1.
Tennessee
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Tennessee is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States. Tennessee is the 36th largest and the 17th most populous of the 50 United States, Tennessee is bordered by Kentucky and Virginia to the north, North Carolina to the east, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi to the south, and Arkansas and Missouri to the west. The Appalachian Mountains dominate the eastern part of the state, Tennessees capital and second largest city is Nashville, which has a population of 654,610. Memphis is the states largest city, with a population of 655,770, the state of Tennessee is rooted in the Watauga Association, a 1772 frontier pact generally regarded as the first constitutional government west of the Appalachians. What is now Tennessee was initially part of North Carolina, Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the 16th state on June 1,1796. Tennessee was the last state to leave the Union and join the Confederacy at the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861, occupied by Union forces from 1862, it was the first state to be readmitted to the Union at the end of the war. Tennessee furnished more soldiers for the Confederate Army than any other state besides Virginia and this sharply reduced competition in politics in the state until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-20th century. This city was established to house the Manhattan Projects uranium enrichment facilities, helping to build the worlds first atomic bomb, Tennessees major industries include agriculture, manufacturing, and tourism. Poultry, soybeans, and cattle are the primary agricultural products, and major manufacturing exports include chemicals, transportation equipment. In the early 18th century, British traders encountered a Cherokee town named Tanasi in present-day Monroe County, the town was located on a river of the same name, and appears on maps as early as 1725. The meaning and origin of the word are uncertain, some accounts suggest it is a Cherokee modification of an earlier Yuchi word. It has been said to mean meeting place, winding river, according to ethnographer James Mooney, the name can not be analyzed and its meaning is lost. The modern spelling, Tennessee, is attributed to James Glen, the governor of South Carolina, the spelling was popularized by the publication of Henry Timberlakes Draught of the Cherokee Country in 1765. In 1788, North Carolina created Tennessee County, the county to be established in what is now Middle Tennessee. When a constitutional convention met in 1796 to organize a new out of the Southwest Territory. Other sources differ on the origin of the nickname, according to the Columbia Encyclopedia. Tennessee ties Missouri as the state bordering the most other states, the state is trisected by the Tennessee River. The highest point in the state is Clingmans Dome at 6,643 feet, Clingmans Dome, which lies on Tennessees eastern border, is the highest point on the Appalachian Trail, and is the third highest peak in the United States east of the Mississippi River
2.
High Knob
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High Knob is the peak of Stone Mountain, that forms part of the border between Scott County and Wise County, Virginia near the city of Norton that rises to 4,223 feet above mean sea level. High Knob is found on the front range of the Appalachian Mountains. It is unique to Virginia in containing both Appalachian Plateau and Ridge and Valley topography, although, it is largely a karstic landform of the Ridge, High Knob stretches across portions of southern Wise County, northern Scott County, and the northeastern tip of Lee County. It represents the point of the Cumberland Mountain Overthrust Block. The High Knob area of Stone Mountain forms one of the greatest natural areas in the eastern United States, the area around High Knob is dominant structural feature of the Powell Valley Anticline of the Cumberland Mountain Overthrust Block. With its adjoining faults, this region possesses the greatest concentration of significant caves in Virginia, High Knob unofficially holds the record for the most snow ever measured in Virginia during a single season, with 200.5 inches during the 1995–96 winter. On a clear day, four other states can be seen from the summit, West Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, at its peak stood one of the few remaining fire towers of the Appalachian Mountains. Built in 1938–39 by the Civilian Conservation Corps, the structure was a 14 ×14 wooden house. The replacement lookout, a structure, was built by the Flatwoods Job Corps in 1978–79. High Knobs fire tower is listed in the National Historic Lookout Registry, on October 31,2007, the High Knob Lookout Tower was destroyed by arson. The tower was set on fire in the hours of Halloween morning. By the time the Jefferson Forest Service and local fire departments arrived on scene, the tower was fully engulfed in flames. Firefighters were able to keep the fire spreading to the rest of the Knob. In 2009 work began in earnest to replace the ruined tower, a tower replacement project was spearheaded by The High Knob Enhancement Corporation who raised required funding from donations. The tower was built by DOT Construction, the formal date of completion is August 22,2014. For more information about High Knob, current events, and important news, please reference The Clinch Coalition, link below
3.
Summit
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A summit is a point on a surface that is higher in elevation than all points immediately adjacent to it. Mathematically, a summit is a maximum in elevation. The topographic terms acme, apex, peak, and zenith are synonymous, the UIAA definition is that a summit is independent if it has a prominence of 30 metres or more, it is a mountain if it has a prominence of at least 300 metres. This can be summarised as follows, A pyramidal peak is an exaggerated form produced by ice erosion of a mountain top, Summit may also refer to the highest point along a line, trail, or route. In many parts of the western United States, the term refers to the highest point along a road, highway. For example, the highest point along Interstate 80 in California is referred to as Donner Summit while the highest point on Interstate 5 is Siskiyou Mountain Summit, geoid Hill List of highest mountains Maxima and minima Nadir Summit accordance Peak finder
4.
West Virginia
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West Virginia /ˌwɛst vərˈdʒɪnjə/ is a state located in the Appalachian region of the Southern United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Ohio to the northwest, Pennsylvania to the north, West Virginia is the 9th smallest by area, is ranked 38th in population, and has the second lowest household income of the 50 United States. The capital and largest city is Charleston, West Virginia was admitted to the Union on June 20,1863, and was a key Civil War border state. The Census Bureau and the Association of American Geographers classify West Virginia as part of the Southern United States, the unique position of West Virginia means that it is often included in several geographical regions, including the Mid-Atlantic, the Upland South, and the Southeastern United States. It is the state that is entirely within the area served by the Appalachian Regional Commission. The state is noted for its mountains and rolling hills, its historically significant logging and coal mining industries and it is one of the most densely karstic areas in the world, making it a choice area for recreational caving and scientific research. The karst lands contribute to much of the states cool trout waters and it is also known for a wide range of outdoor recreational opportunities, including skiing, whitewater rafting, fishing, hiking, backpacking, mountain biking, and hunting. Many ancient man-made earthen mounds from various mound builder cultures survive, especially in the areas of Moundsville, South Charleston. The artifacts uncovered in these give evidence of village societies and they had a tribal trade system culture that crafted cold-worked copper pieces. The Iroquois drove out other American Indian tribes from the region to reserve the upper Ohio Valley as a ground in the 1670s. Siouan language tribes such as the Moneton had also recorded in the area previously. West Virginia was originally part of the British Virginia Colony from 1607 to 1776, residents of the western and northern counties set up a separate government under Francis Pierpont in 1861, which they called the restored government. Most voted to separate from Virginia and the new state was admitted to the Union in 1863, in 1864 a state constitutional convention drafted a constitution, which was ratified by the legislature without putting it to popular vote. West Virginia abolished slavery and temporarily disfranchised men who had held Confederate office or fought for the Confederacy, West Virginias history has been profoundly affected by its mountainous terrain, numerous and vast river valleys, and rich natural resources. These were all factors driving its economy and the lifestyles of its residents, a 2010 analysis of a local stalagmite revealed that Native Americans were burning forests to clear land as early as 100 BC. Some regional late-prehistoric Eastern Woodland tribes were involved in hunting and fishing, practicing the slash. Another group progressed to the more time-consuming, advanced companion crop fields method of gardening, also continuing from ancient indigenous people of the state, field space and time was given to tobacco growing through to early historic. Maize did not make a contribution to the diet until after 1150 BP
5.
Virginia
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Virginia is a state located in the Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, as well as in the historic Southeast. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, the capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond, Virginia Beach is the most populous city, and Fairfax County is the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealths estimated population as of 2014 is over 8.3 million, the areas history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony, slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colonys early politics and plantation economy. Although the Commonwealth was under one-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, the Virginia General Assembly is the oldest continuous law-making body in the New World. The state government was ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States in both 2005 and 2008 and it is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginias economy changed from agricultural to industrial during the 1960s and 1970s. Virginia has an area of 42,774.2 square miles, including 3,180.13 square miles of water. Virginias boundary with Maryland and Washington, D. C. extends to the mark of the south shore of the Potomac River. The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, the border with Tennessee was not settled until 1893, when their dispute was brought to the U. S. Supreme Court. The Chesapeake Bay separates the portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginias Eastern Shore. The bay was formed from the river valleys of the Susquehanna River. Many of Virginias rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, the Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay, the Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic era. The region, known for its clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains around Charlottesville. The Blue Ridge Mountains are a province of the Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state. The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains and includes the Great Appalachian Valley, the region is carbonate rock based and includes Massanutten Mountain. The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the southwest corner of Virginia, in this region, rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin
6.
Kentucky
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Kentucky, officially the Commonwealth of Kentucky, is a state located in the east south-central region of the United States. Kentucky is one of four U. S. states constituted as a commonwealth, originally a part of Virginia, in 1792 Kentucky became the 15th state to join the Union. Kentucky is the 37th most extensive and the 26th most populous of the 50 United States, Kentucky is known as the Bluegrass State, a nickname based on the bluegrass found in many of its pastures due to the fertile soil. One of the regions in Kentucky is the Bluegrass Region in central Kentucky. In 1776, the counties of Virginia beyond the Appalachian Mountains became known as Kentucky County, the precise etymology of the name is uncertain, but likely based on an Iroquoian name meaning the meadow or the prairie. Kentucky is situated in the Upland South, a significant portion of eastern Kentucky is part of Appalachia. Kentucky borders seven states, from the Midwest and the Southeast, West Virginia lies to the east, Virginia to the southeast, Tennessee to the south, Missouri to the west, Illinois and Indiana to the northwest, and Ohio to the north and northeast. Only Missouri and Tennessee, both of which border eight states, touch more, Kentuckys northern border is formed by the Ohio River and its western border by the Mississippi River. The official state borders are based on the courses of the rivers as they existed when Kentucky became a state in 1792, for instance, northbound travelers on U. S.41 from Henderson, after crossing the Ohio River, will be in Kentucky for about two miles. Ellis Park, a racetrack, is located in this small piece of Kentucky. Waterworks Road is part of the land border between Indiana and Kentucky. Kentucky has a part known as Kentucky Bend, at the far west corner of the state. It exists as an exclave surrounded completely by Missouri and Tennessee, Road access to this small part of Kentucky on the Mississippi River requires a trip through Tennessee. The epicenter of the powerful 1811–12 New Madrid earthquakes was near this area, much of the outer Bluegrass is in the Eden Shale Hills area, made up of short, steep, and very narrow hills. The Jackson Purchase and western Pennyrile are home to several bald cypress/tupelo swamps, located within the southeastern interior portion of North America, Kentucky has a climate that can best be described as a humid subtropical climate. Temperatures in Kentucky usually range from daytime summer highs of 87 °F to the low of 23 °F. The average precipitation is 46 inches a year, Kentucky experiences four distinct seasons, with substantial variations in the severity of summer and winter. The highest recorded temperature was 114 °F at Greensburg on July 28,1930 while the lowest recorded temperature was −37 °F at Shelbyville on January 19,1994, due to its location, Kentucky has a moderate humid subtropical climate, with abundant rainfall
7.
