífico because, after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century, sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and 1527, Portuguese expeditions discovered the Caroline Islands, the Aru Islands, and Papua New Guinea. In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached Japan, in 1564, five Spanish ships consisting of 379 explorers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de Legazpi and sailed to the Philippines and Mariana Islands. The Manila galleons operated for two and a half centuries linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in history, Spanish expeditions also discovered Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon Islands, and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific. In the 16th and 17th century Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a Mare clausum—a sea closed to other naval powers, as the only known entrance from the Atlantic the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled by fleets sent to prevent entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western end of the Pacific Ocean the Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines, Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest reaching Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and settled Polynesia, and the British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North American Pacific Northwest, one of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific. Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the occupation of much of Oceania by other European powers, and later, Japan, in Oceania, France got a leading position as imperial power after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and 1853 respectively. After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro managed to negotiate an incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888, by occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations
Pacific Ocean
–
Maris Pacifici by
Ortelius (1589). One of the first printed maps to show the Pacific Ocean; see also
Waldseemüller map (1507).
Pacific Ocean
–
The Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean
–
USS
Lexington under air attack on 8 May 1942 during the
Battle of the Coral Sea
Pacific Ocean
–
Map of the Pacific Ocean during European Exploration, circa 1702–1707.
15.
Gulf of California
–
The Gulf of California is a body of water that separates the Baja California Peninsula from the Mexican mainland. It is bordered by the states of Baja California, Baja California Sur, Sonora, rivers which flow into the Gulf of California include the Colorado, Fuerte, Mayo, Sinaloa, Sonora, and the Yaqui. The gulfs surface area is about 160,000 km2, the Gulf is thought to be one of the most diverse seas on the planet, and is home to more than 5,000 species of micro-invertebrates. Home to over a people, Baja California is one of the longest peninsulas in the world. Parts of the Gulf of California are a UNESCO World Heritage Site, the International Hydrographic Organization defines the southern limit of the Gulf of California as, A line joining Piastla Point in Mexico, and the southern extreme of Lower California. The Gulf of California is 1,126 km long and 48–241 km wide, with an area of 177,000 km2, a depth of 818.08 m. Transition zones exist between regions, and they usually vary for each individual species. The temperature of the water in the Gulf of California generally experiences lows of 16 °C in winter, but temperatures can vary greatly in the gulf, and the water is almost always warmer by the coast than the open ocean. For example, the waters surrounding La Paz reach 30 °C in August, while the waters in neighboring city Cabo San Lucas, occasionally, the northern Gulf of California will go through significantly cold winters. The water in the Northern Gulf can sometimes drop below 8 °C, the animals most susceptible to the large decrease in water temperature include macroscopic algae and plankton. As part of process, the East Pacific Rise propagated up the middle of the Gulf along the seabed. This extension of the East Pacific Rise is often referred to as the Gulf of California Rift Zone, the Gulf would extend as far as Indio, California, except for the tremendous delta created by the Colorado River. This delta blocks the sea from flooding the Mexicali and Imperial Valleys, volcanism dominates the East Pacific Rise. The island of Isla Tortuga is one example of ongoing volcanic activity. Furthermore, hydrothermal vents due to extension tectonic regime, related to the opening of the Gulf of California, are found in the Bahía de Concepción, the narrow sea is home to a unique and rich ecosystem. The unusual resident populations of fin whales and sperm whales do not migrate annually, the area near the delta of the Colorado river has a small remnant population of the totoaba fish. This region has historically been a magnet for world-class sport fishing activities, the region also has a rich history as a commercial fishery. However, the data vary wildly according to the species being studied, moreover, changes in terrestrial ecology, such as the vast reduction in flow from the Colorado River into the Gulf, have negatively affected fisheries, particularly in the northern region
Gulf of California
–
The Gulf of California (highlighted)
Gulf of California
–
Satellite picture of gulf.
Gulf of California
–
Giant Pacific
manta ray
Gulf of California
16.
