1.
Public market
–
A market, or marketplace, is a location where people regularly gather for the purchase and sale of provisions, livestock, and other goods. In different parts of the world, a place may be described as a souk, bazaar. Some markets operate on most days, others may be once a week. The term, market comes from the Latin mercatus, the exact phrase was “Ic wille þæt markete beo in þe selue tun, ” which roughly translates as “I want to be at that market in the good town. ”Markets have existed since ancient times. Open air, public markets were known in ancient Babylonia and Assyria and these markets were typically situated in the towns centre where they were surrounded by alleyways occupied by skilled artisans, such as metal-workers and leather workers. These artisans may have sold wares directly from their premises, in ancient Greece markets operated within the agora, and in ancient Rome the forum. In the Graeco-Roman world, the market primarily served the local peasantry. They would sell small surpluses from their farming activities, purchase minor farm equipment. Major producers such as the estates were sufficiently attractive for merchants to call directly at their farm-gates. The very wealthy landowners managed their own distribution, which may have involved exporting, the nature of export markets in antiquity is well documented in ancient sources and archaeological case studies. At Pompeii multiple markets served the population of approximately 12,000, produce markets were located in the vicinity of the Forum, while livestock markets were situated on the citys perimeter, near the amphitheatre. A long narrow building at the north-west corner of the Forum was some type of market, on the opposite corner stood the macellum, thought to have been a meat and fish market. Market stall-holders paid a tax for the right to trade on market days. Some archaeological evidence suggests that markets and street vendors were controlled by local government, a graffito on the outside of a large shop documents a seven-day cycle of markets, Saturn’s day at Pompeii and Nuceria, Sun’s day at Atella and Nola, Moon’s day at Cumae. etc. The presence of an official commercial calendar suggests something of the importance to community life. Markets were also important centres of social life, in early Western Europe, markets developed close to monasteries, castles or royal residences. Priories and aristocratic manorial households created considerable demand for goods and services - both luxuries and necessities and these centres of trade attracted sellers and would stimulate the growth of the town. A charter would protect trading privileges in return for an annual fee, from the 11th and 12th century, the number of markets and fairs burgeoned
Public market
–
Farmers' market in
Lhasa, Tibet
Public market
–
The Old Market building in
Bratislava, Slovakia
Public market
–
Tianguis: Model of
Aztec tianguis (marketplace) at
Mexico City 's
National Museum of Anthropology
Public market
–
Bazaar:
Grand Bazaar, Istanbul,
Turkey
2.
Ciutat Vella
–
Ciutat Vella is a district of Barcelona, numbered District 1. The name means old city in Catalan and refers to the oldest neighborhoods in the city of Barcelona, Catalonia, ciutat Vella is nestled between the Mediterranean Sea and the neighborhood called lEixample. It is considered the centre of the city, the Plaça Catalunya is one of the most popular meeting points in all of Catalonia. Les Rambles stretches from Plaça Catalunya to the Mediterranean Sea and, since the 1990s, now extends out over the sea one of Barcelonas newest centers of entertainment. Each of Les Rambles has its own specialty, la Rambla de les Flors is devoted to flower stands, another Rambla to animal vendors, and the lowest Rambla hosts temporary art fairs. El Mercat de Sant Josep and Gran Teatre del Liceu are both located here, Les Rambles are among the most frequently travelled streets by pedestrians in Barcelona. At the bottom, there is the Museu Marítim, which chronicles the history of life on the Mediterranean, the museum is housed in the medieval Drassanes, where the ships that made Catalonia a great sea power in the Mediterranean were built. This portion of the city is referred to as el Barri Xinès. It acquired this name not due to there being residents of Chinese origin and it has become one of the most dynamic areas of the city. Many smaller ethnic restaurants may be found in Raval and fashionable restaurants, the Museu dArt Contemporani de Barcelona is in this neighborhood. On the other side of Les Rambles, is el Barri Gòtic and this neighborhood houses the Cathedral of Barcelona, la Generalitat, and lAjuntament. Tourists visit this neighborhood to see Plaça Reial and to shop in one of the tourist shops along Carrer Ferran, to the north of the Gothic Quarter lie the Jardins de Fonseré i Mestre which contain modernist buildings housing zoological and geological collections
Ciutat Vella
–
1860 map.
Ciutat Vella
–
Location of Ciutat Vella within Barcelona
Ciutat Vella
–
La Rambla near the waterfront
3.
Barcelona
–
Founded as a Roman city, in the Middle Ages Barcelona became the capital of the County of Barcelona. Barcelona has a cultural heritage and is today an important cultural centre. Particularly renowned are the works of Antoni Gaudí and Lluís Domènech i Montaner. The headquarters of the Union for the Mediterranean is located in Barcelona, the city is known for hosting the 1992 Summer Olympics as well as world-class conferences and expositions and also many international sport tournaments. It is a cultural and economic centre in southwestern Europe, 24th in the world. In 2008 it was the fourth most economically powerful city by GDP in the European Union, in 2012 Barcelona had a GDP of $170 billion, it is leading Spain in both employment rate and GDP per capita change. In 2009 the city was ranked Europes third and one of the worlds most successful as a city brand, since 2011 Barcelona has been a leading smart city in Europe. During the Middle Ages, the city was known as Barchinona, Barçalona, Barchelonaa. Internationally, Barcelonas name is abbreviated to Barça. However, this refers only to FC Barcelona, the football club. The common abbreviated form used by locals is Barna, another common abbreviation is BCN, which is also the IATA airport code of the Barcelona-El Prat Airport. The city is referred to as the Ciutat Comtal in Catalan. The origin of the earliest settlement at the site of present-day Barcelona is unclear, the ruins of an early settlement have been excavated in the El Raval neighbourhood, including different tombs and dwellings dating to earlier than 5000 BC. The founding of Barcelona is the subject of two different legends, the first attributes the founding of the city to the mythological Hercules. In about 15 BC, the Romans redrew the town as a castrum centred on the Mons Taber, under the Romans, it was a colony with the surname of Faventia, or, in full, Colonia Faventia Julia Augusta Pia Barcino or Colonia Julia Augusta Faventia Paterna Barcino. It enjoyed immunity from imperial burdens, the city minted its own coins, some from the era of Galba survive. Some remaining fragments of the Roman walls have incorporated into the cathedral. The cathedral, also known as the Basilica La Seu, is said to have founded in 343
Barcelona
–
Central business district,
Sagrada Família,
Camp Nou stadium,
The Castle of the Three Dragons,
Palau Nacional,
W Barcelona hotel and beach
Barcelona
–
A marble plaque in the Museu d'Història de la Ciutat de Barcelona, dated from around 110-130 AD and dedicated to the Roman colony of Barcino
Barcelona
–
Basilica of La Mercè (Mare de Déu de la Mercè)
Barcelona
–
Barcelona in 1563
4.
Turkish cuisine
–
Turkish cuisine is largely the continuation of Ottoman cuisine, which in turn borrowed many elements from Circassian, Central Asian, Caucasian, Middle Eastern, Balkan and Greek cuisines. Turkish cuisine has in turn influenced those and other neighbouring cuisines, including those of Southeast Europe, Central Europe, Turkish cuisine varies across the country. The cuisine of the Black Sea Region uses fish extensively, especially the Black Sea anchovy, the cuisine of the southeast is famous for its variety of kebabs, mezes and dough-based desserts such as baklava, şöbiyet, kadayıf, and künefe. Especially in the parts of Turkey, where olive trees grow abundantly. The cuisines of the Aegean, Marmara and Mediterranean regions are rich in vegetables, herbs, Central Anatolia has many famous specialties, such as keşkek, mantı and gözleme. Dishes directly cognate with mantı are found also in Chinese and Korean cuisine, a specialtys name sometimes includes that of a city or region, either in or outside of Turkey, and may refer to the specific technique or ingredients used in that area. For example, the difference between Urfa kebap and Adana kebap is the thickness of the skewer and the amount of hot pepper that the kebab contains, Urfa kebap is less spicy and thicker than Adana kebap. Although meat-based foods such as kebabs are the mainstay in Turkish cuisine as presented in countries, native Turkish meals largely center around rice, vegetables. Turks usually prefer a rich breakfast, a speciality for breakfast is called menemen, which is prepared with tomatoes, green peppers, onion, olive oil and eggs. Invariably, Turkish tea is served at breakfast, the Turkish word for breakfast, kahvaltı, means before coffee. Homemade food is preferred by Turkish people. Although the newly introduced way of life pushes the new generation to eat out, a typical meal starts with soup, followed by a dish made of vegetables or legumes boiled in a pot, often with or before rice or bulgur pilav accompanied by a salad or cacık. In summertime many people prefer to eat a dish of vegetables cooked with olive oil instead of the soup, either before or after the main course. Although fast food is gaining popularity and many major foreign fast food chains have opened all over Turkey, Turkish people still rely primarily on the rich and extensive dishes of Turkish cuisine. In addition, some traditional Turkish foods, especially köfte, döner, kokoreç, kumpir midye tava börek, eating out has always been common in large commercial cities. Esnaf lokantası are widespread, serving traditional Turkish home cooking at affordable prices, in the hot Turkish summer, a meal often consists of fried vegetables such as eggplant and peppers or potatoes served with yogurt or tomato sauce. Menemen and çılbır are typical dishes, based on eggs. Sheep cheese, cucumbers, tomatoes, watermelons and melons also make a summer meal
Turkish cuisine
–
Turkish dishes on a " sini ", or large tray, that used to be used in the rural areas as a traditional alternative to a table.
Turkish cuisine
–
Simit is a circular bread with sesame seeds. Common breakfast item in Turkey.
Turkish cuisine
–
Imam Bayildi with Borek
Turkish cuisine
–
Fresh Ayran with a head of foam
5.
French language
–
French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
French language
–
The
"arrêt" signs (French for "stop") are used in
Canada while the international stop, which is also a valid French word, is used in France as well as other French-speaking countries and regions.
French language
–
Regions where French is the main language
French language
–
Town sign in
Standard Arabic and French at the entrance of
Rechmaya in
Lebanon.
French language
–
An obsolete 100
Lebanese pound note with the French language inscriptions "Banque du Liban" and "Cent livres".
6.
Latin language
–
Latin is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. The Latin alphabet is derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets, Latin was originally spoken in Latium, in the Italian Peninsula. Through the power of the Roman Republic, it became the dominant language, Vulgar Latin developed into the Romance languages, such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, French, and Romanian. Latin, Italian and French have contributed many words to the English language, Latin and Ancient Greek roots are used in theology, biology, and medicine. By the late Roman Republic, Old Latin had been standardised into Classical Latin, Vulgar Latin was the colloquial form spoken during the same time and attested in inscriptions and the works of comic playwrights like Plautus and Terence. Late Latin is the language from the 3rd century. Later, Early Modern Latin and Modern Latin evolved, Latin was used as the language of international communication, scholarship, and science until well into the 18th century, when it began to be supplanted by vernaculars. Ecclesiastical Latin remains the language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church. Today, many students, scholars and members of the Catholic clergy speak Latin fluently and it is taught in primary, secondary and postsecondary educational institutions around the world. The language has been passed down through various forms, some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series, the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum. Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same, volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance, the reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy. The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part and they are in part the subject matter of the field of classics. The Cat in the Hat, and a book of fairy tales, additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissners Latin Phrasebook. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed inkhorn terms, as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by the author and then forgotten, many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French. Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Accordingly, Romance words make roughly 35% of the vocabulary of Dutch, Roman engineering had the same effect on scientific terminology as a whole
Latin language
–
Latin inscription, in the
Colosseum
Latin language
–
Julius Caesar 's
Commentarii de Bello Gallico is one of the most famous classical Latin texts of the Golden Age of Latin. The unvarnished, journalistic style of this
patrician general has long been taught as a model of the urbane Latin officially spoken and written in the floruit of the
Roman republic.
Latin language
–
A multi-volume Latin dictionary in the
University Library of Graz
Latin language
–
Latin and Ancient Greek Language - Culture - Linguistics at
Duke University in 2014.
7.
Cooking
–
Cooking or cookery is the art, technology and craft of preparing food for consumption with the use of heat. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill, cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago. The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients, New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served, phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, there is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archeological evidence, from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe, anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing. More recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century Age of Nationalism cuisine became a symbol of national identity. Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Colombian exchange influenced the history of cooking, the Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, in the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast-food establishments emerged. Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, the 1916 Food For Young Children became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels, in 1943, the USDA created the Basic Seven chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences, in 1956, the Essentials of an Adequate Diet brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called Food addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added fats, oils, most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi
Cooking
–
A chef preparing steak
Cooking
–
Historical oven cooking depicted in a painting by
Jean-François Millet
Cooking
–
Doughnuts frying in oil
Cooking
–
Water is often used to cook foods such as
noodles.
8.