Geographic coordinate system
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A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate system used in geography that enables every location on Earth to be specified by a set of numbers, letters or symbols. The coordinates are chosen such that one of the numbers represents a vertical position. A common choice of coordinates is latitude, longitude and elevation, to specify a location on a two-dimensional map requires a map projection. The invention of a coordinate system is generally credited to Eratosthenes of Cyrene. Ptolemy credited him with the adoption of longitude and latitude. Ptolemys 2nd-century Geography used the prime meridian but measured latitude from the equator instead. Mathematical cartography resumed in Europe following Maximus Planudes recovery of Ptolemys text a little before 1300, in 1884, the United States hosted the International Meridian Conference, attended by representatives from twenty-five nations. Twenty-two of them agreed to adopt the longitude of the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, the Dominican Republic voted against the motion, while France and Brazil abstained. France adopted Greenwich Mean Time in place of local determinations by the Paris Observatory in 1911, the latitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle between the equatorial plane and the straight line that passes through that point and through the center of the Earth. Lines joining points of the same latitude trace circles on the surface of Earth called parallels, as they are parallel to the equator, the north pole is 90° N, the south pole is 90° S. The 0° parallel of latitude is designated the equator, the plane of all geographic coordinate systems. The equator divides the globe into Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the longitude of a point on Earths surface is the angle east or west of a reference meridian to another meridian that passes through that point. All meridians are halves of great ellipses, which converge at the north and south poles, the prime meridian determines the proper Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although maps often divide these hemispheres further west in order to keep the Old World on a single side. The antipodal meridian of Greenwich is both 180°W and 180°E, the combination of these two components specifies the position of any location on the surface of Earth, without consideration of altitude or depth. The grid formed by lines of latitude and longitude is known as a graticule, the origin/zero point of this system is located in the Gulf of Guinea about 625 km south of Tema, Ghana. To completely specify a location of a feature on, in, or above Earth. Earth is not a sphere, but a shape approximating a biaxial ellipsoid. It is nearly spherical, but has an equatorial bulge making the radius at the equator about 0. 3% larger than the radius measured through the poles, the shorter axis approximately coincides with the axis of rotation
8.
Appalachian Mountains
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The Appalachian Mountains, often called the Appalachians, are a system of mountains in eastern North America. The Appalachians first formed roughly 480 million years ago during the Ordovician Period and it once reached elevations similar to those of the Alps and the Rocky Mountains before naturally occurring erosion. The Appalachian chain is a barrier to east-west travel, as it forms a series of alternating ridgelines, definitions vary on the precise boundaries of the Appalachians. A common variant definition does not include the Adirondack Mountains, which belong to the Grenville Orogeny and have a different geological history from the rest of the Appalachians. The range covers parts of the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the system is divided into a series of ranges, with the individual mountains averaging around 3,000 ft. The highest of the group is Mount Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 feet, the term Appalachian refers to several different regions associated with the mountain range. Most broadly, it refers to the mountain range with its surrounding hills. The Ouachita Mountains in Arkansas and Oklahoma were originally part of the Appalachians as well, the name was soon altered by the Spanish to Apalachee and used as a name for the tribe and region spreading well inland to the north. Pánfilo de Narváezs expedition first entered Apalachee territory on June 15,1528, now spelled Appalachian, it is the fourth-oldest surviving European place-name in the US. After the de Soto expedition in 1540, Spanish cartographers began to apply the name of the tribe to the mountains themselves. The first cartographic appearance of Apalchen is on Diego Gutierrezs map of 1562, the name was not commonly used for the whole mountain range until the late 19th century. A competing and often more popular name was the Allegheny Mountains, Alleghenies, in the early 19th century, Washington Irving proposed renaming the United States either Appalachia or Alleghania. In U. S. dialects in the regions of the Appalachians. In northern parts of the range, it is pronounced /ˌæpəˈleɪtʃᵻnz/ or /ˌæpəˈleɪʃᵻnz/, the third syllable is like lay. There is often debate between the residents of the regions as to which pronunciation is the more correct one. Elsewhere, a commonly accepted pronunciation for the adjective Appalachian is /ˌæpəˈlætʃiən/, the whole system may be divided into three great sections, Northern, The northern section runs from the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador to the Hudson River. The Monteregian Hills, which cross the Green Mountains in Quebec, are also unassociated with the Appalachians, Central, The central section goes from the Hudson Valley to the New River running through Virginia and West Virginia. Southern, The southern section runs from the New River onwards and it consists of the prolongation of the Blue Ridge, which is divided into the Western Blue Ridge Front and the Eastern Blue Ridge Front, the Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, and the Cumberland Plateau
9.
Norton, Virginia
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Norton is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia. As of the 2010 census, the population was 3,958, making it the least populous city in Virginia, the Bureau of Economic Analysis combines the city of Norton with surrounding Wise County for statistical purposes. Part of the Wilderness Trail blazed by Daniel Boone, and later extensively mapped and settled by Christopher Gest, the Hotel Norton is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. John I. Burton High School Norton Elementary and Middle School Norton is located at 36°56′12″N 82°37′31″W, along the Powell, the entire area of Norton lies within the confines of Wise County, but is not a part of the county. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 7.5 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 3,904 people,1,730 households, the population density was 518.5 people per square mile. There were 1,946 housing units at a density of 258.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 91. 57% White,6. 15% Black,0. 08% Native American,1. 00% Asian,0. 13% Pacific Islander,0. 18% from other races, and 0. 90% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 87% of the population,34. 9% of all households were made up of individuals and 14. 3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the family size was 2.88. In the city, the population was out with 21. 8% under the age of 18,10. 2% from 18 to 24,27. 3% from 25 to 44,25. 4% from 45 to 64. The median age was 39 years, for every 100 females there were 81.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.5 males, the median income for a household in the city was $22,788, and the median income for a family was $30,889. Males had an income of $30,000 versus $23,229 for females. The per capita income for the city was $16,024, about 19. 1% of families and 22. 8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 35. 7% of those under age 18 and 12. 1% of those age 65 or over. Dock Boggs – musician and songwriter Vernon Crawford Jack Cooke – bluegrass musician City of Norton
10.
United States Geological Survey
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The United States Geological Survey is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its resources. The organization has four science disciplines, concerning biology, geography, geology. The USGS is a research organization with no regulatory responsibility. The USGS is a bureau of the United States Department of the Interior, the USGS employs approximately 8,670 people and is headquartered in Reston, Virginia. The USGS also has major offices near Lakewood, Colorado, at the Denver Federal Center, the current motto of the USGS, in use since August 1997, is science for a changing world. The agencys previous slogan, adopted on the occasion of its anniversary, was Earth Science in the Public Service. Prompted by a report from the National Academy of Sciences, the USGS was created, by a last-minute amendment and it was charged with the classification of the public lands, and examination of the geological structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. This task was driven by the need to inventory the vast lands added to the United States by the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, the legislation also provided that the Hayden, Powell, and Wheeler surveys be discontinued as of June 30,1879. Clarence King, the first director of USGS, assembled the new organization from disparate regional survey agencies, after a short tenure, King was succeeded in the directors chair by John Wesley Powell. Administratively, it is divided into a Headquarters unit and six Regional Units, Other specific programs include, Earthquake Hazards Program monitors earthquake activity worldwide. The National Earthquake Information Center in Golden, Colorado on the campus of the Colorado School of Mines detects the location, the USGS also runs or supports several regional monitoring networks in the United States under the umbrella of the Advanced National Seismic System. The USGS informs authorities, emergency responders, the media, and it also maintains long-term archives of earthquake data for scientific and engineering research. It also conducts and supports research on long-term seismic hazards, USGS has released the UCERF California earthquake forecast. The USGS National Geomagnetism Program monitors the magnetic field at magnetic observatories and distributes magnetometer data in real time, the USGS operates the streamgaging network for the United States, with over 7400 streamgages. Real-time streamflow data are available online, since 1962, the Astrogeology Research Program has been involved in global, lunar, and planetary exploration and mapping. USGS operates a number of related programs, notably the National Streamflow Information Program. USGS Water data is available from their National Water Information System database
11.
Pound River
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Running through Part of Wise County Virginia, and through Dickenson County Virginia, The Pound River is a river in the U. S. state of Virginia. It runs from the North Fork Pound Reservoir to the John W. Flannagan Dam, via the Russell Fork, the Levisa Fork, the Big Sandy River, and the Ohio River, it is part of the Mississippi River watershed. List of rivers of Virginia U. S. Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System, Pound River USGS Hydrologic Unit Map - State of Virginia Salmon, richmond, VA, Virginia Office of Graphic Communications
12.
Powell River (Tennessee River)
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The Powell River in the United States rises in southwest Virginia and flows into East Tennessee. The river rises in rural Wise County, Virginia near the Laurel Grove community northwest of Norton and flows for several miles before the confluence with Roaring Fork in the Kent Junction community. Powell River was named for a man called Powell who apparently carved his name many of the trees of the area while accompanying the exploration party of Dr. Thomas Walker in the mid-18th century. His name appeared so frequently on trees in the valley of river that later explorers and early pioneers came to call the stream Powells River. The Powell River was designated by the EPA as the “second most biologically diverse aquatic system in the nation. ”The Powell is under pressure from the effects of mining, logging and associated road-building. Lincoln Memorial University operates the Powell River Aquatic Research Station, which is located where Tennessee State Route 63 crosses the river at the Brooks Bridge in Claiborne County, Tennessee. The center, which opened in April 2008, allows for on-site research of water quality, flora, fauna, List of Tennessee rivers List of Virginia rivers
13.