Pinole
–
Pinole, also called pinol or pinolillo, is an ancient grain originating with the Aztecs, who spread it throughout Mesoamerica. It is made principally of a unique roasted ground maize, which is mixed with a combination of cocoa, agave, cinnamon, chia seeds, vanilla. The resulting powder is used as a nutrient-dense ingredient to make different foods, such as cereals, baked goods, tortillas. The name comes from the Nahuatl word pinolli, meaning cornmeal, today, pinole is generally made by hand using wood-burning adobe ovens and a stone and pestle, and is still consumed in certain, often rural, parts of Latin America. In fact, pinole is considered the national beverage of Nicaragua, depending on the type of pinole and the quality of its ingredients, pinole can be high in key vitamins and nutrients, including protein, amino acids, fiber, and antioxidants. Due to the amount of fiber and the slow digestion of the maize, pinole also has a very high satiety effect. For many indigenous peoples of Mexico and Central America, it is relied upon as a key source of nutrition, along with chia, pinole is a staple food of the Tarahumara Indians. The Tarahumara usually consume pinole as a beverage and use it as fuel for their runs, the recorded history of Pinole, California dates back to the early 1700s when a Spanish commandant, Don Pedro Fages, led an exploration through the Contra Costa shoreline of California. With a small band of soldiers and an Indian guide, Don Pedro Fages left Monterey, according to legend, the soldiers ran out of provisions on their march and found a village of Indians who gave them food. This food consisted of a form of meal, made from acorns, seeds, and wild grain, which they called “pinole” Thus, the soldiers named their camp “El Pinole, ” and Pinole received its name. In parts of central Mexico, groups of rowdy youths traditionally went from house to house during Carnival to demand pinole and this custom may have given rise to the popular saying, El que tiene más saliva, traga más pinole. Authentic pinole can occasionally be found in markets throughout Mexico. It is generally made by hand and sold as a powder in burlap pouches, a sugar-heavy, mass-market version can also sometimes be found in Latin American supermarkets under brands such as Don Julio. A premium version of pinole that is said to mimic the original Aztec variety is produced and distributed by Native State Foods, gofio List of porridges Hominy Francisco J. Santamaría, Diccionario de mejicanismos, Mexico City, Editorial Porrúa,1959,1978. Pinole, The Ultimate Bugout Food pinole. weebly. com
Pinole
–
Soups and stews
Pinole
17.
Hohokam
–
The Hohokam were an ancient Native American culture centered in the present US state of Arizona. The Hohokam are one of the four cultures of the American Southwest. Variant spellings in current, official usage include Hobokam, Huhugam, according to the National Park Service Website, Hohokam is an Oodham word used by archaeologists to identify a group of people who lived in the Sonoran Desert. According to local tradition, the Hohokam may be the ancestors of the historic Pima. Recent academic research focused on the Sobaipuri, ancient ancestors of the modern Pima, Hohokam, a term borrowed from the Oodham language, is used to define an archaeological culture that existed from the beginning of the common era to about the middle of the 15th century. As an abstract construct, this culture was centered on the middle Gila and this is referred to as the Hohokam Core Area, as opposed to the Hohokam Peripheries, or adjacent regions into which the Hohokam Culture extended. Collectively, the Core and Peripheries formed what is referred to as the Hohokam Regional System, the Hohokam also extended into the Mogollon Rim region. This prehistoric group from the Early Agricultural Period grew corn, lived year round in sedentary villages, the Hohokam used the waters of the Salt and Gila Rivers and constructed an assortment of simple canals combined with weirs in their various agricultural pursuits. These were constructed using relatively simple excavation tools, without the benefit of advanced engineering technologies, and achieved drops of a few feet per mile, balancing erosion and siltation. Over 70 years of research has revealed that the Hohokam cultivated varieties of cotton, tobacco, maize, beans. Late in the Hohokam Chronological Sequence, they used extensive dry-farming systems, primarily to grow agave for food. But, by the century, a distinct Hohokam architectural tradition emerged. Hohokam burial practices varied over time, initially, the primary method employed was flexed inhumation, similar to the tradition used by the southern Mogollon culture, located immediately to the east. Although the particulars of the practice changed somewhat, the Hohokam cremation tradition remained dominant until around 1300, at this time, extended inhumation, similar to that used by the Salado tradition to the north and northeast, was quickly adopted. Also, many of the details of the late Hohokam burial patterns were similar to the tradition practiced by the historic Tohono. This section provides an outline of the Hohokam chronological sequence. As an archaeological construct, the HCS uses a culture history-based period/phase scheme designed to provide a narrative of what has been perceived as a sequence of significant cultural change. Overall, the reason the HCS is confusing is that two primary methods of expressing this information are used, and within context, a vast plethora of theoretical variants have been posited
Hohokam
–
The Great House at the
Casa Grande Ruins National Monument.