List of cooking techniques
–
This is a list of cooking techniques. Cooking is the art of preparing food for ingestion, commonly with the application of heat, Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, reflecting unique environmental, economic, with cultural traditions and trends. The way that takes place also depends on the skill. This is an comprehensive list of cooking techniques, and includes techniques that are unique to countries, provinces, states, regions. Amandine – a culinary term indicating a garnish of almonds, dishes of this sort are usually cooked with butter and seasonings, then sprinkled with whole or flaked, toasted almonds. Amylolytic process – used in the brewing of alcohol from grains Anti-griddle – a kitchen appliance that flash freezes or semi-freezes foods placed on its chilled metal top, the oil is then added to a dish for flavoring. Cheesemaking – the craft of making cheese Chinese cooking techniques – a set of methods, the cooking techniques can either be grouped into ones that use a single cooking method or a combination of wet and dry cooking methods. Red cooking – also called Chinese stewing, red stewing, red braising, clay pot cooking – a process of cooking food in a pot made from unglazed & natural clay Coddling – heating food in water kept just below the boiling point. Coddled egg may be prepared using this method, concasse – to rough chop any ingredient, usually vegetables. Curdling – the breaking of an emulsion or colloid into large parts of different composition through the processes of flocculation, creaming. Curdling is intentional and desirable in making cheese and tofu, unintentional and undesirable in making sauces and custards. Curing Curing is any of various food preservation and flavoring processes of foods such as meat, fish and vegetables, by the addition of a combination of salt, nitrates, nitrite, many curing processes also involve smoking, the process of flavoring, or cooking. The use of food dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, a food dehydrator uses a heat source and air flow to reduce the water content of foods. Dum pukht – or slow oven cooking, is a technique associated with the Awadh region of India, in which meat and vegetables are cooked over a very low flame. Dutch oven cooking – A Dutch oven is well suited for long, slow cooking, such as in making roasts, stews, virtually any recipe that can be cooked in a conventional oven can be cooked in a Dutch oven. They are often used in cooking, such as when camping. Earth oven – one of the most simple and long-used cooking structures, at its simplest, it is a pit in the ground used to trap heat and bake, smoke, or steam food. A common example of an infusion is tea, and many herbal teas are prepared in the same way
List of cooking techniques
–
A
chef cooking on a
flattop grill
List of cooking techniques
–
Cornish pasties being
baked in an
oven
List of cooking techniques
–
The first step in
blanching green beans
List of cooking techniques
–
Hot liquid candy being poured into candy molds by a
candymaker
9.
Dish (food)
–
A dish in gastronomy is a specific food preparation, a distinct article or variety of food, with cooking finished, and ready to eat, or be served. A dish may be served on tableware, or may be out of hand. Instructions for preparing a dish are called recipes, some dishes, for example vanilla ice cream with fudge sauce, rarely have their own recipes, as they are made by simply combining two ready to eat preparations of foods. Many dishes have specific names, while others are simply described, many are named for particular places, sometimes because of a specific association with that place like Boston baked beans or bistecca alla fiorentina. Sometimes not, poached eggs Florentine ends up meaning essentially with spinach, because of the many stories that have been told about the names of different dishes, it is often hard to know exactly where the names came from. Entrée Food presentation Garnish Famous Food Dishes and How they Got Their Names
Dish (food)
–
Baked
Tapioca root in a pot
Dish (food)
–
A Chinese rice dish on a plate
10.
Culture
–
Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
Culture
–
Human
symbolic expression developed as prehistoric humans reached
behavioral modernity
Culture
–
Religion and expressive
art are important aspects of human culture.
Culture
–
Celebrations,
rituals, and patterns of consumption are important aspects of
folk culture.
Culture
–
Social and political organization varies between different cultures.
11.
Religion
–
Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has considered a source of religious beliefs. There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide, about 84% of the worlds population is affiliated with one of the five largest religions, namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. With the onset of the modernisation of and the revolution in the western world. The religiously unaffiliated demographic include those who do not identify with any religion, atheists. While the religiously unaffiliated have grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs, about 16% of the worlds population is religiously unaffiliated. The study of religion encompasses a variety of academic disciplines, including theology, comparative religion. Theories of religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, Religion is derived from the Latin religiō, the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possible interpretation traced to Cicero, connects lego read, i. e. re with lego in the sense of choose, go over again or consider carefully. The medieval usage alternates with order in designating bonded communities like those of monastic orders, we hear of the religion of the Golden Fleece, of a knight of the religion of Avys. In the ancient and medieval world, the etymological Latin root religio was understood as a virtue of worship, never as doctrine, practice. In the Quran, the Arabic word din is often translated as religion in modern translations and it was in the 19th century that the terms Buddhism, Hinduism, Taoism, and Confucianism first emerged. Max Müller characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, what is called ancient religion today, they would have only called law. Some languages have words that can be translated as religion, but they may use them in a different way. For example, the Sanskrit word dharma, sometimes translated as religion, throughout classical South Asia, the study of law consisted of concepts such as penance through piety and ceremonial as well as practical traditions. Medieval Japan at first had a union between imperial law and universal or Buddha law, but these later became independent sources of power. There is no equivalent of religion in Hebrew, and Judaism does not distinguish clearly between religious, national, racial, or ethnic identities
Religion
–
Urarina shaman, Peru, 1988
Religion
Religion
–
The
Yazılıkaya sanctuary in
Turkey, with the twelve gods of the underworld
Religion
–
Confucianism,
Taoism, and
Buddhism are one, a painting in the litang style portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century,
Song dynasty
12.
Diet in Hinduism
–
Diet in Hinduism varies with its diverse traditions. The ancient and medieval Hindu texts do not explicitly prohibit eating meat, many Hindus prefer a vegetarian or lacto-vegetarian lifestyle, and methods of food production that are in sync with nature, compassionate, and respectful of other life forms as well as nature. Most Hindu sects and gurus also promote a sattvic vegetarian diet as an obligation as part of living a lifestyle that causes minimum harm to other lifeforms. The diet of Hindus may include eggs and meat, however, often they favor jhatka style preparation of meat since Hindus believe that this method minimizes trauma and suffering to the animal. Ancient Hindu texts describe the whole of creation as a vast food chain, Hindu mendicants avoid preparing their own food, relying either on begging for leftovers or harvesting seeds and fruits from forests, as this minimizes the likely harm to other life forms and nature. The Vedic texts have conflicting verses, which scholars have interpreted to support or opposition to meat-based food. In some verses, the oldest Hindu text, the Rigveda, denounces eating meat of cattle and horses, Some consider this as a disapproval of cow slaughter and meat eating in general. However, elsewhere the Rig Veda says, These verses mention deity Indra eating bulls, but states Pandit, these verses are in the context of demons and evil spirits stealing the cattle and the milk. The Upanishads and Sutra texts of Hinduism discuss moderate diet and proper nutrition, the Upanishads and Sutra texts invoke the concept of virtuous self-restraint in matters of food, while the Samhitas discuss what and when certain foods are suitable. A few Hindu texts such as Hathayoga Pradipika combine both, moderation in diet is called Mitahara, and this is discussed in Shandilya Upanishad, as well as by Svātmārāma as a virtue. It is one of the yamas discussed in ancient Indian texts, the Upanishad, states Stiles, notes “from food life springs forth, by food it is sustained, and in food it merges when life departs”. The Bhagavad Gita includes verses on diet and moderation in food in Chapter 6 and it states in verse 6.16 that a Yogi must neither eat too much nor too little, neither sleep too much nor too little. Understanding and regulating one’s established habits about eating, sleeping and recreation is suggested as essential to the practice of yoga in verse 6.17. Verse 251, for instance, questions how can one be possessed of kindness, who, to increase his own flesh, eats the flesh of other creatures. It also says that the wise, who are devoid of mental delusions, do not eat the body of other creatures, suggesting that flesh is nothing. This text, written before 400 CE, and sometimes called the Tamil Veda, discusses eating habits and its role in a healthy life, dedicating Chapter 95 of Book 7 to it. Tirukkuṛaḷ states in verses 943 through 945, eat in moderation, tiruvalluvar also emphasizes overeating has ill effects on health, in verse 946, as “the pleasures of health abide in the man who eats moderately. The pains of disease dwell with him who eats excessively. ”The practice of Mitahara, in Hathayoga Pradipika, includes avoiding stale, impure and tamasic foods, and consuming moderate amounts of fresh, vital and sattvic foods
Diet in Hinduism
–
Illustrative Hindu meals
Diet in Hinduism
Diet in Hinduism
–
Vegetarian diet is favored in many ancient Hindu texts. A vegetarian plate is shown above.
Diet in Hinduism
–
A typical vegetarian food pyramid. However, many Hindus consider eggs to be derived from animal life cycle, and therefore non-vegetarian.
13.
Islamic dietary laws
–
Islamic jurisprudence specifies which foods are halāl and which are harām. Extensions of these rulings are issued, as fatwas, by mujtahids, with varying degrees of strictness, but they are not always widely held to be authoritative. According to the Quran, the only foods explicitly forbidden are meat from animals that die of themselves, blood, the meat of swine, all vegetarian cuisine are halal and allowed for Muslims. However, a person would not be guilty of sin in a situation where the lack of any alternative creates an undesired necessity to consume that which is otherwise unlawful and this is the law of necessity in Islamic jurisprudence, That which is necessary makes the forbidden permissible. Dhabīḥah is a method of ritual animal slaughter, it does not apply to most aquatic animals. The animal must be slaughtered while mentioning the name of God, the animal slaughtered must be killed quickly with a sharpened blade. It must not see the blade and it must not see or smell the blood from a previous slaughter. The main logic given by Islamic clerics is the significance of life, Animals for food may not be killed by being boiled or electrocuted, and the carcass should be hung upside down for long enough to be free of blood. And be conscious of God, unto whom you shall be gathered, a variety of substances are considered as unlawful for humans to consume and, therefore, forbidden as per various Qurʼanic verses, Pork Animals slaughtered in the name of anyone but God. In Islam, consumption of any intoxicants is forbidden in the Quran through several separate verses revealed at different times over a period of years. At first, it was forbidden for Muslims to attend prayers while intoxicated, substances which are intoxicants are not prohibited as such, although their consumption is. For example, alcohol can be used as a disinfectant or for cleaning, the Alevi Muslims of Turkey permit alcohol, unlike many other denominations. Ismaili Muslims are also noted from discouraging, rather than prohibiting, the Zaidi and Mutazili sects believe that the use of alcohol has always been forbidden and refer to this Quran Ayah as feeling of sleepiness and not to be awake. This day have those who despaired of your religion, so fear them not. Consumption of pork and products made from pork is forbidden in Islam. Consumption of rabbit is forbidden among the Alevi people in Turkey, since the turn of the 21st century, there have been efforts to create organizations that certify food products as halal for Muslim consumers in the USA. This can allow companies to export products to most Middle Eastern countries, the oldest and most well-known halal certifier in the United States is called the Islamic Services of America. The institute was established by Islamic intellectual scholars and Muslim scientists to assure the dissemination of halal consumer products, in Europe, several organizations have been created over the past twenty years in order to certify the halal products
Islamic dietary laws
–
Halal restaurant in
Almaty,
Kazakhstan. Yurta (potatoes with meat) and kumis are made of ingredients considered halal.
Islamic dietary laws
–
A halal meat store sign in
Hankou, China, ca. 1935, serving the
Hui Muslim community. The Hui Muslims are scattered throughout the country.
Islamic dietary laws
–
A halal Chinese restaurant in
Da'an,
Taipei.
Islamic dietary laws
–
Halal certificate issued for
dairy products by a German registered merchant
14.
Kashrut
–
Kashrut is a set of Jewish religious dietary laws. Food that may be consumed according to halakha is termed kosher /ˈkoʊʃər/ in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér, there are also laws regarding agricultural produce that might impact the suitability of food for consumption. Most of the laws of kashrut are derived from the Torahs Books of Leviticus. Their details and practical application, however, are set down in the oral law, while the Torah does not state the rationale for most kashrut laws, many reasons have been suggested, including philosophical, practical and hygienic. Over the past century, there have developed numerous rabbinical organizations that certify products, manufacturers, currently, about a sixth of American Jews or 0. 3% of the American population fully keep kosher, and many more abstain from some non-kosher foods, especially pork. Some Jewish scholars say that kashrut should be categorized as laws for which there is no particular explanation, in this line of thinking, the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of Gods authority, and man must obey without asking why. However, Maimonides believed that Jews were permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah, some theologians have said that the laws of kashrut are symbolic in character, Kosher animals represent virtues, while non-kosher animals represent vices. The 1st century BCE Letter of Aristeas argues that the laws have been given, to awake pious thoughts and to form the character. This view reappears in the work of the 19th century Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch, the Torah prohibits seething the kid in its mothers milk. While the Bible does not provide a reason, it has suggested that the practice was perceived as cruel. These sparks of Holiness are released whenever a Jew manipulates any object for a reason, however. The Hasidic argument is that animals are imbued with signs that reveal the release of these sparks, in 1953, David Macht, an Orthodox Jew and proponent of the theory of biblical scientific foresight, conducted toxicity experiments on many kinds of animals and fish. At the same time, these explanations are controversial, scholar Lester L. Grabbe, writing in the Oxford Bible Commentary on Leviticus, says n explanation now almost universally rejected is that the laws in this section have hygiene as their basis. Although some of the laws of ritual purity roughly correspond to ideas of physical cleanliness. For example, there is no evidence that the animals are intrinsically bad to eat or to be avoided in a Mediterranean climate. The laws of kashrut can be classified according to the origin of the prohibition, biblically prohibited foods include, Non-kosher animals and birds, mammals require certain identifying characteristics, while birds require a tradition that they can be consumed. All invertebrates are non-kosher apart from certain types of locust, on which most communities lack a clear tradition, no reptiles or amphibians are kosher. Carrion, meat from an animal that has not been slaughtered according to the laws of shechita
Kashrut
–
Kosher meal approved by the
Beth din of
Johannesburg
Kashrut
–
Examples of
cloven hooves in
goats (upper left),
pigs (lower left) and
cattle (lower right). But
horses lack cloven hooves (upper right).