Cumberland River
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The Cumberland River is a major waterway of the Southern United States. The 688-mile-long river drains almost 18,000 square miles of southern Kentucky, the river flows generally west from a source in the Appalachian Mountains to its confluence with the Ohio River near Paducah, Kentucky, and the mouth of the Tennessee River. Major tributaries include the Obey, Caney Fork, Stones, although the Cumberland River basin is predominantly rural, there are also some large cities on the river, including Nashville and Clarksville, both in Tennessee. In addition, the system has been extensively developed for flood control. Its headwaters are three separate forks that begin in Kentucky and converge in its Harlan County, Martins Fork starts in Hensley Settlement on Brush Mountain in Bell County and snakes its way north through the mountains to Baxter. Clover Fork starts on Black Mountain in Holmes Mill, near the Virginia border, poor Fork begins as a small stream on Pine Mountain in Letcher County near Flat Gap, Virginia. It flows southwest in parallel with Pine Mountain until it merges with the two forks in Baxter. From there, the river continues flowing west through the mountains of Kentucky. The 68-foot falls is one of the largest waterfalls in the southeastern United States and is one of the few places in the Western Hemisphere where a moonbow can be seen. Beyond Cumberland Falls, the river turns abruptly west once again and continues to grow as it converges with other creeks and it receives the Laurel and Rockcastle Rivers from the northeast and then the Big South Fork of the Cumberland River from the south. From here it flows into the man-made Lake Cumberland, formed by Wolf Creek Dam, the more than 100-mile reservoir is one of the largest artificial lakes in the eastern US. Near Celina, the river crosses south into Tennessee, where it is joined by the Obey River, northeast of Nashville, the river is dammed twice more, forming Cordell Hull Lake and Old Hickory Lake. After flowing through Nashville and picking up the Stones River, the river is dammed to form Cheatham Lake, finally, the river flows north and merges with the Ohio River at Smithland, northeast of Paducah. The explorer Thomas Walker of Virginia in 1758 named the river, the Cumberland River was called Wasioto by the Shawnee Native Americans, who lived in this area. French traders called it the Riviere des Chaouanons, or river of the Shawnee for this association, the river was also known as the Shawnee River for years after Walkers trip. Important first as a passage for hunters and settlers, the Cumberland River also supported later riverboat trade, villages, towns, and cities were located at landing points along its banks. Through the middle of the 19th century, settlers depended on rivers as the transportation routes for trading. In more recent history, a number of floods have struck various regions that the river flows through
14.
Prince William, Duke of Cumberland
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Prince William Augustus KG KB FRS, was the third and youngest son of George II of Great Britain and Caroline of Ansbach, and Duke of Cumberland from 1726. He is best remembered for his role in putting down the Jacobite Rising at the Battle of Culloden in 1746 and he is often referred to by the nickname given to him by his English Tory opponents, Butcher Cumberland. Despite his triumph at Culloden, he had an unsuccessful military career. Following the Convention of Klosterzeven in 1757, he never held active military command and switched his attentions to politics and horse racing. William was born in Leicester House, in Leicester Fields, Westminster, London and his godparents included the King and Queen in Prussia, but they apparently did not take part in person and were presumably represented by proxy. The young prince was educated well, his mother appointed Edmond Halley as a tutor, another of his tutors was his mothers favourite Andrew Fountaine. At Hampton Court Palace, apartments were designed specially for him by William Kent, Williams elder brother Frederick, Prince of Wales, proposed dividing the kings dominions. Frederick would get Britain, while William would get Hanover, from childhood, he showed physical courage and ability, and became his parents favourite. He was enrolled in the 2nd Foot Guards and made a Knight of the Bath aged four, in December 1742, he became a major-general, and, the following year, he first saw active service in Germany. George II and the martial boy shared in the glory of the Battle of Dettingen, after the battle he was made a lieutenant general. As it became clear that the French intention was to take Tournai, Cumberland advanced to the relief of the town, in the resulting Battle of Fontenoy on 11 May 1745, the Allies were defeated by the French. Saxe had picked the battleground on which to confront the British, Cumberland ignored the threat of the woods when drawing up his battle plans, and instead concentrated on seizing the town of Fontenoy and attacking the main French army nearby. Following the battle Cumberland was frequently criticised for his tactics, particularly the failure to occupy the woods, in the wake of the battle, Cumberland was forced to retreat to Brussels and was unable to prevent the fall of Ghent, Bruges and Ostend. His appointment was popular, and caused morale to soar amongst the public, recalled from Flanders, Cumberland proceeded with preparations for quelling the Stuart uprising. The Jacobite army had advanced southwards into England, hoping that English Jacobites would rise, however, after receiving only limited support such as the Manchester Regiment, the followers of Charles decided to withdraw to Scotland. Cumberland joined the Midland army under Ligonier, and began pursuit of the enemy, carlisle was retaken, and he was recalled to London, where preparations were in hand to meet an expected French invasion. Arriving in Edinburgh on 30 January 1746, he at once proceeded in search of Charles and he made a detour to Aberdeen, where he spent some time training the well-equipped forces now under his command for the next stage of the conflict in which they were about to engage. He trained his troops to hold their fire until the enemy came within firing range, fire once
15.
Pine Mountain (Appalachian Mountains)
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Pine Mountain is a ridge in the Appalachian Mountains running through Kentucky, Virginia and Tennessee. It extends about 125 miles from near Jellico, Tennessee, to a location near Elkhorn City, birch Knob, the highest point, is 3,273 feet above sea level and is located on the Kentucky-Virginia border. It has been a barrier to transportation as the Cumberland River at Pineville, the other is Hickory Creek near Jellico, TN. Wildlife is abundant on Pine Mountain, the land is claimed to be the Black Bear Capital of Kentucky. Black bears, elk, rattlesnakes, and deer are found on Pine Mountain, Pine Mountain Settlement School William Creech, Sr. Pound Gap
16.
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
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Oak Ridge National Laboratory is an American multiprogram science and technology national laboratory managed for the United States Department of Energy by UT-Battelle. ORNL is the largest science and energy national laboratory in the Department of Energy system by surface, ORNL is located in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, near Knoxville. ORNLs scientific programs focus on materials, neutron science, energy, high-performance computing, systems biology, ORNL partners with the state of Tennessee, universities and industries to solve challenges in energy, advanced materials, manufacturing, security and physics. ORNL hosts the Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, the BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory is managed by UT-Battelle, a limited liability partnership between the University of Tennessee and the Battelle Memorial Institute, formed in 2000 for that purpose. The annual budget is US$1.65 billion, 80% of which is from the Department of Energy, as of 2012 there are 4,400 staff working at ORNL,1,600 of whom are directly conducting research, and an additional 3,000 guest researchers annually. The total area of the reservation 150 square kilometres of which the lab takes up 18 square kilometres, the town of Oak Ridge was established by the Army Corps of Engineers as part of the Clinton Engineer Works in 1942 on isolated farm land as part of the Manhattan Project. During the war, advanced research for the government was managed at the site by the University of Chicago, in 1943, construction of the Clinton Laboratories was completed, later renamed to Oak Ridge National Laboratory. The site was chosen for the X-10 Graphite Reactor, used to show that plutonium can be extracted from enriched uranium, enrico Fermi and his colleagues developed the worlds second self-sustaining nuclear reactor after Fermis previous experiment, the Chicago Pile-1. The X-10 was the first reactor designed for continuous operation, in 1946 the first medical isotopes were produced in the X-10 reactor, by 1950 almost 20,000 samples had been shipped to various hospitals. As the demand for military science had fallen dramatically the future of the lab was uncertain, management of the lab was contracted by the US government to Monsanto, however, they withdrew in 1947. In 1950 the Oak Ridge School of Reactor Technology was established with two courses in operation and safety, almost 1000 students graduated. Another project was the worlds first light water reactor, with its principles of neutron moderation and fuel cooling by ordinary water it is the direct ancestor of most modern nuclear power stations. The US Military funded much of its development, for nuclear-powered submarines, the US Army contracted portable nuclear reactors in 1953 for heat and electricity generation in remote military bases. The reactors were designed at ORNL, produced by American Locomotive Company and used in Greenland, the United States Air Force also contributed funding to three reactors, the labs first computers, and its first particle accelerators. ORNL designed and tested an aircraft in 1954 as a proof-of-concept for a proposed USAF fleet of long-range bombers. The provision of radionuclides by X-10 for medicine grew steadily in the 1950s with more isotopes available, ORNL scientists lowered the immune systems of mice and performed the worlds first successful bone marrow transplant. In the early 1960s there was a push at ORNL to develop nuclear-powered desalination plants where deserts met the sea to provide water. The Health Physics Research Reactor built in 1962 was used for exposure experiments leading to more accurate dosage limits, dosimeters
17.
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
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Oak Ridge is a city in Anderson and Roane counties in the eastern part of the U. S. state of Tennessee, about 25 miles west of Knoxville. Oak Ridges population was 29,330 at the 2010 census and it is part of the Knoxville Metropolitan Area. Oak Ridges nicknames include the Atomic City, the Secret City, the Ridge, Oak Ridge was established in 1942 as a production site for the Manhattan Project—the massive American, British, and Canadian operation that developed the atomic bomb. As it is still the site of Oak Ridge National Laboratory, scientific development still plays a role in the citys economy. The earliest substantial occupation of the Oak Ridge area occurred during the Woodland period, two Woodland mound sites—the Crawford Farm Mounds and the Freels Farm Mounds—were uncovered in the 1930s as part of the Norris Basin salvage excavations. Both sites were located just southeast of the former Scarboro community, the Bull Bluff site, which was occupied during both the Woodland and Mississippian periods, was uncovered in the 1960s in anticipation of the construction of Melton Hill Dam. Bull Bluff is a cliff located immediately southeast of Haw Ridge, the Oak Ridge area was largely uninhabited by the time Euro-American explorers and settlers arrived in the late 18th century, although the Cherokee claimed the land as part of their hunting grounds. According to local tradition, John Hendrix, a local resident regarded as a mystic. Upset by the death of his daughter and the subsequent departure of his wife and remaining family, he became religious. When he described his visions, people thought he was insane, for this reason, maj. Gen. Leslie Groves, military head of the Manhattan Project, liked the area for several reasons. Finally, the location was established within a 17-mile-long valley. The new District Engineer Kenneth Nichols had to placate him, cooper came to see the project on November 3,1943, and he appreciated the bourbon-laced punch served. CEW and HEW accommodation in houses and dormitories was basic, with rather than oil or electric furnaces. But it was of a higher standard than Groves would have liked, medical care was provided by Army doctors and hospitals, with civilians paying $2.50 per month to the medical insurance fund. The location and low population also helped keep the town a secret, the K-25 uranium-separating facility by itself covered 44 acres and was the largest building in the world at that time. The name Oak Ridge was chosen for the settlement in 1943 from among suggestions submitted by project employees, the name related to the settlements location along Black Oak Ridge, and officials thought the rural-sounding name held outside curiosity to a minimum. The name wasnt formally adopted until 1949, and the site was referred to as the Clinton Engineer Works until then, the town was surrounded by guard towers and a fence with seven gates. Starting in October 1942, the United States Army Corps of Engineers began acquiring more than 60,000 acres in the Oak Ridge area for the United States Manhattan Project, many residents came home to find eviction notices tacked to their doors
18.