Hohokam
–
Hiking trail leading to
Indian Mesa (in the background). The hiking trail is located on a portion of a canal which the Hohokam built in 700 AD.. The canal is now filled with soil.
Hohokam
–
Hohokam turquoise mosaic jewelry.
Hohokam
–
Hohokam pottery from Casa Grande.
18.
International Standard Book Number
–
The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
International Standard Book Number
–
A 13-digit ISBN, 978-3-16-148410-0, as represented by an
EAN-13 bar code
19.
OCLC
–
The Online Computer Library Center is a US-based nonprofit cooperative organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the worlds information and reducing information costs. It was founded in 1967 as the Ohio College Library Center, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat, the largest online public access catalog in the world. OCLC is funded mainly by the fees that libraries have to pay for its services, the group first met on July 5,1967 on the campus of the Ohio State University to sign the articles of incorporation for the nonprofit organization. The group hired Frederick G. Kilgour, a former Yale University medical school librarian, Kilgour wished to merge the latest information storage and retrieval system of the time, the computer, with the oldest, the library. The goal of network and database was to bring libraries together to cooperatively keep track of the worlds information in order to best serve researchers and scholars. The first library to do online cataloging through OCLC was the Alden Library at Ohio University on August 26,1971 and this was the first occurrence of online cataloging by any library worldwide. Membership in OCLC is based on use of services and contribution of data, between 1967 and 1977, OCLC membership was limited to institutions in Ohio, but in 1978, a new governance structure was established that allowed institutions from other states to join. In 2002, the structure was again modified to accommodate participation from outside the United States. As OCLC expanded services in the United States outside of Ohio, it relied on establishing strategic partnerships with networks, organizations that provided training, support, by 2008, there were 15 independent United States regional service providers. OCLC networks played a key role in OCLC governance, with networks electing delegates to serve on OCLC Members Council, in early 2009, OCLC negotiated new contracts with the former networks and opened a centralized support center. OCLC provides bibliographic, abstract and full-text information to anyone, OCLC and its member libraries cooperatively produce and maintain WorldCat—the OCLC Online Union Catalog, the largest online public access catalog in the world. WorldCat has holding records from public and private libraries worldwide. org, in October 2005, the OCLC technical staff began a wiki project, WikiD, allowing readers to add commentary and structured-field information associated with any WorldCat record. The Online Computer Library Center acquired the trademark and copyrights associated with the Dewey Decimal Classification System when it bought Forest Press in 1988, a browser for books with their Dewey Decimal Classifications was available until July 2013, it was replaced by the Classify Service. S. The reference management service QuestionPoint provides libraries with tools to communicate with users and this around-the-clock reference service is provided by a cooperative of participating global libraries. OCLC has produced cards for members since 1971 with its shared online catalog. OCLC commercially sells software, e. g. CONTENTdm for managing digital collections, OCLC has been conducting research for the library community for more than 30 years. In accordance with its mission, OCLC makes its research outcomes known through various publications and these publications, including journal articles, reports, newsletters, and presentations, are available through the organizations website. The most recent publications are displayed first, and all archived resources, membership Reports – A number of significant reports on topics ranging from virtual reference in libraries to perceptions about library funding
OCLC
–
Fred Kilgour (1st director of OCLC)
OCLC
–
Online Computer Library Center (OCLC)
OCLC
–
OCLC headquarters (Ohio)
OCLC
–
OCLC offices in Leiden (the Netherlands)
20.