Kashrut
–
A 15th-century depiction of shechita
Kashrut
–
Kosher dairy dishes from the 19th century in the
Jewish Museum, Berlin.
15.
Food
–
Food is any substance consumed to provide nutritional support for an organism. It is usually of plant or animal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, the substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organisms cells to provide energy, maintain life, or stimulate growth. Historically, humans secured food through two methods, hunting and gathering and agriculture, today, the majority of the food energy required by the ever increasing population of the world is supplied by the food industry. They address issues such as sustainability, biological diversity, climate change, nutritional economics, population growth, water supply, most food has its origin in plants. Some food is obtained directly from plants, but even animals that are used as sources are raised by feeding them food derived from plants. Cereal grain is a food that provides more food energy worldwide than any other type of crop. Corn, wheat, and rice – in all of their varieties – account for 87% of all grain production worldwide, most of the grain that is produced worldwide is fed to livestock. Some foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods like leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, kombucha, and yogurt. Another example is blue-green algae such as Spirulina, inorganic substances such as salt, baking soda and cream of tartar are used to preserve or chemically alter an ingredient. Many plants and plant parts are eaten as food and around 2,000 plant species are cultivated for food, many of these plant species have several distinct cultivars. Seeds of plants are a source of food for animals, including humans, because they contain the nutrients necessary for the plants initial growth, including many healthful fats. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods, edible seeds include cereals, legumes, and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils - sunflower, flaxseed, rapeseed, sesame, seeds are typically high in unsaturated fats and, in moderation, are considered a health food, although not all seeds are edible. Large seeds, such as those from a lemon, pose a choking hazard, fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants and animals have coevolved such that the fruits of the former are a food source to the latter. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures, some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins, and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables. Vegetables are a type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables, bulbs, leaf vegetables, stem vegetables, animals are used as food either directly or indirectly by the products they produce
Food
–
Various foods
Food
–
Foods from plant sources
Food
–
Various raw
meats
Food
–
Tractor and
Chaser bin
16.
Climate
–
Climate is the statistics of weather, usually over a 30-year interval. Climate differs from weather, in that weather only describes the conditions of these variables in a given region. A regions climate is generated by the system, which has five components, atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere. The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, terrain, climates can be classified according to the average and the typical ranges of different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used classification scheme was the Köppen climate classification, the Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic Classification systems focus on the origin of air masses that define the climate of a region. Paleoclimatology is the study of ancient climates, Climate models are mathematical models of past, present and future climates. Climate change may occur long and short timescales from a variety of factors. For example, a 3°C change in mean annual temperature corresponds to a shift in isotherms of approximately 300–400 km in latitude or 500 m in elevation, therefore, species are expected to move upwards in elevation or towards the poles in latitude in response to shifting climate zones. Climate is commonly defined as the weather averaged over a long period, the standard averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose. Climate also includes statistics other than the average, such as the magnitudes of day-to-day or year-to-year variations, the classical period is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization. These quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, Climate in a wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system. The World Meteorological Organization describes climate normals as reference points used by climatologists to compare current climatological trends to that of the past or what is considered normal, a Normal is defined as the arithmetic average of a climate element over a 30-year period. A30 year period is used, as it is enough to filter out any interannual variation or anomalies. The WMO originated from the International Meteorological Organization which set up a commission for climatology in 1929. At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting the commission designated the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals. In 1982 the WMO agreed to update climate normals, and in these were completed on the basis of climate data from 1 January 1961 to 31 December 1990. The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get. Over historical time spans there are a number of nearly constant variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water and these change only over periods of millions of years due to processes such as plate tectonics
Climate
–
Atmospheric sciences
Climate
–
The world’s cloudy and sunny spots. NASA Earth Observatory map using data collected between July 2002 and April 2015.
17.
Sumptuary
–
Societies have used sumptuary laws for a variety of purposes. They were used as an attempt to regulate the balance of trade by limiting the market for imported goods. They made it easy to identify social rank and privilege, the laws frequently prevented commoners from imitating the appearance of aristocrats and also could be used to stigmatize disfavored groups. In the Late Middle Ages, sumptuary laws in cities were instituted as a way for the nobility to cap or limit the conspicuous consumption of the prosperous bourgeoisie. If bourgeois subjects appeared to be as wealthy or wealthier than the nobility, it could undermine the nobilitys presentation of themselves as powerful. This could call into question their ability to control and defend their fief, such laws continued to be used for these purposes well into the 17th century. It also banned the drinking of undiluted wine except for medical purposes, the Sumptuariae Leges of ancient Rome were various laws passed to prevent inordinate expense in banquets and dress, such as the use of expensive Tyrian purple dye. In the early years of the Empire, men were forbidden to wear silk and it was considered the duty of government to put a check upon extravagance in personal expenditure, and such restrictions are found in laws attributed to the kings of Rome and in the Twelve Tables. The Roman censors, who were entrusted with the disciplina or cura morum, in it were listed the names of everyone found guilty of a luxurious mode of living, a great many instances of this kind are recorded. As the Roman Republic wore on, further laws were passed, however, towards the end of the Republic. Any such laws which may have existed were ignored during the period of profligate luxury characterizing the height of the Roman Empire. During the height of the Empire, such vast quantities of silk were imported from Sinica along the Silk Road that Imperial advisers warned that Roman silver reserves were becoming exhausted, Sumptuary laws existed in China in one form or another from the Qin dynasty onwards. The Confucian virtue of restraint was embodied in the scholarly system central to Chinas bureaucracy, some laws concerned the size and decoration of graves and mausoleums. The location of graves, and the number of attendant statues depended on rank, after circa 1550, sumptuary law in China was reformed. According to Britannica Online, In feudal Japan sumptuary laws were passed with a frequency, during the Tokugawa period in Japan, people of every class were subject to strict sumptuary laws that included regulation of the types of clothing that could be worn. Islamic sumptuary laws are based upon teachings found in the Quran, males are exhorted not to wear silk clothes, nor have jewelry made of gold. Likewise, wearing clothes or robes that drag on the ground, seen as a sign of vanity and these rules do not apply to women, who are allowed all this. Prohibition of depictions of human and animal figures in general are similar to those of the Quranic prohibition on graven images, hadiths do allow the depiction of animals on clothing items
Sumptuary
–
Le Courtisan suivant le Dernier Édit by
Abraham Bosse depicts a French courtier casting aside his lace, ribbons and slashed sleeves in favor of sober dress in accordance with the Edict of 1633.
18.
Tropical
–
The tropics are a region of the Earth surrounding the equator. The tropics are also referred to as the zone and the torrid zone. The tropics include all the areas on the Earth where the Sun is at a point directly overhead at least once during the solar year. The tropics are distinguished from the climatic and biomatic regions of Earth, which are the middle latitudes. Tropical is sometimes used in a sense for a tropical climate to mean warm to hot and moist year-round. Many tropical areas have a dry and wet season, the wet season, rainy season or green season, is the time of year, ranging from one or more months, when most of the average annual rainfall in a region falls. Areas with wet seasons are disseminated across portions of the tropics and subtropics, under the Köppen climate classification, for tropical climates, a wet season month is defined as a month where average precipitation is 60 millimetres or more. Tropical rainforests technically do not have dry or wet seasons, since their rainfall is distributed through the year. When the wet season occurs during the season, or summer, precipitation falls mainly during the late afternoon. The wet season is a time when air quality improves, freshwater quality improves and vegetation grows significantly, floods cause rivers to overflow their banks, and some animals to retreat to higher ground. Soil nutrients diminish and erosion increases, the incidence of malaria increases in areas where the rainy season coincides with high temperatures. Animals have adaptation and survival strategies for the wetter regime, unfortunately, the previous dry season leads to food shortages into the wet season, as the crops have yet to mature. Regions within the tropics may well not have a tropical climate, there are alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mount Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Under the Köppen climate classification, much of the area within the tropics is classed not as tropical but as dry including the Sahara Desert. Tropical plants and animals are those native to the tropics. Tropical ecosystems may consist of rainforests, dry forests, spiny forests, desert. There are often significant areas of biodiversity, and species present, particularly in rainforests. In biogeography, the tropics are divided into Paleotropics and Neotropics, together, they are sometimes referred to as the Pantropic
Tropical
–
Tropical sunset over the sea in
Kota Kinabalu,
Malaysia
Tropical
–
World map with the intertropical zone highlighted in red
Tropical
–
Coconut palms in the warm, tropical climate of Northern
Brazil
Tropical
–
Tropical forest near
Fonds-Saint-Denis,
Martinique
19.
Smoking (cooking)
–
Smoking is the process of flavoring, browning, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood. Meats and fish are the most common smoked foods, though cheeses, vegetables, and ingredients used to make such as whisky, smoked beer. In Europe, alder is the traditional smoking wood, but oak is often used now. In North America, hickory, mesquite, oak, pecan, alder, maple, and fruit-tree woods, such as apple, cherry, other biomass besides wood can also be employed, sometimes with the addition of flavoring ingredients. Chinese tea-smoking uses a mixture of uncooked rice, sugar, and tea, some North American ham and bacon makers smoke their products over burning corncobs. Peat is burned to dry and smoke the barley used to make whisky. In New Zealand, sawdust from the native manuka is commonly used for hot smoking fish, in Iceland, dried sheep dung is used to cold-smoke fish, lamb, mutton and whale. Historically, farms in the Western world included a building termed the smokehouse. This was generally well-separated from other buildings both because of the danger and because of the smoke emanations. The smoking of food directly with wood smoke is known to contaminate the food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, the smoking of food dates back to the time of primitive cavemen. As caves or simple huts lacked chimneys, these dwellings could become very smoky, until the modern era, smoking was of a more heavy duty nature as the main goal was to preserve the food. Large quantities of salt were used in the process and smoking times were quite long. The advent of modern transportation made it easier to transport food products long distances. Smoking became more of a way to flavor than to preserve food, in 1939 a device called the Torry Kiln was invented at the Torry Research Station in Scotland. The kiln allowed for uniform mass-smoking and is considered the prototype for all modern large-scale commercial smokers, smokehouse temperatures for cold smoking are typically done between 20 to 30 °C. In this temperature range, foods take on a smoked flavor, cold smoking does not cook foods. Meats should be cured before cold smoking. Cold smoking can be used as an enhancer for items such as chicken breasts, beef, pork chops, salmon, scallops
Smoking (cooking)
–
Pork ribs being smoked
Smoking (cooking)
–
A
Montreal Smoked Meat Sandwich, a well-known Canadian dish
Smoking (cooking)
–
Hot-smoked
chum salmon
Smoking (cooking)
–
A "Little Chief" home smoker and racks with hot smoked
Pacific halibut
20.
Curing (food preservation)
–
Many curing processes also involve smoking, spicing, or cooking. Dehydration was the earliest form of food curing, because curing increases the solute concentration in the food and hence decreases its water potential, the food becomes inhospitable for the microbe growth that causes food spoilage. Curing can be traced back to antiquity, and was the way of preserving meat. Nitrates and nitrites, in conjunction with salt, are one of the most common agents in curing meat because they inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum. They also contribute to the pink color. For lesser-developed countries, curing remains a key process in ensuring the viability of meat production, transport, untreated meat decomposes rapidly if it is not preserved, at a speed that depends on several factors, including ambient humidity, temperature, and the presence of pathogens. Most meats cannot be kept at room temperature in excess of a few days without spoiling, if kept in excess of this time, meat begins to change colour and exude a foul odour, indicating the decomposition of the food. Ingestion of such spoiled meat can cause serious food poisonings, like botulism, in such circumstances the usefulness of preserving foods containing nutritional value for transport and storage is obvious. Curing is able to extend the life of meat before it spoils. A survival technique since prehistory, the conservation of meat has become, over the centuries, a topic of political, economic, Food curing dates back to ancient times, both in the form of smoked meat and salt-cured meat. Several sources describe the salting of meat in the ancient Mediterranean world, diodore of Sicily in his Bibliotheca historica wrote that the Cosséens in the mountains of Persia salted the flesh of carnivorous animals. Strabo indicates that people at Borsippa were catching bats and salting them to eat, the ancient Greeks prepared tarichos, which was meat and fish conserved by salt or other means. The Romans called this dish salsamentum – which term later included salted fat, also evidence of ancient sausage production exists. The Roman gourmet Apicius speaks of a technique involving œnogaros. A trade in salt meat occurred across ancient Europe, in Polybiuss time, the Gauls exported salt pork each year to Rome in large quantities, where it was sold in different cuts, rear cuts, middle cuts, hams, and sausages. This meat, after having been salted with the greatest care, was sometime smoked and these goods had to have been considerably important, since they fed part of the Roman people and the armies. The Belgians were celebrated above all for the care which they gave to the fattening of their pigs and their herds of sheep and pigs were so many, they could provide skins and salt meat not only for Rome, but also for most of Italy. The Ceretani of Spain drew a large income from their hams
Curing (food preservation)
–
Sea salt being added to raw ham to make
prosciutto.