Cumberland Plateau
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The Cumberland Plateau is the southern part of the Appalachian Plateau in the Appalachian Mountains of the United States. It includes much of eastern Kentucky and Tennessee, and portions of northern Alabama, the terms Allegheny Plateau and the Cumberland Plateau both refer to the dissected plateau lands lying west of the main Appalachian Mountains. The terms stem from historical usage rather than geological difference, so there is no dividing line between the two. Two major rivers share the names of the plateaus, with the Allegheny River rising in the Allegheny Plateau, the Cumberland Plateau is a deeply dissected plateau, with topographic relief commonly of about four hundred feet, and frequent sandstone outcroppings and bluffs. Walden Ridge and Sand Mountain are separated from the portion of the Cumberland Plateau by the Sequatchie Valley. The Cumberland Plateau is a section of the larger Appalachian Plateau province. The Cumberland Plateau is contiguous with the Allegheny Plateau on the northern side, the sedimentary rocks that compose both plateaus are of Mississippian and Pennsylvanian geological age, composed of near-shore sediments washed westward from the old Appalachian Mountains. Some rock layers were laid down in coastal waters, some. These are interlaced with delta formations of cross-bedded sandstones and occasionally conglomerate, there are numerous discontinuities in the beds, where they were raised high enough to be eroded, then lowered to have more sediments added on top. The plateau contains some of the largest stretches of contiguous forest in the eastern United States, regionally, forests are intermediate between oak and hickory forest types with pines occurring on dry, upland sites and mesophytic species occurring in protected coves. The Oak Ridge National Laboratory is involved with the conservation of the mixed mesophytic forests within the Northern Cumberland Plateau, conservation organizations active on the Cumberland Plateau include The Nature Conservancy, the Doris Duke Charitable Foundation, and the Natural Resources Defense Council. Cumberland Mountains Geology of the Appalachians Caudill, Harry M. Night Comes to the Cumberlands, ISBN 0-316-13212-8 The Kentucky Highlands Project Physiographic Regions of Tennessee Broken link as of 2016-12-18 The Columbia Gazetteer of North America, Cumberland Plateau Tennessee landforms
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The Nature Conservancy
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The Nature Conservancy is a charitable environmental organization, headquartered in Arlington, Virginia, United States. Its mission is to conserve the lands and waters on all life depends. The Conservancys work focuses on the priorities of Lands, Water, Climate, Oceans. Founded in Arlington, Virginia, in 1951, The Nature Conservancy now impacts conservation in 69 countries, the Conservancy has over one million members, and has protected more than 119,000,000 acres of land and thousands of miles of rivers worldwide. The Nature Conservancy also operates more than 100 marine conservation projects globally, the organizations assets total $6.71 billion as of 2015. The Nature Conservancy is the largest environmental nonprofit by assets and by revenue in the Americas, the Nature Conservancy rates as one of the most trusted national organizations in Harris Interactive polls every year since 2005. Forbes magazine rated The Nature Conservancys fundraising efficiency at 88 percent in its 2005 survey of the largest U. S. charities, the Nature Conservancy is led by President and CEO Mark Tercek, a former managing director at Goldman Sachs. He is the author of the Washington Post and Publisher’s Weekly bestselling book Nature’s Fortune, How Business, the Nature Conservancys Chief Scientist is Australian Hugh Possingham, who was named to this position in 2016. The current board chairman is Craig McCaw, the Chairman & CEO of Eagle River Inc, other current members include former U. S. Senator Bill Frist, chairman of the Alibaba Group Jack Ma, the Nature Conservancy developed out of an older organization known as the Ecological Society of America. The latter society was founded in 1915 and two later formed a Committee on Preservation of Natural Areas for Ecological Study, headed by Victor Shelford. The divide in viewpoints led the society to dissolve the committee, the latter group eventually took the name The Nature Conservancy, in emulation of the British agency of that name, which pursued a mission of conserving open space and wildlife preserves. The Nature Conservancy was incorporated in the United States as an organization on October 22,1951. The Nature Conservancy takes an approach to conservation, setting goals that describe the results it wants to achieve for biodiversity. The Nature Conservancy sets both long-term and near-term goals for conserving the abundance and geographic distribution of species and ecological systems. The organizations overall goal is to ensure the survival of all biodiversity on Earth. The Nature Conservancy works with all sectors of society including businesses, individuals, communities, partner organizations, the Nature Conservancy has pioneered new land preservation techniques such as the conservation easement and debt for nature swaps. A conservation easement is a way for owners to ensure that their land remains in its natural state while capitalizing on some of the lands potential development value
20.
Physiographic regions of the world
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This foundational model, which Fenneman used to classify the United States, was the basis for similar classifications of other continents later, and is still considered basically valid. During the early 1900s, the study of geomorphology was termed physiography. In current usage, physiography still lends itself to confusion as to which meaning is meant, for the remainder of this article, emphasis will remain on the more geomorphological usage, which is based upon geological landforms, not on climate, vegetation, or other non-geological criteria. For the purposes of mapping, landforms are classified according to both their geologic structures and histories. A maturely dissected plateau may grade without a break from rugged mountains on the one hand to mildly rolling farm lands on the other, so also, forms which are not classified together may be superficially similar, for example, a young coastal plain and a peneplain. In a large number of cases, the lines are also geologic lines. The history of itself is at best a complicated effort. Much of the complications arise from how the term has evolved over time, in 1848, Mary Somerville published her book Physical Geography which gave detailed descriptions of the topography of each continent, along with the distribution of plant, animals and humans. This work gave impetus to further works along the field, in Germany, Oscar Peschel in 1870, proposed that geographers should study the morphology of the Earths surface, having an interest in the study of landforms for the development of human beings. As the chair of geography in Bonn, Germany, Ferdinand von Richthofen made the study of landforms the main field for himself. Elsewhere, Thomas Henry Huxleys Physiography was published in 1877 in Britain, shortly after, the field of physical geography itself was renamed as physiography. In conjunction with these advances in physiography, physically and visually mapping these descriptive areas was underway as well, the early photographers and balloonists, Nadar and Triboulet, experimented with aerial photography and the view it provided of the landscape. The block diagrams of Fenneman, Raisz, Lobeck and many others were based in part upon both aerial photography and topographic maps, giving an oblique birds-eye view, by 1901, there were clear differences in the definition of the term physiography. In England, physiography is regarded as the introduction to science in general. It is made to include the elements of physics, chemistry, astronomy, physical geography, and geology, in America, the term has a somewhat different meaning. It is sometimes used as a synonym for physical geography, and is defined as the science which describes. Although the term has since been limited by some writers to one part of the subject. In the stricter sense, physical geography is part of geography which involves the processes of contemporary change in the crust
21.
Appalachian Plateau
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The Appalachian Plateau is a series of rugged, high plains located on the western side of the Appalachian Highlands. The Appalachian Highlands are a range that run down the entire east coast of the United States. The Appalachian Plateau is the part of the Appalachian Mountains. The formation of the plateau began during the Paleozoic Era, regional uplift during this time caused the area to rise altogether without changing the topography of the land. The eastern side of the plateau appears as a mountain range and this false appearance is due to a very steep slope on the eastern side known as the Allegheny Front. The eastern edge is the highest part of the Appalachian Plateau, in Pennsylvania, the altitude ranges from 1,750 to 3,000 feet and continues to rise towards West Virginia, where the elevation is around 4,800 feet. From West Virginia to Tennessee the elevation lowers to 3,000 feet, on the western side of the plateau, the elevation is 900 feet in Ohio, increasing to about 2,000 feet in Kentucky. From Kentucky the elevation drops down to 500 feet in northwestern Alabama, the plateau has a slight slant towards the northwest making it higher on the eastern side. A large portion of the plateau is a coalfield that was formed approximately 320 million years ago during the Pennsylvanian Age, the plateau was subjected to glaciation during the Pleistocene ice age. As a result, the topography of this section of the plateau is flat in comparison to the rest of the province. This portion of the plateau is marked evidence of a glaciated past including bogs, lakes. The topography of the rest of the plateau was created mainly from stream erosion, the result is a rugged landscape, unlike many other plateaus, that includes many narrow stream valleys surrounded by steep ridges. A physiographic region is a portion of land that is grouped together by several factors. Each region has similar geology, topography, and groups of plants, there are eight physiographic regions in the United States. Each region is divided into provinces, there are 25 provinces in the United States, each region is then divided into sections, creating 85 different physio-graphic sections in the United States. The Appalachian Plateau is a province of the physio-graphic region Appalachian Highlands, each section is classified under the Appalachian Plateau province because of its similarities in geologic makeup, topography, and wildlife. Likewise, the Appalachian Plateau falls under the classification of Appalachian Highlands because of similar characteristics. The rock underlying the Appalachian Plateau consists of a base of Precambrian rock, on top of the basement is a thick layer, approximately 20,000 feet, of a mixture of Cambrian, Ordovician, and Middle Silurian rock
22.