List of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings in Colorado
–
This is a list of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings in Colorado, United States. Archaeologists have agreed on three main periods of occupation by Pueblo peoples in southwestern Colorado, Pueblo I, Pueblo II, Pueblo buildings were built with stone, generally oriented to the south, and in U, E and L shapes. The buildings were located more closely together than the previous Basketmaker period, towers were built, often near kivas, though their purpose still is debated. Pottery became more versatile, not just for cooking, but now included pitchers, ladles, bowls, jars and dishware for food, white pottery with black designs emerged, the pigments coming from plants. Water management and conservation techniques, including the use of reservoirs and silt-retaining dams, midway through this period, about 900, the number of residential sites in the Hovenweep area increased. During the Pueblo II period there was an increase in population resulted in creation of more than 10,000 sites in 250 years. Because much of the land is arid, and crop yields were highly variable, people supplemented their diets by hunting, foraging and trading for food. By the end of the period, there were multiple-story dwellings made primarily of masonry, towers. Rohn and Ferguson, authors of Puebloan Ruins of the Southwest, population tended to coalesce into larger community centers at canyon heads or under cliff overhangs. Population peaked between 1200 to 1250 to more than 20,000 in the Mesa Verde region, however, by 1300 most Pueblo people had abandoned the Four Corners area, as the result of climate changes and food shortages. They are believed to have moved south and east to villages in Arizona and New Mexico, especially the Rio Grande valley near what is today Santa Fe, usually these buildings were plastered with adobe both inside and outside. Kiva - Circular underground buildings used for ceremonies, preparations for ceremonies, kivas may have evolved from pit houses. A kiva generally was located in front of a suite of pueblo rooms. Great houses - Large adobe-plastered stone buildings believed to be ceremonial in use. In the Chacoan period these buildings share certain features, such as rooms, massive size, elevated position. They also often have blocked-in kivas, tower kivas and nearby great kivas, in the Pueblo III period ceremonial buildings were less distinct from residential structures in room size and often included enclosed plazas. Great kivas - Large versions of traditional family kivas that appear to have intended for use by the larger community. There are great kivas as large as 75 feet across, such as Casa Rinconada in Chaco Canyon, roofs are held up by massive posts set into special recesses in the floors
List of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings in Colorado
–
Ancestral Puebloan Periods
List of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings in Colorado
–
Chimney Rock (Site ID 5AA.985)
List of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings in Colorado
–
Escalante (Site ID 5MT2149)
List of Ancestral Puebloan dwellings in Colorado
–
Lowry Pueblo (Site ID 5MT1566)
21.
Bandiagara Escarpment
–
The Bandiagara Escarpment is an escarpment in the Dogon country of Mali. The sandstone cliff rises about 500 meters above the sandy flats to the south. It has a length of approximately 150 kilometers, the area of the escarpment is inhabited today by the Dogon people. Before the Dogon, the escarpment was inhabited by the Tellem, many structures remain from the Tellem. The Bandiagara Escarpment was listed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1989, the Cliffs of Bandiagara are a sandstone chain ranging from south to northeast over 200 km and extending to the Grandamia massif. The end of the massif is marked by the Hombori Tondo, because of its archaeological, ethnological and geological characteristics, the entire site is one of the most imposing in West Africa. The cave-dwelling Tellem, a group later pushed out by the arrival of the Dogons. The Tellem legacy is evident in the caves carved into the cliffs so that they could bury their dead high up. Dozens of villages are located along the cliff, such as Kani Bonzon and it was near to this village that the Dogons arrived in the 14th century, and from there they spread over the plateau, the escarpment and the plains of the Seno-Gondo. Today, local guides can take tourist groups on trips along the escarpment to visit the Dogon villages, a series of trails runs along the cliffs, and hostels in each village provide food and lodging. The host villages receive income from the hostels and the tourist tax, large increases in tourism to the area are expected, as a new highway is constructed, putting pressure on local, traditional cultures. In addition, The Independent reports that looting of ancient artifacts is widespread in the area, to call attention to the issue of uncontrolled tourist visitation, the World Monuments Fund included the Bandiagara Escarpment in the 2004 World Monuments Watch. In 2005, WMF provided a grant from American Express to the Mission Culturelle de Bandiagara for the development of a management plan, for the Dogon cliff-dwellers who live there, the future hangs in the balance. ICON Magazine, Fall 2005, p. 38-45
Bandiagara Escarpment
–
Remnant dwellings of the ancient
Tellem people in the background, above the abandoned Dogon village; a mud mosque of the modern-day Dogon village is visible in the foreground
Bandiagara Escarpment
–
The Bandiagara Escarpment from Banimoto
Bandiagara Escarpment
Bandiagara Escarpment
–
A partial view of the Bandiagara Escarpment
Mexico