Curing (food preservation)
–
Bag of
Prague powder #1, also known as "curing salt" or "pink salt." It is typically a combination of salt and
sodium nitrite that is dyed pink to distinguish it from ordinary salt.
Curing (food preservation)
–
Slices of
beef in a box.
Curing (food preservation)
–
Young man preparing a pig's head after a sacrifice.
Vase v. 360 - 340 BCE,
National Archaeological Museum of Spain
21.
Pickling
–
Pickling is the process of preserving or expanding the lifespan of food by either anaerobic fermentation in brine or immersion in vinegar. The resulting food is called a pickle, or, to prevent ambiguity, the pickling procedure will typically affect the foods texture and flavor. In East Asia, vinaigrette is used as a pickling medium. Foods that are pickled include meats, fruits, eggs, another distinguishing characteristic is a pH of 4.6 or lower, which is sufficient to kill most bacteria. Pickling can preserve perishable foods for months, antimicrobial herbs and spices, such as mustard seed, garlic, cinnamon or cloves, are often added. If the food contains sufficient moisture, a pickling brine may be produced simply by adding dry salt, for example, German sauerkraut and Korean kimchi are produced by salting the vegetables to draw out excess water. Natural fermentation at room temperature, by lactic acid bacteria, produces the required acidity, other pickles are made by placing vegetables in vinegar. Unlike the canning process, pickling does not require that the food be completely sterile before it is sealed, the acidity or salinity of the solution, the temperature of fermentation, and the exclusion of oxygen determine which microorganisms dominate, and determine the flavor of the end product. When both salt concentration and temperature are low, Leuconostoc mesenteroides dominates, producing a mix of acids, alcohol, at higher temperatures Lactobacillus plantarum dominates, which produces primarily lactic acid. Many pickles start with Leuconostoc, and change to Lactobacillus with higher acidity, pickling began 4000 years ago using cucumbers native to India. This was used as a way to food for out-of-season use and for long journeys. Salt pork and salt beef were common staples for sailors before the days of steam engines, although the process was invented to preserve foods, pickles are also made and eaten because people enjoy the resulting flavors. Pickling may also improve the value of food by introducing B vitamins produced by bacteria. The term pickle is derived from the Dutch word pekel, meaning brine, in the U. S. and Canada, and sometimes Australia and New Zealand, the word pickle alone almost always refers to a pickled cucumber, except when it is used figuratively. It may also refer to types of pickles such as pickled onion, pickled cauliflower. In the UK, pickle, as in a cheese and pickle sandwich, may refer to Ploughmans pickle. South Asia has a variety of pickles, which are mainly made from varieties of mango, lemon, lime, goongura, tamarind and Indian gooseberry. Vegetables such as brinjal, carrots, cauliflower, tomato, bitter gourd, green tamarind, ginger, garlic, onion and these fruits and vegetables are generally mixed with ingredients like salt, spices, and vegetable oils and are set to mature in a moistureless medium
Pickling
–
Pickled cucumbers
Pickling
–
Pickled herring
Pickling
–
Pickled
mushrooms
Pickling
–
Pickled
Olives
22.
List of cuisines
–
The following is a list of cuisines. A cuisine is specific set of cooking traditions and practices, often associated with a culture or region. Each cuisine involves food preparation in a style, of food and drink of particular types. A cuisine is frequently named after the region or place where it originated, a cuisine is primarily influenced by the ingredients that are available locally or through trade. Religious food laws can also exercise an influence on such culinary practices. Global cuisine – a cuisine that is practiced around the world, a cuisine is a characteristic style of cooking practices and traditions, often associated with a specific region, country or culture. To become a global cuisine, a local, regional or national cuisine must spread around the world with its food served world-wide, regional cuisine – based upon national, state or local regions. Regional cuisines may vary based upon food availability and trade, varying climates, cooking traditions and practices, and cultural differences
List of cuisines
–
A
Jacques Lameloise (a 3 star
Michelin Guide chef)
nouvelle cuisine presentation
List of cuisines
–
Ohaw, traditional
Ainu soup
23.
Cinnamon
–
Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus Cinnamomum. Cinnamon is used in sweet and savoury foods. The term cinnamon also refers to its mid-brown colour, Cinnamon is the name for perhaps a dozen species of trees and the commercial spice products that some of them produce. All are members of the genus Cinnamomum in the family Lauraceae, only a few Cinnamomum species are grown commercially for spice. The English word cinnamon, attested in English since the 15th century, derives from the Greek κιννάμωμον kinnámōmon, via Latin, the Greek was borrowed from a Phoenician word, which was similar to the related Hebrew qinnamon. The name cassia, first recorded in English around AD1000, was borrowed via Latin and ultimately derives from Hebrew qtsīʿāh, Cinnamon has been known from remote antiquity. It was imported to Egypt as early as 2000 BCE, the first Greek reference to kasia is found in a poem by Sappho in the seventh century BCE. According to Herodotus, both cinnamon and cassia grew in Arabia, together with incense, myrrh, and ladanum, the phoenix was reputed to build its nest from cinnamon and cassia. Herodotus mentions other writers who believed the source of cassia was the home of Dionysos, egyptian recipes for kyphi, an aromatic used for burning, included cinnamon and cassia from Hellenistic times onward. The gifts of Hellenistic rulers to temples sometimes included cassia and cinnamon, as well as incense, myrrh, Cinnamon was brought around the Arabian peninsula on rafts without rudders or sails or oars, taking advantage of the winter trade winds. Pliny also mentions cassia as a agent for wine. According to Pliny, a Roman pound of cassia, cinnamon, or serichatum cost up to 300 denarii, diocletians Edict on Maximum Prices from 301 AD gives a price of 125 denarii for a pound of cassia, while an agricultural labourer earned 25 denarii per day. Malabathrum leaves were used in cooking and for distilling an oil used in a sauce for oysters by the Roman gourmet Gaius Gavius Apicius. Malabathrum is among the spices that, according to Apicius, any good kitchen should contain, through the Middle Ages, the source of cinnamon was a mystery to the Western world. From reading Latin writers who quoted Herodotus, Europeans had learned that cinnamon came up the Red Sea to the ports of Egypt. Marco Polo avoided precision on the topic, Pliny the Elder wrote in the first century that traders had made this up to charge more, but the story remained current in Byzantium as late as 1310. The first mention that the spice grew in Sri Lanka was in Zakariya al-Qazwinis Athar al-bilad wa-akhbar al-‘ibad about 1270 and this was followed shortly thereafter by John of Montecorvino in a letter of about 1292. Indonesian rafts transported cinnamon directly from the Moluccas to East Africa, venetian traders from Italy held a monopoly on the spice trade in Europe, distributing cinnamon from Alexandria
Cinnamon
–
Raw cinnamon
Cinnamon
–
Cinnamomum verum, from Koehler's Medicinal-Plants (1887)
Cinnamon
–
Writing a Arabic name by
stencil and cinnamon powder on Iranian dessert, Shole-zrad.
Cinnamon
–
Leaves from a wild cinnamon tree
24.
Cassia bark
–
Cinnamomum cassia, called Chinese cassia or Chinese cinnamon, is an evergreen tree originating in southern China, and widely cultivated there and elsewhere in southern and eastern Asia. It is one of several species of Cinnamomum used primarily for their aromatic bark, in the United States, Chinese cassia is the most common type of cinnamon used. The buds are used as a spice, especially in India. The tree grows to 10–15 m tall, with bark and hard. Chinese cassia is a relative to Ceylon cinnamon, Saigon cinnamon, also known as Vietnamese cinnamon, Indonesian cinnamon, also called korintje. In all five species, the bark is used as a spice. Chinese cassias flavour is less delicate than that of Ceylon cinnamon and its bark is thicker, more difficult to crush, and has a rougher texture than that of Ceylon cinnamon. Most of the spice sold as cinnamon in the United States, United Kingdom, Indonesian cinnamon is sold in much smaller amounts. Chinese cassia is produced in both China and Vietnam, until the 1960s, Vietnam was the worlds most important producer of Saigon cinnamon, which has a higher oil content, and consequently has a stronger flavor. Because of the caused by the Vietnam War, however. Indonesian cassia has the lowest oil content of the three types of cassia, so commands the lowest price, Chinese cassia has a sweeter flavor than Indonesian cassia, similar to Saigon cinnamon, but with lower oil content. Cassia bark is used as a agent for confectionery, desserts, pastries, and meat, it is specified in many curry recipes. Cassia is sometimes added to Ceylon cinnamon, but is a thicker, coarser product. Cassia is sold as pieces of bark or as neat quills or sticks, cassia buds, although rare, are also occasionally used as a spice. They resemble cloves in appearance and have a mild, flowery cinnamon flavor, cassia buds are primarily used in old-fashioned pickling recipes, marinades, and teas. Chinese cassia is produced primarily in the provinces of Guangxi, Guangdong. It is considered one of the 50 fundamental herbs in traditional Chinese medicine, due to a blood-thinning component called coumarin, which could damage the liver if taken in huge amounts, European health agencies have warned against consuming high amounts of cassia. Other bioactive compounds found in the bark, powder and essential oils of C. cassia are cinnamaldehyde, in high doses these substances can also be toxic for humans
Cassia bark
–
Cinnamomum cassia
Cassia bark
–
Young
Indonesian cinnamon tree, Indonesia
Cassia bark
–
Dried cassia bark
25.
Cardamom
–
Cardamom, sometimes Cardamon or Cardamum, is a spice made from the seeds of several plants in the genera Elettaria and Amomum in the family Zingiberaceae. Both genera are native to India, Bhutan, Indonesia and Nepal, some other countries, such as Sri Lanka, have also begun to cultivate it. Cardamom is the worlds third-most expensive spice, surpassed in price per weight only by vanilla, the modern genus name Elettaria is derived from the local name. The root ēlam is attested in all Dravidian languages viz. Kannada elakki, Telugu yelakulu, Tamil elakkai, the second element kai means seed or fruit. The Malabar region had historical connections and was a prominent area of cardamom cultivation. A related root is present in Hindi ilaychi, Bengali ælachi. In Sindhi it is called Photta, in Sanskrit it was known as ela or ellka. In Marathi it is known as velchi or veldoda. In Sri Lanka, the plant is known as Enasal by Sinhala language, there are two main types of cardamom, True or green cardamom comes from the species Elettaria cardamomum and is distributed from India to Malaysia. What is often referred to as white cardamon is actually Siam cardamom, the two types of cardamom, κάρδαμομον and ἄμωμον, were distinguished in the fourth century BCE by the Greek father of botany, Theophrastus. Theophrastus and informants knew that these varieties were originally and solely from India, both forms of cardamom are used as flavorings and cooking spices in both food and drink, and as a medicine. E. cardamomum is used as a spice, a masticatory, Cardamom has a strong, unique taste, with an intensely aromatic, resinous fragrance. Black cardamom has a distinctly more smokey, though not bitter, aroma, green cardamom is one of the more expensive spices by weight, but little is needed to impart flavor. It is best stored in the pod as exposed or ground seeds quickly lose their flavor, grinding the pods and seeds together lowers both the quality and the price. For recipes requiring whole cardamom pods, a generally accepted equivalent is 10 pods equals 1 1⁄2 teaspoons of ground cardamom and it is a common ingredient in Indian cooking. In the Middle East, green cardamom powder is used as a spice for sweet dishes, as well as traditional flavouring in coffee, Cardamom is used to a wide extent in savoury dishes. In Asia both types of cardamom are used in both sweet and savory dishes, particularly in the south. Both are frequent components in spice mixes, such as Indian and Nepali masalas, green cardamom is often used in traditional Indian sweets and in masala chai
Cardamom
–
Cardamom
Cardamom
Cardamom
–
Cardamom seeds
Cardamom
–
Cardamom (বড় এলাচ)
26.