Breaks Interstate Park
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Rather than their respective state park systems, it is instead administered by an interstate compact between the states of Virginia and Kentucky. It is one of several parks in the United States. The Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation and the Kentucky Department of Parks are still major partner organizations, however. The Breaks, also referred as the Grand Canyon of the South, is the deepest gorge east of the Mississippi River, through which the Russell Fork river and Clinchfield Railroad run. It is accessed via highway 80, between Haysi, Virginia and Elkhorn City, Kentucky, and passes through the community of Breaks, american frontiersman Daniel Boone is credited with being the first person of European descent to discover the Breaks, which he first saw in 1767. Breaks Interstate Park is located about 5 miles east of Elkhorn City, the parks main feature, Breaks Canyon, is five miles long and ranges from 830 to 1,600 feet deep. The canyon was formed by the Russell Fork river through millions of years of erosion, trails, The park has trails for hiking, mountain biking, and horseback riding. Water-based, The park has a park with five waterslides, a current channel. The park also offers fishing, paddle boating, canoeing, and hydro biking on Laurel Lake, rock Climbing, The Breaks offers world-class rock climbing with sandstone similar to the nearby New River Gorge. Accommodations, The park offers a lodge with 82 guest rooms, four cottages near Beaver Pond, five cabins overlooking Laurel Lake, and a 122-site campground and a group camping area with 16 sites. In addition the park has a center with exhibits on the areas historical and natural features, a 6, 000-square-foot conference center with restaurant. Breaks Interstate Park Breaks Interstate Park Commission Breaks Interstate Park Kentucky Department of Parks
23.
Pennsylvanian (geology)
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The Pennsylvanian is, in the ICS geologic timescale, the younger of two subperiods of the Carboniferous Period. It lasted from roughly 323.2 million years ago to 298.9 million years ago Ma. As with most other units, the rock beds that define the Pennsylvanian are well identified. The Pennsylvanian is named after the U. S. state of Pennsylvania, the division between Pennsylvanian and Mississippian comes from North American stratigraphy. In Europe, the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian are one continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are grouped together as the Carboniferous Period. The current internationally used geologic timescale of the ICS gives the Mississippian and Pennsylvanian the rank of subperiods, all modern classes of fungi have been found in rocks of Pennsylvanian age. Amphibians were diverse and common, some were several meters long as adults, the collapse of the rainforest ecology in the mid Pennsylvanian removed many amphibian species that did not survive as well in the cooler, drier conditions. Reptiles, however, prospered due to specific key adaptations, one of the greatest evolutionary innovations of the Carboniferous was the amniote egg, which allowed for the further exploitation of the land by certain tetrapods. These included the earliest sauropsid reptiles, and the earliest known synapsid, small lizard-like animals quickly gave rise to many descendants. Reptiles underwent an evolutionary radiation, in response to the drier climate that followed the rainforest collapse. The Pennsylvanian has been variously subdivided, the Missourian or Monongahela corresponds to the rest of the Kasimovian. The Desmoinesian or Allegheny corresponds to the half of the Moscovian. The Atokan or upper Pottsville corresponds to the half of the Moscovian. The Morrowan corresponds to the Bashkirian, in the European subdivision, the Carboniferous is divided into two epochs, Dinantian and Silesian. The Silesian starts earlier than the Pennsylvanian and is divided in three ages, Namurian Westphalian Stephanian, the Late Carboniferous a Time of Great Coal Swamps, Paleomap project. World map from this time period, the Carboniferous -354 to 290 Million Years Ago, University of California Museum of Paleontology. Information on stratigraphies, localities, tectonics, and life, the Pennsylvanian Epoch of the Carboniferous Period,318 to 299 Mya, Paleos. com US Geological Survey comparison of time scales
24.
Thrust fault
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A thrust fault is a type of fault, or break in the Earths crust across which there has been relative movement, in which rocks of lower stratigraphic position are pushed up and over higher strata. They are often recognized because they place older rocks above younger, Thrust faults are the result of compressional forces. Thrust faults are a class of reverse faulting that typically have low dip angles. It is often hard to recognize thrusts because their deformation and dislocation can be difficult to detect when they occur within the rocks without appreciable offset of lithological contacts. If the angle of the plane is low and the displacement of the overlying block is large the fault is called an overthrust. Erosion can remove part of the block, creating a fenster when the underlying block is only exposed in a relatively small area. When erosion removes most of the block, leaving only island-like remnants resting on the lower block. If the fault plane terminates before it reaches the Earths surface, because of the lack of surface evidence, blind thrust faults are difficult to detect until they rupture. The destructive 1994 quake in Northridge, California was caused by a blind thrust fault. Thrust faults, particularly involved in thin-skinned style of deformation, have a so-called ramp-flat geometry. Thrusts mostly propagate along zones of weakness within a sequence, such as mudstones or salt layers. The part of the thrust linking the two flats is known as a ramp and typically forms at an angle of about 15°-30° to the bedding. Continued displacement on a thrust over a ramp produces a characteristic fold geometry known as an anticline or, more generally. Fault-propagation folds form at the tip of a thrust fault where propagation along the decollement has ceased, the continuing displacement is accommodated by formation of an asymmetric anticline-syncline fold pair. As displacement continues the thrust tip starts to propagate along the axis of the syncline, such structures are also known as tip-line folds. Eventually the propagating thrust tip may reach another effective decollement layer, when a thrust that has propagated along the lower detachment, known as the floor thrust, cuts up to the upper detachment, known as the roof thrust, it forms a ramp within the stronger layer. With continued displacement on the thrust, higher stresses are developed in the footwall of the due to the bend on the fault. This may cause renewed propagation along the floor thrust until it again cuts up to join the roof thrust, further displacement then takes place via the newly created ramp
25.
Dip slope
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A dip slope is a topographic surface which slopes in the same direction, and often by the same amount, as the true dip or apparent dip of the underlying strata. A dip slope consists of the surface of a resistant layer of rock, often called caprock. Dip slopes form the backslopes of cuestas, homoclinal ridges, hogbacks, the frontslopes of such ridges consist of either an escarpment, a steep slope, or perhaps even a line of cliffs. Generally, cuestas and homoclinal ridges are asymmetrical in that their dip slopes are less steep than their escarpments, in the case of hogbacks and flatirons, the dip of the rocks is so steep that their dip slope approaches the escarpment in their steepness. Dip slopes are the result of the erosion of strata of varying resistance to erosion that are dipping uniformly in one direction. As a result, the less resistant strata will be eroded away leaving the more resistant strata as a caprock forming the dip slope of a ridge that slopes in the direction of caprock. When this happens to flat-lying beds, landforms such as plateaus, mesas, the erosion of tilted beds will form landforms called cuestas, homoclinal ridges, hogbacks, and flatirons. Plateaus, mesas, and buttes have flat tops, while cuestas, the less steep side is their dip slope and the steeper other side is their escarpment. In case of hogbacks, the steepness of the dip slope, dip slopes can also be formed by igneous structures such as sills. Some dip slopes are prone to landslides, due to the dipping strata that underlie them. Large sheets of rock have a tendency to slide down dip slopes
26.
Strike and dip
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Strike and dip refer to the orientation or attitude of a geologic feature. The strike line of a bed, fault, or other feature, is a line representing the intersection of that feature with a horizontal plane. On a geologic map, this is represented with a straight line segment oriented parallel to the strike line. One technique is to take the strike so the dip is 90° to the right of the strike. The map symbol is a line attached and at right angles to the strike symbol pointing in the direction which the planar surface is dipping down. The angle of dip is generally included on a map without the degree sign. Beds that are dipping vertically are shown with the dip symbol on both sides of the strike, and beds that are flat are shown like the vertical beds, both vertical and flat beds do not have a number written with them. Another way of representing strike and dip is by dip and dip direction, the dip direction is the azimuth of the direction the dip as projected to the horizontal, which is 90° off the strike angle. For example, a bed dipping 30° to the South, would have an East-West strike, but would be written as 30/180 using the dip and dip direction method. Strike and dip are determined in the field with a compass, compass-clinometers which measure dip and dip direction in a single operation are often called stratum or Klar compasses after a German professor. Smartphone apps are also now available, that use of the internal accelerometer to provide orientation measurements. Combined with the GPS functionality of devices, this allows readings to be recorded. Any planar feature can be described by strike and dip and this includes sedimentary bedding, faults and fractures, cuestas, igneous dikes and sills, metamorphic foliation and any other planar feature in the Earth. Linear features are measured very similar methods, where plunge is the dip angle. Apparent dip is the name of any dip measured in a plane that is not perpendicular to the strike line. True dip can be calculated from apparent dip using trigonometry if you know the strike, Geologic cross sections use apparent dip when they are drawn at some angle not perpendicular to strike. New York, J. Wiley and Sons, tarbuck, Edward J. Lutgens, Frederick K. 0-13-092025-8 Earth, An Introduction to Physical Geology. Upper Saddle River, N. J. Pearson Prentice Hall, digital Cartographic Standard for Geologic Map Symbolization
27.
Jellico, Tennessee
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Jellico is a city in Campbell County, Tennessee, United States, on the state border with Kentucky,58 miles by road north of Knoxville. The population was 2,355 at the 2010 census, the name Jellico is a regional corruption of Angelica, an herb that grows in abundance in the surrounding mountains. The city of Jellico was initially founded as Smithburg in 1878, the city was incorporated on March 7,1883. Throughout the 1890s and early 1900s, Jellico was one of the most productive fields in Kentucky. In 1906, a car packed with dynamite exploded in Jellico, killing eight. The town quickly recovered, however, and many of the buildings in the Main Street area date from this period, in 1971, Indian Mountain State Park was created at the site of a reclaimed strip mine in western Jellico. In 1999, much of North and South Main Street was placed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Jellico Commercial Historic District, Jellico is located along the northern border of Tennessee at 36°34′57″N 84°7′50″W. The city is situated amidst the Cumberland Mountains in the valley of Elk Creek, Jellico spans the western bases and slopes of three steep hills that split the Elk Creek valley from the larger Clear Fork valley to the east. A prominent knob known as Indian Mountain rises nearly 1,000 feet above Jellico to the west and this mountain and an adjacent lake are now home to Indian Mountain State Park. The larger Jellico Mountain dominates the area beyond Indian Mountain to the west, the Tennessee-Kentucky state line forms Jellicos official northern boundary, although houses and businesses associated with the city are on both sides of the border. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 6.4 square miles, of which 6.3 square miles is land and 0.08 square miles. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,448 people,1,022 households, the population density was 561.7 people per square mile. There were 1,105 housing units at a density of 253.5 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 96. 24% White,1. 96% African American,0. 16% Native American,0. 65% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 37% of the population. 32. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.29 and the average family size was 2.90. In the city, the population was out with 21. 0% under the age of 18,8. 7% from 18 to 24,24. 1% from 25 to 44,25. 1% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 82.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 78.3 males, the median income for a household in the city was $20,303, and the median income for a family was $25,709
28.
Pineville, Kentucky
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Pineville is a home rule-class city in Bell County, Kentucky, United States. It is the seat of its county, the population was 1,732 as of the 2010 census. It is located on a strip of land between the Cumberland River and Pine Mountain. Pineville is one of the oldest settlements in Kentucky, located at the crossing of the Cumberland River by the Wilderness Road and it was established as Cumberland Ford in 1781 and formed part of Gov. Isaac Shelbys land tracts. When Bell County was formed in 1867, Cumberland Ford was formally laid off, gibsons 1869 land grant permitted it to be selected as the county seat, but the courthouse was not completed until 1871. The settlement was renamed Pineville in 1870 and formally incorporated in 1873 and its riverside location has made it subject to flooding, including a devastating incident on April 4,1977, in which a floodwall built in 1952 was overwhelmed and 200 houses were destroyed or damaged. The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers upgraded the floodwall in 1988, the economy is dependent on the coal mining industry, local family owned businesses and on tourism. Many enjoy visiting Pine Mountain State Resort Park, where the popular attraction Chained Rock is located, thanks to works done by the community organization Main Street Pineville, the town is working on revitalizing downtown Pineville to its historical roots. Every Memorial Day weekend the town of Pineville welcomes all to the Kentucky Mountain Laurel Festival, the KMLF is the longest running festival of its kind. Ms. Burns was captivated by the history and beauty surrounding Pineville and she gained the support of other influential Bell Countians, and the 1931 Festival was staged at Clear Creek Springs on June fourth. Pineville is located in northern Bell County at 36°45′43″N 83°41′42″W, along the Cumberland River, U. S. Route 25E passes through the city, intersecting Kentucky Route 66 in downtown. U. S. Route 119 has its terminus at US 25E near the southern border of the city. By US 25E, it is 12 miles south to Middlesboro and the entrance of the Cumberland Gap tunnel. US119 leads 30 miles northeast to Harlan. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, Pineville covers a land area of 1.7 square miles, of which 1.7 square miles is land and 0.12 square miles. The city is served by Pineville Independent Schools, however Clear Creek Baptist Bible College is located in Pinevilles zip code and is located south of the city. As of the census of 2000, there were 2,093 people,871 households, the population density was 1,452.1 people per square mile. There were 961 housing units at a density of 666.7 per square mile
29.
Jenkins, Kentucky
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Jenkins is a home rule-class city in Letcher County, Kentucky, United States. The population was 2,203 as of the 2010 census, after the acquisition was finalized, plans were made to extend the Lexington and Eastern Railroad from Jackson to a town named McRoberts. The plans also included the establishment of the town of Jenkins for George C, Jenkins, one of the Consolidation Coal Companys directors. Because of the need of hundreds of homes and other structures, nine sawmills, a dynamo was built to temporarily generate power for the houses. Next, a temporary railroad was built over Pine Mountain from Glamorgan. Jenkinss city government was established as soon as the businesses and land were put up for sale, the company even went as far to supply the town with its own marshals to enforce the law. Jenkins was finally incorporated as a city on January 9,1912. Jenkins is located at 37°10′48″N 82°37′56″W, according to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 8.6 square miles, of which 8.5 square miles is land and 0.04 square miles is water. Jenkins Homecoming Days is an annual festival celebrated in August. Pound Gap David A. Zegeer Coal-Railroad Museum Raven Rock Golf Course As of the census of 2000, there were 2,401 people,968 households, the population density was 281.2 people per square mile. There were 1,122 housing units at a density of 131.4 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 96% White,1. 08% African American,0. 08% Native American,0. 33% Asian,0. 08% Pacific Islander, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 29% of the population. 27. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 12. 9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.97. In the city, the population was out with 25. 4% under the age of 18,8. 4% from 18 to 24,26. 8% from 25 to 44,24. 7% from 45 to 64. The median age was 38 years, for every 100 females there were 92.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.7 males, the median income for a household in the city was $20,143, and the median income for a family was $25,985. Males had an income of $31,087 versus $21,333 for females. The per capita income for the city was $11,358, about 24. 6% of families and 29. 9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 43. 3% of those under age 18 and 14. 6% of those age 65 or over
30.
Cumberland Gap
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The Cumberland Gap is a narrow pass through the long ridge of the Cumberland Mountains, within the Appalachian Mountains, near the junction of the U. S. states of Kentucky, Virginia, and Tennessee. Long used by Native Americans, the Cumberland Gap was brought to the attention of settlers in 1750 by Thomas Walker, a Virginia physician and explorer. The path was explored by a team of frontiersmen led by Daniel Boone, making it accessible to pioneers who used it to journey into the frontiers of Kentucky. The Cumberland Gap is one of many passes in the Appalachian Mountains and it lies within Cumberland Gap National Historical Park and is located on the border of present-day Kentucky and Virginia, approximately 0.25 miles northeast of the tri-state marker with Tennessee. Scientists have dated this region to the Cambrian or Pennsylvanian period, the unique landscape seen today is a result of the uplift of sedimentary rock in conjunction with several million years of weathering and erosion. These features include narrow ridges, steep cliffs, overlooks, the Cumberland Gap is now known as a wind gap since water no longer flows through it. The V-shaped gap serves as a gateway to the west, the base of the gap is about 300 feet above the valley floor below even though the north side of the pass was lowered 20 feet during the construction of Old U. S. Route 25E. To the south the ridge rises 600 feet above the pass, because it is centrally located in the United States, the region around Cumberland Gap experiences all four seasons. The summers are sunny, warm and humid with average temperatures in the mid to upper 90s F. In the winter months, January through March, temperatures range in the 30s to 40s F and are mild with rain. The nearest cities are Middlesboro, Kentucky, and Harrogate, Tennessee, the gap was formed by the development of three major structural features, the Pine Mountain Thrust Sheet, the Middlesboro Syncline, and the Rocky Face Fault. Lateral compressive forces of sedimentary rocks from deep layers of the Earths crust pushing upward 320 to 200 million years ago created the thrust sheet, resistance on the fault from the opposing Cumberland Mountain to Pine Mountain caused the U-shaped structure of the Middlesboro Syncline. The once flat-lying sedimentary rocks were now deformed roughly 40 degrees northwest, further constriction to the northwest of Cumberland Mountain developed into a fault trending north-to-south called the Rocky Face Fault, which eventually cut through Cumberland Mountain. This combination of geological processes created ideal conditions for weathering. However, the discovery of the Middlesboro impact structure has proposed new details in the formation of Cumberland Gap, less than 300 million years ago a meteorite, approximately the size of a football field, struck the earth, creating the Middlesboro Crater. One of three astroblemes in the state, it is a 3. 7-mile diameter meteorite impact crater with the city of Middlesboro, Kentucky, detailed mapping by geologists in the 1960s led many to interpret the geological features of the area to be a site of an ancient impact. In 1966 Robert Dietz discovered shatter cones in sandstone, proving recent speculation. Shatter cones, a rock-shattering pattern naturally formed only during events, are found in abundance in the area
31.