Ginger
–
Ginger is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or simply ginger, is widely used as a spice or a folk medicine. It is a perennial which grows annual stems about a meter tall bearing narrow green leaves. Ginger is in the family Zingiberaceae, to also belong turmeric, cardamom. Ginger originated in the tropical rainforest in Southern Asia, although ginger no longer grows wild, it is thought to have originated on the Indian subcontinent because the ginger plants grown in India show the largest amount of genetic variation. Ginger was exported to Europe via India in the first century AD as a result of the spice trade and was used extensively by the Romans. The distantly related dicots in the genus Asarum are commonly called wild ginger because of their similar taste. But this may be Sanskrit folk etymology, and the word may be from an ancient Dravidian name that produced the Tamil and Malayalam name for the spice, inchi-ver. The word probably was readopted in Middle English from Old French gingibre, ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers. Because of its appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates. It is a perennial plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter tall. Traditionally, the rhizome is gathered when the stalk withers, it is scalded, or washed and scraped, to kill it. The fragrant perisperm of the Zingiberaceae is used as sweetmeats by Bantu, ginger produces a hot, fragrant kitchen spice. Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or cooked as an ingredient in many dishes and they can be steeped in boiling water to make ginger tisane, to which honey is often added, sliced orange or lemon fruit may be added. Ginger can be made into candy, or ginger wine, which has been made commercially since 1740, mature ginger rhizomes are fibrous and nearly dry. Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of six to one, although the flavors of fresh, powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavoring for recipes such as gingerbread, cookies, crackers and cakes, ginger ale, and ginger beer. Candied ginger, or crystallized ginger, is the root cooked in sugar until soft, fresh ginger may be peeled before eating. For longer-term storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag, in Indian cuisine, ginger is a key ingredient, especially in thicker gravies, as well as in many other dishes, both vegetarian and meat-based
Ginger
–
Ginger
Ginger
–
Ginger plant with flower - South India
Ginger
–
Ornamental Ginger near
Cooktown, Queensland, Australia
Ginger
–
Gari, a type of pickled ginger
27.
Turmeric
–
Turmeric is a rhizomatous herbaceous perennial plant of the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. It is native to southern Asia, requiring temperatures between 20 and 30 °C and an amount of annual rainfall to thrive. Plants are gathered annually for their rhizomes and propagated from some of those rhizomes in the following season, although long-used in Ayurvedic medicine to treat various diseases, there is little high-quality clinical evidence for use of turmeric or its main constituent, curcumin, as a therapy. Turmeric has been used in Asia for thousands of years and is a part of Siddha medicine. It was first used as a dye, and then later for its medicinal properties, the origin of the name is uncertain, possibly deriving from Middle English/early modern English as turmeryte or tarmaret. Speculation exists that it may be of Latin origin, terra merita, the name of the genus, Curcuma, is from an Arabic name of both saffron and turmeric. Turmeric is a herbaceous plant that reaches up to 1 m tall. Highly branched, yellow to orange, cylindrical, aromatic rhizomes are found, the leaves are alternate and arranged in two rows. They are divided into leaf sheath, petiole, and leaf blade, from the leaf sheaths, a false stem is formed. The petiole is 50 to 115 cm long, the simple leaf blades are usually 76 to 115 cm long and rarely up to 230 cm. They have a width of 38 to 45 cm and are oblong to elliptic, in China, the flowering time is usually in August. Terminally on the stem is a 12 to 20 cm long inflorescence stem containing many flowers. The bracts are green and ovate to oblong with a blunt upper end with a length of 3 to 5 cm. At the top of the inflorescence, stem bracts are present on which no flowers occur, these are white to green and sometimes, tinged reddish-purple, the hermaphrodite flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. The three 0.8 to 1.2 cm long sepals are fused, white, have fluffy hairs, the three bright-yellow petals are fused into a corolla tube up to 3 cm long. The three corolla lobes have a length of 1.0 to 1.5 cm, and are triangular with soft-spiny upper ends, while the average corolla lobe is larger than the two lateral, only the median stamen of the inner circle is fertile. The dust bag is spurred at its base, all other stamens are converted to staminodes. The outer staminodes are shorter than the labellum, the labellum is yellowish, with a yellow ribbon in its center and it is obovate, with a length from 1.2 to 2.0 cm
Turmeric
–
Turmeric
Turmeric
Turmeric
–
Botanical view of Curcuma longa
Turmeric
–
Turmeric field in an Indian village
28.
Middle East
–
The Middle East is a transcontinental region centered on Western Asia and Egypt. The corresponding adjective is Middle-Eastern and the noun is Middle-Easterner. The term has come into usage as a replacement of the term Near East beginning in the early 20th century. Arabs, Turks, Persians, Kurds, and Azeris constitute the largest ethnic groups in the region by population. Indigenous minorities of the Middle East include Jews, Assyrians and other Arameans, Baloch, Berbers, Copts, Druze, Lurs, Mandaeans, Samaritans, Shabaks, Tats, in the Middle East, there is also a Romani community. European ethnic groups form a diaspora in the region include Albanians, Bosniaks, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Franco-Levantines. Among other migrant populations are Bengalis as well as other Indians, Chinese, Filipinos, Indonesians, Pakistanis, the history of the Middle East dates back to ancient times, with the importance of the region being recognized for millennia. Most of the countries border the Persian Gulf have vast reserves of crude oil. The term Middle East may have originated in the 1850s in the British India Office, however, it became more widely known when American naval strategist Alfred Thayer Mahan used the term in 1902 to designate the area between Arabia and India. During this time the British and Russian Empires were vying for influence in Central Asia, Mahan realized not only the strategic importance of the region, but also of its center, the Persian Gulf. Mahan first used the term in his article The Persian Gulf and International Relations, published in September 1902 in the National Review, a British journal. The Middle East, if I may adopt a term which I have not seen, will some day need its Malta, as well as its Gibraltar, it does not follow that either will be in the Persian Gulf. The British Navy should have the facility to concentrate in force if occasion arise, about Aden, India, mahans article was reprinted in The Times and followed in October by a 20-article series entitled The Middle Eastern Question, written by Sir Ignatius Valentine Chirol. During this series, Sir Ignatius expanded the definition of Middle East to include regions of Asia which extend to the borders of India or command the approaches to India. After the series ended in 1903, The Times removed quotation marks from subsequent uses of the term, in the late 1930s, the British established the Middle East Command, which was based in Cairo, for its military forces in the region. After that time, the term Middle East gained broader usage in Europe, the description Middle has also led to some confusion over changing definitions. Before the First World War, Near East was used in English to refer to the Balkans and the Ottoman Empire, while Middle East referred to Iran, the Caucasus, Afghanistan, Central Asia, and Turkestan. The first official use of the term Middle East by the United States government was in the 1957 Eisenhower Doctrine, the Associated Press Stylebook says that Near East formerly referred to the farther west countries while Middle East referred to the eastern ones, but that now they are synonymous
Middle East
–
The
Temple Mount in
Jerusalem
Middle East
–
Map of the Middle East (green).
Middle East
–
The
Kaaba, located in
Mecca,
Saudi Arabia
Middle East
–
Islam is the largest religion in the Middle East. Here, Muslim men are
prostrating during prayer in a mosque.
29.
Tempura
–
Tempura is a Japanese dish of seafood or vegetables that have been battered and deep fried. A light batter is made of water and soft wheat flour. Eggs, baking soda or baking powder, starch, oil, the batter is often kept cold by adding ice, or by placing the bowl inside a larger bowl with ice in it. Overmixing the batter will result in activation of wheat gluten, which causes the mixture to become soft. Specially formulated tempura flour is available in worldwide supermarkets and this is generally light flour, and occasionally contains leaveners such as baking powder. Tempura generally does not use breadcrumbs in the coating, generally, fried foods which are coated with breadcrumbs are considered to be furai, Japanese-invented Western-style deep fried foods, such as tonkatsu or ebi furai. Thin slices or strips of vegetables or seafood are dipped in the batter, vegetable oil or canola oil are most common, however, tempura was traditionally cooked using sesame oil. Many specialty shops still use oil or tea seed oil. Oil temperature is kept between 160 and 180 degrees Celsius, depending on the ingredient. To preserve the flavor and texture of the ingredients, care is taken not to overcook tempura. Cooking times range between a few seconds for delicate leaf vegetables, to several minutes for thick items or large kaki-age fritters, the bits of batter are scooped out between batches of tempura, so they do not burn and leave a bad flavor in the oil. A small mesh scoop is used for this purpose, tenkasu are often reserved as ingredients in other dishes or as a topping. Various seafood and vegetables are used as the ingredients in traditional tempura. The most popular seafood tempura is probably ebi tempura, types of seafood used in tempura includes, Vegetables tempura is called yasai tempura. The all vegetable tempura might be served as a vegetarian dish, types of vegetables includes, Cooked bits of tempura are either eaten with dipping sauce, salted without sauce, or used to assemble other dishes. Tempura is commonly served with grated daikon and eaten hot immediately after frying, in Japan, it is often found in bowls of soba or udon soup often in the form of a shrimp, shiso leaf, or fritter. The most common sauce is tentsuyu sauce, alternatively, tempura may be sprinkled with sea salt before eating. Mixtures of powdered green tea and salt or yuzu and salt are also used, kakiage is a type of tempura made with mixed vegetable strips, such as onion, carrot, and burdock, and sometimes including shrimp or squid, which are deep fried as small round fritters
Tempura
–
Tempura shrimp and vegetables
Tempura
–
Tendon
Tempura
–
Tenzaru (Tempura and
Soba)
Tempura
–
Tempura
Udon
30.
Ancient history
–
Ancient history is the aggregate of past events from the beginning of recorded human history and extending as far as the Early Middle Ages or the Postclassical Era. The span of recorded history is roughly 5,000 years, beginning with Sumerian Cuneiform script, the term classical antiquity is often used to refer to history in the Old World from the beginning of recorded Greek history in 776 BC. This roughly coincides with the date of the founding of Rome in 753 BC, the beginning of the history of ancient Rome. In India, ancient history includes the period of the Middle Kingdoms, and, in China. Historians have two major avenues which they take to better understand the ancient world, archaeology and the study of source texts, primary sources are those sources closest to the origin of the information or idea under study. Primary sources have been distinguished from secondary sources, which cite, comment on. Archaeology is the excavation and study of artefacts in an effort to interpret, archaeologists excavate the ruins of ancient cities looking for clues as to how the people of the time period lived. The study of the ancient cities of Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, the city of Pompeii, an ancient Roman city preserved by the eruption of a volcano in AD79. Its state of preservation is so great that it is a window into Roman culture and provided insight into the cultures of the Etruscans. The Terracotta Army, the mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor in ancient China, the discovery of Knossos by Minos Kalokairinos and Sir Arthur Evans. The discovery of Troy by Heinrich Schliemann, most of what is known of the ancient world comes from the accounts of antiquitys own historians. Although it is important to take account the bias of each ancient author. Some of the more notable ancient writers include Herodotus, Thucydides, Arrian, Plutarch, Polybius, Sima Qian, Sallust, Livy, Josephus, Suetonius, furthermore, the reliability of the information obtained from these surviving records must be considered. Few people were capable of writing histories, as literacy was not widespread in almost any culture until long after the end of ancient history, the earliest known systematic historical thought emerged in ancient Greece, beginning with Herodotus of Halicarnassus. He was also the first to distinguish between cause and immediate origins of an event, the Roman Empire was one of the ancient worlds most literate cultures, but many works by its most widely read historians are lost. Indeed, only a minority of the work of any major Roman historian has survived, prehistory is the period before written history. The early human migrations in the Lower Paleolithic saw Homo erectus spread across Eurasia 1.8 million years ago, the controlled use of fire occurred 800,000 years ago in the Middle Paleolithic. 250,000 years ago, Homo sapiens emerged in Africa, 60–70,000 years ago, Homo sapiens migrated out of Africa along a coastal route to South and Southeast Asia and reached Australia
Ancient history
–
Khafre's Pyramid (
4th dynasty) and
Great Sphinx of Giza (c. 2500 BC or perhaps earlier)
Ancient history
–
The Mediterranean in c. the 4th century BC. Phoenician cities are labelled in yellow, Greek cities in red, and other cities in grey.
Ancient history
–
Eastern Hemisphere in 500 BC.
31.