LaFollette, Tennessee
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LaFollette is a city in Campbell County, Tennessee, United States. Its population was 7,456 at the 2010 census, with a population in 2014 of 7,131. While the citys spelling is one word —after its founders, Harvey Marion LaFollette. Harvey and Grant LaFollette purchased 37,000 acres at Big Creek Gap and they founded the LaFollette Coal, Iron, and Railway Company in order to exploit mineral resources they had observed. Although the business failed during the 1920s, the community continued to grow, the city of LaFollette was incorporated in 1897. LaFollette is located near the center of Campbell County at 36°22′30″N 84°7′39″W. The city is situated in Powell Valley, where the Appalachian Ridge-and-Valley province gives way to the Cumberland Plateau region, Cumberland Mountain, a 50-mile ridge stretching from Cumberland Gap in the east to Bruce Gap in the west, rises north of LaFollette. Norris Lake dominates the area to the south, Jacksboro lies adjacent to LaFollette to the southwest. A leg of the Cumberland Trail is accessible off Tennessee Avenue at the end of LaFollette. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 4.9 square miles. The elevation varies around the city, around 1,050 feet in the areas to 1,500 feet on ridge tops. The average elevation is around 1,150 feet, U. S. Route 25W and state routes 9 and 63 run concurrently through the community. Interstate 75 is 8 miles to the southwest, beyond Jacksboro, jellico is 23 miles to the north via US 25W, over the Cumberland Plateau. As of the census of 2000, there were 7,926 people,3,422 households, the population density was 1,624.7 people per square mile. There were 3,779 housing units at a density of 774.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the city was 97. 89% White,0. 54% African American,0. 40% Native American,0. 18% Asian,0. 08% Pacific Islander,0. 14% from other races, and 0. 77% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 42% of the population,34. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 17. 5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.24 and the family size was 2.86
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Pennington Gap, Virginia
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Pennington Gap is the most populous town in Lee County, Virginia, United States. The population was 1,781 at the 2000 census, the Lee Regional Medical Center was in Pennington Gap until it closed in October 2013, and the United States Penitentiary, Lee is nearby. The Pennington Gap post office was established in 1891, Pennington Gap is located at 36°45′24″N 83°1′46″W. According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has an area of 1.5 square miles. Pennington Gap is located at the junction of US Route 58, as of the census of 2000, there were 1,781 people,811 households, and 480 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,174.0 people per square mile, there were 950 housing units at an average density of 626.2 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 95. 28% White,3. 43% African American,0. 39% Native American,0. 28% Asian, hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 67% of the population. 37. 5% of all households were made up of individuals and 16. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older, the average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.84. In the town, the population was out with 20. 5% under the age of 18,7. 2% from 18 to 24,25. 4% from 25 to 44,25. 3% from 45 to 64. The median age was 42 years, for every 100 females there were 81.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 74.6 males, the median income for a household in the town was $18,056, and the median income for a family was $27,875. Males had an income of $27,885 versus $18,625 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,742, about 28. 3% of families and 31. 3% of the population were below the poverty line, including 42. 0% of those under age 18 and 24. 7% of those age 65 or over. The Federal Bureau of Prisons United States Penitentiary, Lee is located in the Lee County Industrial Park in unincorporated Lee County, Virginia, Lee County Public Schools operates schools in the county. Pennington Elementary School was located on Morgan Avenue, consisting of three built at various times,1912,1917, and 1937. In 1989, with the consolidation of many of the high schools at the newly constructed Lee High School. Barry Audia, former pro boxer Jim Pankovits, pro baseball player William C, wampler, representative to the United States Congress Carol S. Wood, mathematician The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Pennington Gap has a subtropical climate
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Big Stone Gap, Virginia
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Big Stone Gap is a town in Wise County, Virginia, United States. The population was 5,643 at the 2010 census, the community was formerly known as Mineral City and Three Forks. The Big Stone Gap refers to the valley which has created on the Appalachia Straight. The town had hoped that its coal and iron ore deposits would make it the Pittsburgh of the South, the Big Stone Gap post office was established in 1856. The Christ Episcopal Church, John Fox, Jr. House, Southwest Virginia Museum Historical State Park, Terrace Park Girl Scout Cabin, June Tolliver House, bascom Slemp Federal Building are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Big Stone Gap is home to several museums, the June Tolliver House, located on Jerome Street, is home to the Trail of the Lonesome Pine, the official outdoor drama of Virginia. The Southwest Virginia Museum Historical State Park is located in the downtown area, Big Stone Gap also hosts the Coal Museum. The federal building named for C, bascom Slemp was built in 1912 and it continues to house a division of the United States District Court for the Western District of Virginia. Big Stone Gap is home to Wallens Ridge State Prison, a prison that has been a part of the Commonwealth of Virginia Department of Corrections since 1999. Originally opened as a prison, it has recently been downgraded to a high level security facility. Construction and maintenance of the facility generated millions of dollars for the local economy, rufus A. Ayers - Former Virginia Attorney General Leanza Cornett - Miss America 1993 Raymond Allen Davis - Central Intelligence Agency Operative John Fox, Jr. - Author Abner Linwood Holton Jr, according to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 4.9 square miles, all land. Big Stone Gap is at the junction of U. S. Route 23, Big Stone Gap is closer to the state capitals of seven other states than it is to Richmond, VA, its own state capital, with regards to highway mileage. The other state capitals are Columbus, OH, Frankfort, KY, Charleston, WV, Nashville, TN, Raleigh, NC, Columbia, SC, additionally Indianapolis, Indiana is only six miles farther from Big Stone Gap than Richmond. As of the census of 2010, there were 5,643 people,2,034 households, the population density was 995.9 people per square mile. There were 2,197 housing units at a density of 450.6 per square mile. The racial makeup of the town was 93. 68% White,4. 41% African American,0. 14% Native American,0. 45% Asian,0. 02% Pacific Islander,0. 37% from other races, and 0. 93% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0. 60% of the population,30. 8% of all households were made up of individuals and 13. 8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older
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Anticline
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In structural geology, an anticline is a type of fold that is an arch-like shape and has its oldest beds at its core. A typical anticline is convex up in which the hinge or crest is the location where the curvature is greatest, anticlines can be recognized and differentiated from antiforms by a sequence of rock layers that become progressively older toward the center of the fold. Therefore, if age relationships between various rock strata are unknown, the term antiform should be used, the progressing age of the rock strata towards the core and uplifted center, are the trademark indications for evidence of anticlines on a geologic map. These formations occur because anticlinal ridges typically develop above thrust faults during crustal deformations, the uplifted core of the fold causes compression of strata that preferentially erodes to a deeper stratigraphic level relative to the topographically lower flanks. Motion along the fault including both shortening and extension of tectonic plates, usually also deforms strata near the fault and this can result in an asymmetrical or overturned fold. An antiform can be used to describe any fold that is convex up and it is the relative ages of the rock strata that separate anticlines from antiforms. The hinge of an anticline refers to the location where the curvature is greatest, the hinge is also the highest point on a stratum along the top of the fold. The culmination also refers to the highest point along any geologic structure, the limbs are the sides of the fold that display less curvature. The inflection point is the area on the limbs where the curvature changes direction, the axial surface is an imaginary plane connecting the hinge of each layer of rock stratum through the cross section of an anticline. If the axial surface is vertical and the angles on each side of the fold are equivalent, if the axial plane is tilted or offset then the anticline is asymmetrical. An anticline that is cylindrical has a well-defined axial surface, whereas non-cylindrical anticlines are too complex to have an axial plane. If the angle between the limbs is large, then the fold is a fold, but if the angle between the limbs is small, then the fold is a tight fold. If an anticline plunges, it will form Vs on a map view that point in the direction of plunge. A plunging anticline has a hinge that is not parallel to the earths surface, all anticlines and synclines have some degree of plunge. Periclinal folds are a type of anticlines that have a well-defined, folds in which the limbs dip toward the hinge and display a more U-like shape are called synclines. They usually flank the sides of anticlines and display opposite characteristics, a synclines oldest rock strata are in its outer limbs, the rocks become progressively younger toward its hinge. A monocline is a bend in the resulting in a local steepening in only one direction of dip. Monoclines have the shape of a carpet draped over a stairstep, an anticline that has been more deeply eroded in the center is called a breached or scalped anticline
35.
Black Mountain (Kentucky)
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Black Mountain is the highest mountain peak in the Commonwealth of Kentucky, USA, with a summit elevation of 4,145 feet above mean sea level and a top to bottom height of over 2,500 feet. The summit is located at approximately 36°54′51″N 82°53′38″W in Harlan County, Kentucky near the Virginia border, just above the towns of Lynch, Kentucky and it is about 500 feet taller than any other mountain in Kentucky. Route 160 east of Lynch, Kentucky and west of Appalachia, Virginia crosses the mountain, the summit is reached by a narrow road that turns off to the right at the Kentucky-Virginia line and leads past an FAA radar dome. There is a one lane road to the left not far past the radar dome that leads to the summit. The summit is marked with a metal fire lookout tower. This benchmark is 6 feet below the highest point, a second is directly under the old lookout tower, the FAA Radar dome is nearby, but below the summit. Trees on both sides of the dome have been cleared, so views of other mountains are visible. On a clear day the Great Smoky Mountains on the Tennessee, Black Mountains history is intimately tied to the coal mining of the surrounding region. Lynch, Kentucky, was one of the largest coal mining towns in the nation. In 1998, Jericol Mining, Inc. petitioned to use mountaintop removal methods in the area of Black Mountain, though the summit itself was not directly threatened, many people protested this action due to the peaks status as the states highest point. In 1999, Kentucky purchased mineral and timber rights to the summit, coal companies have alleged that mined coal veins converge beneath the summit of Black Mountain and that the summit is prone to collapse. A coal company named Penn Virginia Resources of Radnor, Pennsylvania owns the summit, Black Mountain is one of the few sites in Kentucky supporting a Northern Hardwood Forest at higher elevations. Numerous rare plants and animals are found here, including Black Bear, Red Elderberry, like many areas of Northern Hardwood Forest in the Southern Appalachia, fires swept through the mountain after intense logging. Black Mountain has a fire that occurred in the fall of 1896. As shown on the USGS website, this is incorrect, the correct elevation is 4,145 feet at the summit. A USGS benchmark is located on a rock over the hill at 4,139 feet. The summit is apparently under the old lookout tower
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Syncline
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In structural geology, a syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure. A synclinorium is a syncline with superimposed smaller folds. Synclines are typically a downward fold, termed a synformal syncline, if the fold pattern is circular or elongate circular the structure is a basin. Folds typically form during crustal deformation as the result of compression that accompanies orogenic mountain building, sideling Hill roadcut along Interstate 68 in western Maryland, USA, where the Rockwell Formation and overlying Purslane Sandstone are exposed
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International Standard Book Number