Rome
–
Rome is a special comune and the capital of Italy. Rome also serves as the capital of the Lazio region, with 2,873,598 residents in 1,285 km2, it is also the countrys largest and most populated comune and fourth-most populous city in the European Union by population within city limits. It is the center of the Metropolitan City of Rome, which has a population of 4.3 million residents, the city is located in the central-western portion of the Italian Peninsula, within Lazio, along the shores of the Tiber. Romes history spans more than 2,500 years, while Roman mythology dates the founding of Rome at only around 753 BC, the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it one of the oldest continuously occupied sites in Europe. The citys early population originated from a mix of Latins, Etruscans and it was first called The Eternal City by the Roman poet Tibullus in the 1st century BC, and the expression was also taken up by Ovid, Virgil, and Livy. Rome is also called the Caput Mundi, due to that, Rome became first one of the major centres of the Italian Renaissance, and then the birthplace of both the Baroque style and Neoclassicism. Famous artists, painters, sculptors and architects made Rome the centre of their activity, in 1871 Rome became the capital of the Kingdom of Italy, and in 1946 that of the Italian Republic. Rome has the status of a global city, Rome ranked in 2014 as the 14th-most-visited city in the world, 3rd most visited in the European Union, and the most popular tourist attraction in Italy. Its historic centre is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, monuments and museums such as the Vatican Museums and the Colosseum are among the worlds most visited tourist destinations with both locations receiving millions of tourists a year. Rome hosted the 1960 Summer Olympics and is the seat of United Nations Food, however, it is a possibility that the name Romulus was actually derived from Rome itself. As early as the 4th century, there have been alternate theories proposed on the origin of the name Roma. There is archaeological evidence of occupation of the Rome area from approximately 14,000 years ago. Evidence of stone tools, pottery and stone weapons attest to about 10,000 years of human presence, several excavations support the view that Rome grew from pastoral settlements on the Palatine Hill built above the area of the future Roman Forum. Between the end of the age and the beginning of the Iron age. However, none of them had yet an urban quality, nowadays, there is a wide consensus that the city was gradually born through the aggregation of several villages around the largest one, placed above the Palatine. All these happenings, which according to the excavations took place more or less around the mid of the 8th century BC. Despite recent excavations at the Palatine hill, the view that Rome has been indeed founded with an act of will as the legend suggests in the middle of the 8th century BC remains a fringe hypothesis. Traditional stories handed down by the ancient Romans themselves explain the earliest history of their city in terms of legend and myth
Rome
Rome
Rome
Rome
32.
Triclinium
–
A triclinium is a formal dining room in a Roman building. The word is adopted from the Greek τρικλίνιον, triklinion, from τρι-, tri-, the triclinium was characterized by three klinai on three sides of a low square table, whose surfaces sloped away from the table at about 10 degrees. Diners would recline on these surfaces in a semi-recumbent position, the fourth side of the table was left free, presumably to allow service to the table. Usually the open side faced the entrance of the room, in Roman-era dwellings, particularly wealthy ones, triclinia were common and the hosts and guest would recline on pillows while feasting. The Museum of Archeology in Arezzo, Italy, or the House of Caro in Pompeii offer what are thought to be accurate reconstructions of triclinia, the custom of using klinai while taking a meal rather than sitting became popular among the Greeks in the early seventh century BC. From here it spread to their colonies in southern Italy and was adopted by the Etruscans. The Romans may have seen the first dining klinai as used by the Etruscans, dining was the defining ritual in Roman domestic life, lasting from late afternoon through late at night. Typically, 9-20 guests were invited, arranged in a prescribed seating order to emphasize divisions in status, as static, privileged space, dining rooms received extremely elaborate decoration, with complex perspective scenes and central paintings. Dionysus, Venus, and still lifes of food were popular, middle class and elite Roman houses usually had at least two triclinia, its not unusual to find four or more. Here, the triclinium maius would be used for dinner parties. Smaller triclinia would be used for dinner parties, with a more exclusive set of guests. Hence their decoration was often at least as elaborate as that found in larger triclinia, as in the larger triclinia, wine, food, and love were always popular themes. As in many houses in Pompeii, here the smaller dining room forms a suite with the adjoining cubiculum, accubita Stibadium Triclinium Galleries and plans of Roman triclinia
Triclinium
–
Reproduction of a triclinium.
Triclinium
–
Another reproduction of a triclinium.
33.
Nouvelle cuisine
–
Nouvelle cuisine is an approach to cooking and food presentation in French cuisine. In contrast to cuisine classique, a form of haute cuisine, nouvelle cuisine is characterized by lighter, more delicate dishes. The term nouvelle cuisine has been used several times in the history of French cuisine, in the 1730s and 1740s, several French writers emphasized their break with tradition, calling their cooking modern or new. Vincent La Chapelles published his Cuisinier moderne in 1733–1735, the first volumes of Menons Nouveau traité de la cuisine came out in 1739. And it was in 1742 that Menon introduced the term nouvelle cuisine as the title of the volume of his Nouveau traité. François Marin worked in the same tradition, in the 1880s and 1890s, the cooking of Georges Auguste Escoffier was sometimes described with the term. Paul Bocuse claimed that Gault first used the term to food prepared by Bocuse. The style Gault and Millau wrote about was a reaction to the French cuisine classique placed into orthodoxy by Escoffier, calling for greater simplicity and elegance in creating dishes, nouvelle cuisine is not cuisine minceur, which was created by Michel Guérard as spa food. Gault and Millau discovered the formula contained in ten characteristics of new style of cooking. The ten characteristics identified were, A rejection of excessive complication in cooking, cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and pâtés were greatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important trend from this characteristic, the cuisine was made with the freshest possible ingredients. Large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter menus, strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used. They stopped using heavy sauces such as espagnole and béchamel in favor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, high-quality butter, lemon juice and they used regional dishes for inspiration instead of cuisine classique dishes. New techniques were embraced and modern equipment was used, Bocuse even used microwave ovens. The chefs paid close attention to the needs of their guests through their dishes. The chefs were extremely inventive and created new combinations and pairings, there is a standing debate as to whether nouvelle cuisine has been abandoned. Much of what it stood for—particularly its preference for lightly presented, the Cambridge Companion to Modern French Culture. Cambridge, The Cambridge University Press,2003, all Manners of Food, eating and taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the present
Nouvelle cuisine
–
A example of nouvelle cuisine presentation
Nouvelle cuisine
–
A
Jacques Lameloise (a three-star
Michelin Guide chef) nouvelle cuisine presentation
Nouvelle cuisine
–
Scallop tangerine gastrique
34.
Marination
–
Marination is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. The origin of the word alludes to the use of brine in the pickling process, the liquid in question, the marinade, can be either acidic or enzymatic. In addition to ingredients, a marinade often contains oils, herbs. It is commonly used to flavor foods and to tenderize tougher cuts of meat, the process may last seconds or days. Different marinades are used in different cuisines, for example, in Indian cuisine the marinade is usually prepared with a mixture of spices. In meats, the causes the tissue to break down. A good marinade has a balance of acid, oil, if raw marinated meat is frozen, the marinade can break down the surface and turn the outer layer mushy. Often confused with marinating, macerating is a form of food preparation. Raw pork, seafood, beef and poultry may contain harmful bacteria which may contaminate the marinade, marinating should be done in the refrigerator to inhibit bacterial growth. Used marinade should not be made into a sauce unless rendered safe by boiling directly before use, otherwise, the container used for marinating should be glass or food safe plastic. Metal, including pottery glazes which can lead, reacts with the acid in the marinade
Marination
–
Chicken in marinade
Marination
–
Beef marinating for a Korean barbecue dish
Marination
–
Poultry and game
Marination
35.
Gazpacho
–
Gazpacho is a soup made of raw vegetables and served cold, originating in the southern Spanish region of Andalusia. Gazpacho is widely eaten in Spain and neighbouring Portugal, particularly during the hot summers, as it is refreshing, Gazpacho originated in Spain and is usually eaten as an appetiser. Gazpacho has a cold serving temperature and its main ingredients are tomato, cucumber and garlic. There are a number of theories of its origin, including as a soup of bread, olive oil, water and garlic that arrived in Spain and Portugal with the Romans and also with the addition of vinegar. Once in Spain, it became a part of Andalusian cuisine, particularly Córdoba and Seville, using stale bread, garlic, olive oil, salt, during the 19th century, the red gazpacho evolved when tomatoes were added among the ingredients. In Andalusia, most gazpacho recipes typically include stale bread, tomato, cucumber, bell pepper, onion and garlic, olive oil, wine vinegar, water, and salt. The following is a modern method of preparing gazpacho, The vegetables are washed. All the vegetables and herbs are chopped and put into a large container Some of the contents of the container are then blended until liquid, chilled water, olive oil, vinegar and salt are then added to taste. The remaining contents of the container are added to the liquid, then briefly blended, garnishes may be made with fresh bell pepper slices, diced tomatoes and cucumber, or other fresh ingredients. A traditional way of preparation is to pound garlic cloves in a mortar, add a little soaked stale bread, then oil and salt. Then very ripe tomatoes and vinegar are added, in the days before refrigeration the gazpacho was left in an unglazed earthenware pot to cool by evaporation, and some water added. In Extremadura, gazpacho with local ham, added to the rather than as a garnish, is called gazpacho extremeño. Andalusian sources say that gazpacho should be chilled, but not iced. Ingredients, texture, and how thick the gazpacho is made vary regionally, similar cold raw soups such as Arjamolho in Portugal, salmorejo, porra antequerana and ajoblanco, are also popular in Andalusia, although not as widespread as gazpacho. Gazpacho manchego, despite its name, is a meat stew, in the historical description of gazpacho it was remarked that the original recipe uses bread, water, vinegar, oil and salt. This recipe is very old in the Iberian Peninsula, going back to Roman times, every Andalusian region or comarca has its own variety. The humble gazpacho became a deeply rooted food for peasants. The basic gazpacho gave rise to variants, some also called gazpacho, others not
Gazpacho
–
Gazpacho
Gazpacho
–
The Gazpachos Manchegos originated in
La Mancha, before today's typical gazpacho, according to data from the 12th century.
Gazpacho
–
Portuguese Gazpacho made with diced ingredients
Gazpacho
–
Gazpacho extremeño
36.
Fusion cuisine
–
Fusion cuisine is cuisine that combines elements of different culinary traditions. Cuisines of this type are not categorized according to any one particular style and have played a part in innovations of many contemporary restaurant cuisines since the 1970s. Fusion food is a term for the combination of various forms of cookery. Regional fusion combines different cuisines of a region or sub-region into a single eating experience, Asian fusion restaurants, which combine the various cuisines of different Asian countries, have become popular in many parts of the United States and United Kingdom. Often featured are East Asian, South-East Asian, and South Asian dishes alongside one another, in the United Kingdom, Fish and Chips can be seen as an early fusion dish due to its marrying of ingredients stemming from Jewish, French, Belgian cuisines. Another incarnation of fusion cuisine implements a more eclectic approach, which features original dishes that combine varieties of ingredients from various cuisines. Such a restaurant might feature a variety of dishes inspired by a combination of various regional cuisines with new ideas. Foods in Malaysia are another example of fusion cuisine between Malay, Javanese, Chinese and Indian and light influences from Thai, Portuguese, Dutch. Foods based on one culture, but prepared using ingredients and flavors inherent to another culture, are considered forms of fusion cuisine. For instance, pizza made with cheddar and pepper jack cheese, salsa and this particular dish is a fusion of Italian and Mexican cuisines. This type of success depends on a number of factors. Among these are, Clienteles cultural diversity Clienteles travel patterns and experiences, Clienteles culinary sophistication and openness to new eating experiences. Wolfgang Puck is considered as one of the pioneers of fusion cuisine
Fusion cuisine
–
This is a combination of
Japanese and
Vietnamese cuisine:
smoked salmon wrapped in
rice paper, with
avocado,
cucumber, and
crab stick
Fusion cuisine
–
Kaeng phet pet yang (Thai roast duck curry) is an example of early fusion cuisine of the
cosmopolitan court of the
Ayutthaya Kingdom (1350 to 1767) combining
Thai red curry, Chinese roast duck and grapes originally from
Persia
37.
Culinary art
–
Culinary arts, in which culinary means related to cooking, is the art of the preparation, cooking and presentation of food, usually in the form of meals. Table manners are sometimes referred to as a culinary art, culinarians are required to have knowledge of food science, nutrition and diet and are responsible for preparing meals that are as pleasing to the eye as well as to the palate. After restaurants, their places of work include delicatessens and relatively large institutions such as hotels and hospitals. Below is a list of the variety of culinary arts occupations. Consulting and Design Specialists – Work with restaurant owners in developing menus, the layout and design of dining rooms, restaurant management – Manage a restaurant, cafeteria, hotel dining area, etc. Food and Beverage Controller – Purchase and source ingredients in large hotels as well as manage the stores, entrepreneurship – Deepen and invest in businesses, such as bakeries, restaurants, or specialty foods. Food and Beverage Managers – Manage all food and beverage outlets in hotels, Food Stylists and Photographers – Work with magazines, books, catalogs, and other media to make food visually appealing. Food Writers and Food Critics – Communicate with the public on food trends, chefs and restaurants through newspapers, magazines, blogs, notables in this field include Julia Child, Craig Claiborne, and James Beard. Research and Development Kitchens – Develop new products for manufacturers and may also work in test kitchens for publications, restaurant chains, grocery chains. Sales – Introduce chefs and business owners to new products and equipment relevant to food production, instructors – Teach aspects of culinary arts in high school, vocational schools, colleges, recreational programs, and for specialty businesses. Training in culinary arts is possible in most countries around the world, with institutions government funded, privately funded or commercial. Web.17 Sept.2013 History of Culinary Arts,17 Sept.2013 The Food Timeline Beal, Eileen. Choosing a career in the restaurant industry, careers and jobs in the restaurant business, jobs, management, ownership. U. S. Department of Labor – Food Service Manager Information. Culinary Art - The Culinary Institute of Bologna – Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation Chef Training Classes Information. ]U. S Department of Labor – Chefs, Head Cooks, and Food Preparation and Serving Supervisors Information
Culinary art
–
Chefs training in
Paris,
France in 2005.