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The International Standard Book Number is a unique numeric commercial book identifier. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an e-book, a paperback and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, the method of assigning an ISBN is nation-based and varies from country to country, often depending on how large the publishing industry is within a country. The initial ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 based upon the 9-digit Standard Book Numbering created in 1966, the 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108. Occasionally, a book may appear without a printed ISBN if it is printed privately or the author does not follow the usual ISBN procedure, however, this can be rectified later. Another identifier, the International Standard Serial Number, identifies periodical publications such as magazines, the ISBN configuration of recognition was generated in 1967 in the United Kingdom by David Whitaker and in 1968 in the US by Emery Koltay. The 10-digit ISBN format was developed by the International Organization for Standardization and was published in 1970 as international standard ISO2108, the United Kingdom continued to use the 9-digit SBN code until 1974. The ISO on-line facility only refers back to 1978, an SBN may be converted to an ISBN by prefixing the digit 0. For example, the edition of Mr. J. G. Reeder Returns, published by Hodder in 1965, has SBN340013818 -340 indicating the publisher,01381 their serial number. This can be converted to ISBN 0-340-01381-8, the check digit does not need to be re-calculated, since 1 January 2007, ISBNs have contained 13 digits, a format that is compatible with Bookland European Article Number EAN-13s. An ISBN is assigned to each edition and variation of a book, for example, an ebook, a paperback, and a hardcover edition of the same book would each have a different ISBN. The ISBN is 13 digits long if assigned on or after 1 January 2007, a 13-digit ISBN can be separated into its parts, and when this is done it is customary to separate the parts with hyphens or spaces. Separating the parts of a 10-digit ISBN is also done with either hyphens or spaces, figuring out how to correctly separate a given ISBN number is complicated, because most of the parts do not use a fixed number of digits. ISBN issuance is country-specific, in that ISBNs are issued by the ISBN registration agency that is responsible for country or territory regardless of the publication language. Some ISBN registration agencies are based in national libraries or within ministries of culture, in other cases, the ISBN registration service is provided by organisations such as bibliographic data providers that are not government funded. In Canada, ISBNs are issued at no cost with the purpose of encouraging Canadian culture. In the United Kingdom, United States, and some countries, where the service is provided by non-government-funded organisations. Australia, ISBNs are issued by the library services agency Thorpe-Bowker
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Cumberland Gap National Historical Park
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Established on June 11,1940, Cumberland Gap National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park located at the border between Kentucky, Tennessee, and Virginia. The Cumberland Gap is a natural break in the Appalachian Mountains. The park lies in parts of Bell and Harlan counties in Kentucky, Claiborne County in Tennessee, the park contains the Kentucky-Virginia-Tennessee tri-state area, accessible via a short trail. Cumberland Gap National Historical Park covers 20,508 acres, the Cumberland Gap Visitor Center is located on U. S. Highway 25E just southeast of Middlesboro, Kentucky and just northwest of the Cumberland Gap Tunnel and Cumberland Gap, Tennessee. The visitor center is open day of the year except Christmas Day. The gap was used by Native Americans, as many species of migratory animals passed through it from north to south each year. It was fertile hunting territory and the only cut through the mountains from the southern wintering grounds of wild deer. Starting around 1775, the Gap became the route of transit for American settlers moving west into Kentucky. Two families by the name of Hensley and Gibbons moved to Brush Mountain to escape the many changes that were taking place in the early 1900s, eventually, more family members followed and a community was begun. A church and school was established under the jurisdiction of the Bell County School System of Bell County, settlers continued their pioneer lifestyle until future generations began accepting employment and marriage partners off the mountain. Sherman Hensley, the founder of the settlement, was the last to leave in 1951, the park preserves the natural beauty of the surrounding area while focusing on historic preservation. The former roadbed of U. S. Highway 25E through the park has been restored to an early 19th-century wagon path and this was made possible with the 1996 completion of the Cumberland Gap Tunnel, which rerouted US 25E under the park
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Wayback Machine
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The Internet Archive launched the Wayback Machine in October 2001. It was set up by Brewster Kahle and Bruce Gilliat, and is maintained with content from Alexa Internet, the service enables users to see archived versions of web pages across time, which the archive calls a three dimensional index. Since 1996, the Wayback Machine has been archiving cached pages of websites onto its large cluster of Linux nodes and it revisits sites every few weeks or months and archives a new version. Sites can also be captured on the fly by visitors who enter the sites URL into a search box, the intent is to capture and archive content that otherwise would be lost whenever a site is changed or closed down. The overall vision of the machines creators is to archive the entire Internet, the name Wayback Machine was chosen as a reference to the WABAC machine, a time-traveling device used by the characters Mr. Peabody and Sherman in The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show, an animated cartoon. These crawlers also respect the robots exclusion standard for websites whose owners opt for them not to appear in search results or be cached, to overcome inconsistencies in partially cached websites, Archive-It. Information had been kept on digital tape for five years, with Kahle occasionally allowing researchers, when the archive reached its fifth anniversary, it was unveiled and opened to the public in a ceremony at the University of California, Berkeley. Snapshots usually become more than six months after they are archived or, in some cases, even later. The frequency of snapshots is variable, so not all tracked website updates are recorded, Sometimes there are intervals of several weeks or years between snapshots. After August 2008 sites had to be listed on the Open Directory in order to be included. As of 2009, the Wayback Machine contained approximately three petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of 100 terabytes each month, the growth rate reported in 2003 was 12 terabytes/month, the data is stored on PetaBox rack systems manufactured by Capricorn Technologies. In 2009, the Internet Archive migrated its customized storage architecture to Sun Open Storage, in 2011 a new, improved version of the Wayback Machine, with an updated interface and fresher index of archived content, was made available for public testing. The index driving the classic Wayback Machine only has a bit of material past 2008. In January 2013, the company announced a ground-breaking milestone of 240 billion URLs, in October 2013, the company announced the Save a Page feature which allows any Internet user to archive the contents of a URL. This became a threat of abuse by the service for hosting malicious binaries, as of December 2014, the Wayback Machine contained almost nine petabytes of data and was growing at a rate of about 20 terabytes each week. Between October 2013 and March 2015 the websites global Alexa rank changed from 162 to 208, in a 2009 case, Netbula, LLC v. Chordiant Software Inc. defendant Chordiant filed a motion to compel Netbula to disable the robots. Netbula objected to the motion on the ground that defendants were asking to alter Netbulas website, in an October 2004 case, Telewizja Polska USA, Inc. v. Echostar Satellite, No.02 C3293,65 Fed. 673, a litigant attempted to use the Wayback Machine archives as a source of admissible evidence, Telewizja Polska is the provider of TVP Polonia and EchoStar operates the Dish Network
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Blue Ridge Mountains
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The Blue Ridge Mountains are a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian Mountains range. This province consists of northern and southern regions, which divide near the Roanoke River gap. The mountain range is located in the eastern United States, starting at its southernmost portion in Georgia, then ending northward in Pennsylvania. To the west of the Blue Ridge, between it and the bulk of the Appalachians, lies the Great Appalachian Valley, bordered on the west by the Ridge, the Blue Ridge Mountains are noted for having a bluish color when seen from a distance. Trees put the blue in Blue Ridge, from the isoprene released into the atmosphere, thereby contributing to the haze on the mountains. Within the Blue Ridge province are two national parks, the Shenandoah National Park, in the northern section, and the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The Blue Ridge also contains the Blue Ridge Parkway, a 469-mile long scenic highway that connects the two parks and is located along the ridge crestlines with the Appalachian Trail, the Blue Ridge extends as far north into Pennsylvania as South Mountain. The Blue Ridge contains the highest mountains in eastern North America south of Baffin Island, about 125 peaks exceed 5,000 feet in elevation. The highest peak in the Blue Ridge is Mt. Mitchell in North Carolina at 6,684 feet. There are 39 peaks in North Carolina and Tennessee higher than 6,000 feet, by comparison, Southern Sixers is a term used by peak baggers for this group of mountains. The Blue Ridge Parkway runs 469 miles along crests of the Southern Appalachians, in many places along the parkway, there are metamorphic rocks with folded bands of light-and dark-colored minerals, which sometimes look like the folds and swirls in a marble cake. Most of the rocks that form the Blue Ridge Mountains are ancient granitic charnockites, metamorphosed volcanic formations, modern studies have found that the basement geology of the Blue Ridge is made of compositionally unique gneisses and granitoids, including orthopyroxene-bearing charnockites. Analysis of zircon minerals in the completed by John Aleinikoff at the U. S. Geological Survey has provided more detailed emplacement ages. Many of the found in the Blue Ridge and documented by Tollo. The lack of an affinity and zircon ages less than 1,200 Ma suggest that the Blue Ridge is distinct from the Adirondacks, Green Mountains. The petrologic and geochronologic data suggest that the Blue Ridge basement is a composite orogenic crust that was emplaced during several episodes from a magma source. Field relationships further illustrate that rocks emplaced prior to 1, 078-1,064 Ma preserve deformational features and those emplaced post-1,064 Ma generally have a massive texture and missed the main episode of Mesoproterozoic compression. The Blue Ridge Mountains began forming during the Silurian Period over 400 million years ago, approximately 320 Mya, North America and Europe collided, pushing up the Blue Ridge
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Bald Mountains
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The Bald Mountains are a mountain range rising along the border between Tennessee and North Carolina in the southeastern United States. They are part of the Blue Ridge Mountain Province of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, the Great Smoky Mountains border the range to the south, and the Unakas rise opposite the Nolichucky to the north. The range gets its name from the frequent occurrence of grassy balds atop the more prominent summits. The Cherokee National Forest and the Pisgah National Forest protect substantial sections of the Bald Mountains, the Appalachian Trail traverses the crest of the range. Populated areas within the range include Erwin and Del Rio in Tennessee, the highest summit in the Bald Mountains is Big Bald, which rises to an elevation of 5,516 feet. Big Bald Banding Station — An annual migratory bird banding and monitoring project that operates atop Big Bald
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Great Smoky Mountains
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The Great Smoky Mountains are a mountain range rising along the Tennessee–North Carolina border in the southeastern United States. They are a subrange of the Appalachian Mountains, and form part of the Blue Ridge Physiographic Province, the range is sometimes called the Smoky Mountains and the name is commonly shortened to the Smokies. The Great Smokies are best known as the home of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park, the park was established in 1934, and, with over 9 million visits per year, it is the most-visited national park in the United States. The Great Smokies are part of an International Biosphere Reserve, the range is home to an estimated 187,000 acres of old growth forest, constituting the largest such stand east of the Mississippi River. The Great Smokies are also home to the densest black bear population in the Eastern United States, along with the Biosphere reserve, the Great Smokies have been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The park contains five districts and nine individual listings on the National Register of Historic Places. The name Smoky comes from the fog that often hangs over the range. This fog is caused by the vegetation exhaling volatile organic compounds, chemicals that have a vapor pressure. As a result of the 2016 Great Smoky Mountains wildfires, the Great Smoky Mountains have received media coverage. The Great Smoky Mountains stretch from the Pigeon River in the northeast to the Little Tennessee River to the southwest, the northwestern half of the range gives way to a series of elongate ridges known as the Foothills, the outermost of which include Chilhowee Mountain and English Mountain. The range is bounded on the south by the Tuckasegee River and to the southeast by Soco Creek. The Great Smokies comprise parts of Blount County, Sevier County, the sources of several rivers are located in the Smokies, including the Little Pigeon River, the Oconaluftee River, and Little River. Streams in the Smokies are part of the Tennessee River watershed and are thus entirely west of the Eastern Continental Divide. The largest stream wholly within the park is Abrams Creek, which rises in Cades Cove, other major streams include Hazel Creek and Eagle Creek in the southwest, Raven Fork near Oconaluftee, Cosby Creek near Cosby, and Roaring Fork near Gatlinburg. The Little Tennessee River passes through five impoundments along the southwestern boundary, namely Tellico Lake, Chilhowee Lake, Calderwood Lake, Cheoah Lake. The highest point in the Smokies is Clingmans Dome, which rises to an elevation of 6,643 feet, the mountain is the highest in Tennessee and the third highest in the Appalachian range. Clingmans Dome also has the ranges highest topographical prominence at 4,503 feet, Mount Le Conte is the tallest mountain in the range, rising 5,301 feet from its base in Gatlinburg to its 6, 593-foot summit. The Smokies rise prominently above the low terrain