Culinary art
–
Cooking utilizes many
foods.
38.
French cuisine
–
French cuisine consists of the cooking traditions and practices from France. In the 14th century Guillaume Tirel, a chef known as Taillevent, wrote Le Viandier. During that time, French cuisine was influenced by Italian cuisine. Cheese and wine are a part of the cuisine. They play different roles regionally and nationally, with many variations, gastro-tourism and the Guide Michelin helped to acquaint people with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside starting in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have proliferated in variations across the country, knowledge of French cooking has contributed significantly to Western cuisines. Its criteria are used widely in Western cookery school boards and culinary education, in November 2010, French gastronomy was added by the UNESCO to its lists of the worlds intangible cultural heritage. In French medieval cuisine, banquets were common among the aristocracy, multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called service en confusion, or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, meats being sliced off in large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers, the sauces were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored mustards were used. Meals often ended with an issue de table, which changed into the modern dessert. The ingredients of the time varied according to the seasons and the church calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey. Late spring, summer, and autumn afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse, livestock were slaughtered at the beginning of winter. Beef was often salted, while pork was salted and smoked, bacon and sausages would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and hams were brined and dried. Cucumbers were brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt, fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. Whale, dolphin and porpoise were considered fish, so during Lent, artificial freshwater ponds held carp, pike, tench, bream, eel, and other fish. Poultry was kept in yards, with pigeon and squab being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but very rare, and included venison, wild boar, hare, rabbit, kitchen gardens provided herbs, including some, such as tansy, rue, pennyroyal, and hyssop, which are rarely used today
French cuisine
–
A
nouvelle cuisine presentation
French cuisine
–
French
haute cuisine presentation
French cuisine
–
French wines are usually made to accompany French cuisine
French cuisine
–
John, Duke of Berry enjoying a grand meal. The Duke is sitting with a
cardinal at the high table, under a luxurious
baldaquin, in front of the fireplace, tended to by several servants, including a
carver. On the table to the left of the Duke is a golden
salt cellar, or nef, in the shape of a ship; illustration from
Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry, circa 1410.
39.
Molecular gastronomy
–
Molecular gastronomy is a subdiscipline of food science that seeks to investigate the physical and chemical transformations of ingredients that occur in cooking. Its program includes three axes, as cooking was recognized to have three components, which are social, artistic and technical, Molecular cuisine is a modern style of cooking, and takes advantage of many technical innovations from the scientific disciplines. The term molecular gastronomy was coined in 1988 by late Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti, some chefs associated with the term choose to reject its use, preferring other terms such as multi-sensory cooking, modernist cuisine, culinary physics, and experimental cuisine. There are many branches of science that study different aspects of food, such as safety, microbiology, preservation, chemistry, engineering. Food science has mostly been concerned with food production and while the disciplines may overlap with each other to varying degrees. These mere investigations into the process of cooking have unintentionally evolved into a revolutionary practice that is now prominent in todays culinary world. The term molecular and physical gastronomy was coined in 1988 by Hungarian physicist Nicholas Kurti, eventually, the shortened term Molecular Gastronomy also became the name of the scientific discipline co-created by Kurti and This, based on exploring the science behind traditional cooking methods. The American food science writer Harold McGee, was invited for the first Workshop, after Kurtis death in 1998, the name of the Erice workshops was changed by This to The International Workshop on Molecular Gastronomy N. Kurti. This remained the director of the subsequent workshops from 1999 through 2004. University of Oxford physicist Nicholas Kurti was an advocate of applying scientific knowledge to culinary problems. Kurti was also an advocate of low temperature cooking, repeating 18th century experiments by the English scientist Benjamin Thompson by leaving a 2 kg lamb joint in an oven at 80 °C. After 8.5 hours, both the inside and outside temperature of the joint were around 75 °C, and the meat was tender. Together with his wife, Giana Kurti, Nicholas Kurti edited an anthology on food and science by fellows, Hervé This started collecting culinary precisions in the early 1980s and started testing these precisions to see which ones held up, his collection now numbers some 25,000. He currently publishes a series of essays in French and hosts monthly seminars on molecular gastronomy at the INRA in France. He gives free and public seminars on molecular gastronomy any month, Hervé This also authors a website and a pair of blogs on the subject in French and publishes monthly collaborations with French chef Pierre Gagnaire on Gagnaires website. The one-time wife of a physicist, Thomas had many friends in the scientific community, Thomas eventually approached the director of the Ettore Majorana center, physicist Antonino Zichichi who liked the idea. Thomas and Valdrè approached Kurti to be the director of the workshop, up until 2001, The International Workshop on Molecular Gastronomy N. Kurti was named the International Workshops of Molecular and Physical Gastronomy. The first meeting was held in 1992 and the meetings have continued every few years thereafter until the most recent in 2004, each meeting encompassed an overall theme broken down into multiple sessions over the course of a few days
Molecular gastronomy
–
Molecular gastronomy includes the study of how different cooking temperatures affect
eggs, and their viscosity, their surface tension, and different ways of introducing air into them.
Molecular gastronomy
–
Spherification of juices and other liquids is a technique of molecular gastronomy
Molecular gastronomy
–
Internationally renowned French chemist and cook
Hervé This, known as "The Father of Molecular Gastronomy"
Molecular gastronomy
–
Heston Blumenthal dislikes the term Molecular gastronomy, believing it makes the practice sound "complicated" and "elitist."
40.
University of Oxford
–
The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university located in Oxford, England. It grew rapidly from 1167 when Henry II banned English students from attending the University of Paris, after disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled north-east to Cambridge where they established what became the University of Cambridge. The two ancient universities are frequently referred to as Oxbridge. The university is made up of a variety of institutions, including 38 constituent colleges, All the colleges are self-governing institutions within the university, each controlling its own membership and with its own internal structure and activities. Being a city university, it not have a main campus, instead, its buildings. Oxford is the home of the Rhodes Scholarship, one of the worlds oldest and most prestigious scholarships, the university operates the worlds oldest university museum, as well as the largest university press in the world and the largest academic library system in Britain. Oxford has educated many notable alumni, including 28 Nobel laureates,27 Prime Ministers of the United Kingdom, the University of Oxford has no known foundation date. Teaching at Oxford existed in form as early as 1096. It grew quickly in 1167 when English students returned from the University of Paris, the historian Gerald of Wales lectured to such scholars in 1188 and the first known foreign scholar, Emo of Friesland, arrived in 1190. The head of the university had the title of chancellor from at least 1201, the university was granted a royal charter in 1248 during the reign of King Henry III. After disputes between students and Oxford townsfolk in 1209, some academics fled from the violence to Cambridge, the students associated together on the basis of geographical origins, into two nations, representing the North and the South. In later centuries, geographical origins continued to many students affiliations when membership of a college or hall became customary in Oxford. At about the time, private benefactors established colleges as self-contained scholarly communities. Among the earliest such founders were William of Durham, who in 1249 endowed University College, thereafter, an increasing number of students lived in colleges rather than in halls and religious houses. In 1333–34, an attempt by some dissatisfied Oxford scholars to found a new university at Stamford, Lincolnshire was blocked by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge petitioning King Edward III. Thereafter, until the 1820s, no new universities were allowed to be founded in England, even in London, thus, Oxford and Cambridge had a duopoly, the new learning of the Renaissance greatly influenced Oxford from the late 15th century onwards. Among university scholars of the period were William Grocyn, who contributed to the revival of Greek language studies, and John Colet, the noted biblical scholar. With the English Reformation and the breaking of communion with the Roman Catholic Church, recusant scholars from Oxford fled to continental Europe, as a centre of learning and scholarship, Oxfords reputation declined in the Age of Enlightenment, enrolments fell and teaching was neglected
University of Oxford
–
Balliol College – one of the university's oldest constituent colleges
University of Oxford
–
University of Oxford
seal
University of Oxford
–
Aerial view of
Merton College 's
Mob Quad, the oldest
quadrangle of the university, constructed in the years from 1288 to 1378
University of Oxford
–
In 1605 Oxford was still a walled city, but several colleges had been built outside the city walls (north is at the bottom on this map)
41.
French people
–
The French are an ethnic group and nation who are identified with the country of France. This connection may be legal, historical, or cultural, modern French society can be considered a melting pot. To be French, according to the first article of the French Constitution, is to be a citizen of France, regardless of origin, race. The debate concerning the integration of this view with the underlying the European Community remains open. A large number of foreigners have traditionally been permitted to live in France, indeed, the country has long valued its openness, tolerance and the quality of services available. Application for French citizenship is often interpreted as a renunciation of previous state allegiance unless a dual citizenship agreement exists between the two countries, the European treaties have formally permitted movement and European citizens enjoy formal rights to employment in the state sector. Seeing itself as a nation with universal values, France has always valued. However, the success of such assimilation has recently called into question. There is increasing dissatisfaction with, and within, growing ethno-cultural enclaves, the 2005 French riots in some troubled and impoverished suburbs were an example of such tensions. However they should not be interpreted as ethnic conflicts but as social conflicts born out of socioeconomic problems endangering proper integration, the name France etymologically derives from the word Francia, the territory of the Franks. The Franks were a Germanic tribe that overran Roman Gaul at the end of the Roman Empire, in the pre-Roman era, all of Gaul was inhabited by a variety of peoples who were known collectively as the Gaulish tribes. Gaul was militarily conquered in 58-51 BCE by the Roman legions under the command of General Julius Caesar, the area then became part of the Roman Empire. Over the next five centuries the two cultures intermingled, creating a hybridized Gallo-Roman culture, the Gaulish vernacular language disappeared step by step to be replaced everywhere by Vulgar Latin, which would later develop under Frankish influence into the French language in the North of France. With the decline of the Roman Empire in Western Europe, a federation of Germanic peoples entered the picture, the Franks were Germanic pagans who began to settle in northern Gaul as laeti, already during the Roman era. They continued to filter across the Rhine River from present-day Netherlands, at the beginning, they served in the Roman army and reached high commands. Their language is spoken as a kind of Dutch in northern France. Another Germanic people immigrated massively to Alsace, the Alamans, which explains the Alemannic German spoken there and they were competitors of the Franks, thats why it became at the Renaissance time the word for German in French, Allemand. By the early 6th century the Franks, led by the Merovingian king Clovis I and his sons, had consolidated their hold on much of modern-day France, the Vikings eventually intermarried with the local people, converting to Christianity in the process
French people
–
Louis XIV of France "The Sun-King"
French people
–
Row 1:
Joan of Arc
French people
–
Liberty Leading the People by Eugène Delacroix
French people
–
French people in Paris, August 1944
42.
Institut national de la recherche agronomique
–
The Institut national de la recherche agronomique is a French public research institute dedicated to agricultural science. It was founded in 1946 and is a Public Scientific and Technical Research Establishment under the joint authority of the Ministries of Research, INRA leads projects of targeted research for a sustainable agriculture, a safeguarded environment and a healthy and high quality food. Based on the number of publications in agricultural sciences/crops and animal sciences, INRA is the first institute for research in Europe. It belongs to the top 1% most cited research institutes, INRA is a research institute with 1,840 researchers,1,756 research engineers and 4,694 lab workers/field workers/administrative staff. In addition,510 PhD students are trained, and 2,552 interns are employed every year, in 2014, INRA has 17 regional centres in France, including in the French overseas territories. Most laboratories and facilities located in Paris region are to be moved to the Paris-Saclay research-intensive cluster, INRA develops partnerships with, universities and French top schools in agricultural/veterinary sciences French research institutes of fundamental and targeted research. Notably, CNRS and INSERM are INRA first two partners, French research institutes of agricultural applied research the main agricultural research institutes in the world. It has scientific collaborations and exchanges with countries in Europe, America. Nearly half of the publications are co-authored by foreign scientists, INRA maintains a collection of vines at Domaine de Vassal, in Marseillan near Sète, a site where phylloxera cannot survive. Gouais blanc can be found there. Researches on vine cultivation are conducted in Pech Rouge estate, in Gruissan, INRA also owns the Château Couhins wine-producing estate near Bordeaux. Many wine grapes have been created at INRA stations including Ederena, INRA was a member of the consortium for the genome sequencing of Vitis vinifera in 2007. Animal Agronomy Agroecology Biotechnology CIRAD Official website
Institut national de la recherche agronomique
–
Institut national de la recherche agronomique
43.
Global cuisine
–
A global cuisine is a cuisine that is practiced around the world. A cuisine is a style of cooking practices and traditions, often associated with a specific region. To become a global cuisine, a local, regional or national cuisine must spread around the world, Japanese cuisine has spread throughout the world, and representative dishes such as sushi, ramen, among others are popular. In many cases, Japanese food is adapted and reinvented to fit the taste buds of the local populace, for instance, the California roll is a popular dish in the United States that is a modification of the Japanese makizushi, a type of sushi. In South Korea, both the Japanese curry and the ramen have been imported and popularized primarily in the form of instant food. Tonkatsu and tempura, which are derived from Western food, are now considered and marketed as uniquely Japanese, as well as the Japanese curry, in many countries including the United States, United Kingdom, Philippines, and Brazil, Japanese restaurants have become popular. Among these countries, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia are key consumers, Chinese cuisine has become widespread throughout many other parts of the world — from Asia to the Americas, Australia, Western Europe and Southern Africa. In recent years, connoisseurs of Chinese cuisine have also sprouted in Eastern Europe, American Chinese cuisine and Canadian Chinese food are popular examples of local varieties. Local ingredients would be adopted while maintaining the style and preparation technique and these regional cuisines are sometimes referred to as the eight culinary traditions of China. A number of different styles contribute to Chinese cuisine, but perhaps the best known and most influential are the Szechuan, Shandong, Jiangsu and these styles are distinctive from one another due to factors such as available resources, climate, geography, history, cooking techniques and lifestyle. Many Chinese traditional regional cuisines rely on methods of food preservation such as drying, salting, pickling. Spices were bought from India and traded around Europe and Asia and it has also had the created influence on international cuisines, especially those from Southeast Asia, the British Isles and the Caribbean. The use of Indian spices, herbs and vegetable produce have helped shaped the cuisines of many countries around the world, Indian regional cuisine is primarily categorized at the regional level, but also at provincial levels. Cuisine differences derive from local cultures, geographical locations. Indian cuisine is also seasonal, and utilizes fresh produce, the cuisine of India is very diverse with each state having an entirely different food platter. The development of these cuisines have been shaped by Hindu and Jain beliefs, there has also been Islamic influence from the years of Mughal and Delhi Sultanate rule, as well as Persian interactions on North Indian and Deccani cuisine. Indian cuisine has been and is evolving, as a result of the nations cultural interactions with other societies. Historical incidents such as invasions, trade relations and colonialism have also played an important role in introducing certain food types
Global cuisine
–
Chinese food in
Sweden
Global cuisine
–
An animated, color-coded map showing the various continents.
Depending on the convention and model, some continents may be consolidated or subdivided: for example,
Eurasia is often subdivided into Europe and Asia (red shades), while
North and South America are sometimes recognized as
one American continent (green shades).
Global cuisine
–
Indian cuisine in the
United Kingdom
Global cuisine
–
French Cafés often offer
Croissants for breakfast.
44.
Grain
–
Grains are small, hard, dry seeds, with or without attached hulls or fruit layers, harvested for human or animal consumption. Agronomists also call the plants producing such seeds grain crops, the two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals such as wheat and rye, and legumes such as beans and soybeans. Because of the ubiquity of grain as a source, the term grain is often used to describe something small. After being harvested, dry grains are more durable than other foods, such as starchy fruits. Thus, major global commodity markets exist for canola, maize, rice, soybeans, wheat, in botany, grains and cereals are synonymous with caryopses, the fruits of the grass family. In agronomy and commerce, seeds or fruits from other plant families are called if they resemble caryopses. For example, amaranth is sold as grain amaranth, and amaranth products may be described as whole grains, the pre-Hispanic civilizations of the Andes had grain-based food systems but, at the higher elevations, none of the grains was a cereal. All three grains native to the Andes are broad-leafed plants rather than such as corn, rice. All cereal crops are members of the grass family, cereal grains contain a substantial amount of starch, a carbohydrate that provides dietary energy. As is the case all other whole plant foods, pulses also contain carbohydrate. Vegetable oils provide dietary energy and some essential fatty acids and they are also used as fuel or lubricants. Those who handle grain at grain facilities may encounter numerous occupational hazards, risks include grain entrapment, where workers are submerged in the grain and unable to remove themselves, explosions caused by fine particles of grain dust, and falls
Grain
–
Food grains at a weekly market
Grain
–
Cereal grain seeds from left to right:
wheat,
spelt,
barley,
oat.
Grain
–
Barley
Grain
–
Rye grains.
45.
Produce
–
Produce is a generalized term for a group of farm-produced crops and goods, including fruits and vegetables – meats, grains, oats, etc. are also sometimes considered produce. More specifically, the term often implies that the products are fresh. In supermarkets the term is used to refer to the section where fruit. Produce is the product sold by greengrocers, farmers markets. The term produce is used in the U. S. but is not typically used outside the agricultural sector in other English-speaking countries. In parts of the world including the U. S. produce is marked with small stickers bearing price look-up codes and these four- or five-digit codes are a standardized system intended to aid checkout and inventory control in produce markets. Although in most parts of the world forms of produce are available year-round. The seasonality of produce depends on variables such as climate and weather. Below is a general list of produce seasonality for north of and south of the tropics, including Canada, spring fruits are apricots, strawberries, cherries. Spring vegetables are peas and more delicate cabbages including mustard greens, baby lettuce, baby spinach, also in season are artichoke, asparagus, avocado, new potatoes, rhubarb. Summer fruits include some berries and stone fruit as well as melons, summer vegetables include beets, corn, cucumber, eggplant, green beans, tomatoes and zucchini. Autumn fruits includes apples, cranberries, grapes, figs, pears, autumn vegetables include many cultivars of wild cabbage. Root vegetables and winter squash are also in season, corn is in season and peas, seasonal in spring, are also seasonal in late autumn. Winter fruits include citrus and pomegranates, also seasonal in winter are some root vegetables as well as winter squash. Some produce, such as onions, lettuce, spinach and strawberries are seasonal year-round in subtropical climates, vegetables are optimally stored between 0° and 4. 4° Celsius to reduce respiration. Generally, vegetables should be stored at a high humidity, but cucubits and onions prefer dry, raw sprouts are among the most risky produce. Rinsing is a way to reduce the bacteria count on produce. Wastewater can be a source of contamination, due to contamination of water with fecal matter with salmonella or other bacteria, after Denmark eliminated salmonella in its chickens, attention has turned to vegetables as a source of illness
Produce
–
Produce on display at
La Boqueria market in
Barcelona, Spain.
Produce
–
A produce market in Germany
46.
Fat
–
Fat is one of the three main macronutrients, along with carbohydrate and protein. Fats, also known as triglycerides, are esters of three fatty acid chains and the alcohol glycerol, the terms oil, fat, and lipid are often confused. Oil normally refers to a fat with short or unsaturated fatty acid chains that is liquid at room temperature, lipid is the general term, as a lipid is not necessarily a triglyceride. Fats, like lipids, are generally hydrophobic, and are soluble in organic solvents. Fat is an important foodstuff for many forms of life, and they are a necessary part of the diet of most heterotrophs. Some fatty acids that are set free by the digestion of fats are called essential because they cannot be synthesized in the body from simpler constituents, there are two essential fatty acids in human nutrition, alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid. Other lipids needed by the body can be synthesized from these, fats and other lipids are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Fats and oils are categorized according to the number and bonding of the atoms in the aliphatic chain. Fats that are saturated fats have no double bonds between the carbons in the chain, unsaturated fats have one or more double bonded carbons in the chain. The nomenclature is based on the end of the chain. This end is called the end or the n-end. Thus alpha-linolenic acid is called an omega-3 fatty acid because the 3rd carbon from that end is the first double bonded carbon in the counting from that end. Some oils and fats have double bonds and are therefore called polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats can be divided into cis fats, which are the most common in nature, and trans fats. Unsaturated fats can be altered by reaction with hydrogen effected by a catalyst and this action, called hydrogenation, tends to break all the double bonds and makes a fully saturated fat. However, trans fats are generated during hydrogenation as contaminants created by a side reaction on the catalyst during partial hydrogenation. Saturated fats can stack themselves in a closely packed arrangement, so they can easily and are typically solid at room temperature. For example, animal fats tallow and lard are high in saturated fatty acid content and are solids, olive and linseed oils on the other hand are unsaturated and liquid
Fat
–
The
obese mouse on the left has large stores of adipose tissue. For comparison, a mouse with a normal amount of adipose tissue is shown on the right.
Fat
–
A fat, or
triglyceride, molecule. Note the three fatty acid chains attached to the central glycerol portion of the molecule.
47.
Maize
–
Maize, also known as corn, is a large grain plant first domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mexico about 10,000 years ago. The six major types of corn are dent corn, flint corn, pod corn, popcorn, flour corn, the leafy stalk of the plant produces separate pollen and ovuliferous inflorescences or ears, which are fruits, yielding kernels or seeds. Maize kernels are used in cooking as a starch. Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico, recent research modified this view somewhat, scholars now indicate the adjacent Balsas River Valley of south-central Mexico as the center of domestication. The Olmec and Mayans cultivated maize in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked and its believed that beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas. The region developed a network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. Nevertheless, recent data indicates that the spread of maize took place even earlier, according to Piperno, A large corpus of data indicates that it was dispersed into lower Central America by 7600 BP and had moved into the inter-Andean valleys of Colombia between 7000 and 6000 BP. Since then, even earlier dates have been published, the study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths and this is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands. Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small,25 millimetres long corn cobs, Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas, with 361 million metric tons grown in the United States in 2014. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol, genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009. After the arrival of Europeans in 1492, Spanish settlers consumed maize and explorers and traders carried it back to Europe, Spanish settlers far preferred wheat bread to maize, cassava, or potatoes. Maize flour could not be substituted for wheat for bread, since in Christian belief only wheat could undergo transubstantiation. At another level, Spaniards worried that by eating indigenous foods, which they did not consider nutritious, that not only would they weaken, despite these worries, Spaniards did consume maize and archeological evidence from Florida sites indicate they cultivated it as well. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates and it was cultivated in Spain just a few decades after Columbuss voyages and then spread to Italy, West Africa and elsewhere. The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant and it is known by other names around the world. The word corn outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, in the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand, corn primarily means maize, this usage started as a shortening of Indian corn. Indian corn primarily means maize, but can more specifically to multicolored flint corn used for decoration
Maize
–
Maize
Maize
–
A maize heap at the harvest site, India
Maize
–
Many small male flowers make up the male inflorescence, called the tassel.
Maize
–
Female inflorescence, with young
silk
48.
Staple food
–
The staple food of a specific society may be eaten as often as every day or every meal, and most people live on a diet based on just a small number of staples. Typical examples of staples include tubers and roots, and grains, legumes, such nonperishable foods are the only possible staples during seasons of shortage, such as dry seasons or cold temperate winters, against which times harvests have been stored. During seasons of plenty, wider choices of foods may be available. Most staple plant foods are derived either from cereals such as wheat, barley, rye, maize, or rice, or starchy tubers or root vegetables such as potatoes, yams, taro, arrowroot, other staple foods include pulses, sago, and fruits. Staple foods may contain, sorghum, olive oil, coconut oil. Most staples are plant materials, but in some fishing is the primary source of nutrition. Of the more than 50,000 edible plant species in the world, although there are over 10,000 species in the cereal family, just a few have been widely cultivated over the past 2,000 years. The staple food in different parts of the world is a function of weather patterns, local terrain, farming constraints, acquired tastes, for example, the main energy source staples in the average African diet are cereals, roots and tubers and animal products. In Western Europe the main staples in the diet are animal products, cereals and roots. Regional staples include rye, soybeans, barley, oats and teff, just 15 crop plants provide 90 percent of the worlds food energy intake, with rice, maize and wheat comprising two-thirds of human food consumption. The three are the staples of about 80% of the population, and rice feeds almost half of humanity. Roots and tubers, meanwhile, are important staples for over 1 billion people in the developing world, roots and tubers are high in carbohydrates, calcium and vitamin C but low in protein. Cassava root is a staple food in the developing world. With economic development and free trade, many countries have shifted away from low-nutrient-density staple foods to higher-nutrient-density staples, despite this trend, there is growing recognition of the importance of traditional staple crops in nutrition. Efforts are underway to identify better strains with superior nutrition, disease resistance, some foods like quinoa—a pseudocereal grain that originally came from the Andes—were also staple foods centuries ago. Oca, ulluco and amaranth seed are other foods claimed to be staples in Andean history, pemmican was a staple of the Plains Indians of North America. In 2010, the consumption of speciality grains such as quinoa was very small compared to other staples such as rice, wheat. These grains, once popular but then forgotten, are being reevaluated and reintroduced, most staple food is produced using modern and conventional farming practices
Staple food
–
Grains
Staple food
–
Various types of
potatoes
Staple food
–
Maize, the most produced food staple in the world.
Staple food
–
Boiled white
rice
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