1.
Classical Greece
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Classical Greece was a period of around 200 years in Greek culture. This Classical period saw the annexation of much of modern-day Greece by the Persian Empire, Classical Greece had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire and on the foundations of western civilization. Much of modern Western politics, artistic thought, scientific thought, theatre, literature, in the context of the art, architecture, and culture of Ancient Greece, the Classical period, sometimes called the Hellenic period, corresponds to most of the 5th and 4th centuries BC. The Classical period in this sense follows the Archaic period and is in turn succeeded by the Hellenistic period and this century is essentially studied from the Athenian outlook because Athens has left us more narratives, plays, and other written works than the other ancient Greek states. From the perspective of Athenian culture in Classical Greece, the period referred to as the 5th century BC extends slightly into the 4th century BC. In this context, one might consider that the first significant event of this occurs in 508 BC, with the fall of the last Athenian tyrant. However, a view of the whole Greek world might place its beginning at the Ionian Revolt of 500 BC. The Persians were defeated in 490 BC, the Delian League then formed, under Athenian hegemony and as Athens instrument. Athens excesses caused several revolts among the cities, all of which were put down by force. After both forces were spent, a brief peace came about, then the war resumed to Spartas advantage, Athens was definitively defeated in 404 BC, and internal Athenian agitations mark the end of the 5th century BC in Greece. Since its beginning, Sparta had been ruled by a diarchy and this meant that Sparta had two kings ruling concurrently throughout its entire history. The two kingships were both hereditary, vested in the Agiad dynasty and the Eurypontid dynasty, according to legend, the respective hereditary lines of these two dynasties sprang from Eurysthenes and Procles, twin descendants of Hercules. They were said to have conquered Sparta two generations after the Trojan War, in 510 BC, Spartan troops helped the Athenians overthrow their king, the tyrant Hippias, son of Peisistratos. Cleomenes I, king of Sparta, put in place a pro-Spartan oligarchy headed by Isagoras, but his rival Cleisthenes, with the support of the middle class and aided by democrats, took over. Cleomenes intervened in 508 and 506 BC, but could not stop Cleisthenes, through his reforms, the people endowed their city with isonomic institutions — i. e. with equal rights for all —and established ostracism. The isonomic and isegoric democracy was first organized into about 130 demes, the 10,000 citizens exercised their power as members of the assembly, headed by a council of 500 citizens chosen at random. The territory of the city was divided into thirty trittyes as follows, ten trittyes in the coastal region ten trittyes in the ἄστυ. A tribe consisted of three trittyes, selected at random, one each of the three groups
2.
Bow and arrow
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The bow and arrow is a projectile weapon system that predates recorded history and is common to most cultures. Archery is the art, practice, or skill of applying it, a bow is a flexible arc that shoots aerodynamic projectiles called arrows. A string joins the two ends of the bow and when the string is drawn back, the ends of the bow are flexed, when the string is released, the potential energy of the flexed stick is transformed into the kinetic energy of the arrow. Archery is the art or sport of shooting arrows from bows, today, bows and arrows are used primarily for hunting and for the sport of archery. Someone who makes bows is known as a bowyer, and one who makes arrows is a fletcher —or in the case of the manufacture of arrow heads. The bow and arrow appears around the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic, at the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton, suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons. After the end of the last glacial period, use of the bow seems to have spread to every inhabited continent, including the New World, the oldest extant bows in one piece are the elm Holmegaard bows from Denmark which were dated to 9,000 BCE. High-performance wooden bows are made following the Holmegaard design. Microliths discovered on the south coast of Africa suggest that arrows may be at least 71,000 years old, the bow was an important weapon for both hunting and warfare from prehistoric times until the widespread use of gunpowder in the 16th century. Organised warfare with bows ended in the mid 17th century in Europe, the British upper class led a revival of archery from the late 18th century. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, under the patronage of George, the basic elements of a bow are a pair of curved elastic limbs, traditionally made from wood, joined by a riser. Both ends of the limbs are connected by a known as the bow string. By pulling the string backwards the archer exerts compressive force on the section, or belly, of the limbs as well as placing the outer section, or back. While the string is held, this stores the energy released in putting the arrow to flight. The force required to hold the string stationary at full draw is used to express the power of a bow. Other things being equal, a draw weight means a more powerful bow. The various parts of the bow can be subdivided into further sections, the topmost limb is known as the upper limb, while the bottom limb is the lower limb. At the tip of each limb is a nock, which is used to attach the bowstring to the limbs, the riser is usually divided into the grip, which is held by the archer, as well as the arrow rest and the bow window
3.
Cupid and Psyche
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Cupid and Psyche is a story originally from Metamorphoses, written in the 2nd Century AD by Lucius Apuleius Madaurensis. It concerns the overcoming of obstacles to the love between Psyche and Cupid or Amor, and their union in a sacred marriage. Although the only extended narrative from antiquity is that of Apuleius, Eros, since the rediscovery of Apuleiuss novel in the Renaissance, the reception of Cupid and Psyche in the classical tradition has been extensive. The story has been retold in poetry, drama, and opera, and depicted widely in painting, sculpture, Psyches Roman name through direct translation is Anima. The tale of Cupid and Psyche is placed at the midpoint of Apuleiuss novel, the novel itself is a first-person narrative by the protagonist Lucius. Transformed into a donkey by magic gone wrong, Lucius undergoes various trials and adventures, Psyches story has some similarities, including the theme of dangerous curiosity, punishments and tests, and redemption through divine favor. As a structural mirror of the plot, the tale is an example of mise en abyme. The happy ending for Psyche is supposed to assuage Charites fear of rape, there were once a king and queen, rulers of an unnamed city, who had three daughters of conspicuous beauty. The youngest and most beautiful was Psyche, whose admirers, neglecting the worship of the love goddess Venus, instead prayed. It was rumored that she was the coming of Venus. Venus is offended, and commissions Cupid to work her revenge, Cupid instead scratches himself with his own dart, which makes any living thing fall in love with the first thing it sees. As soon as Cupid scratches himself he falls deeply in love with Psyche, although her two humanly beautiful sisters have married, the idolized Psyche has yet to find love. Her father suspects that they have incurred the wrath of the gods, Psyche is arrayed in funeral attire, conveyed by a procession to the peak of a rocky crag, and exposed. Marriage and death are merged into a rite of passage. Zephyr the West Wind bears her up to meet her match, and deposits her in a lovely meadow. The transported girl awakes to find herself at the edge of a cultivated grove, exploring, she finds a marvelous house with golden columns, a carved ceiling of citrus wood and ivory, silver walls embossed with wild and domesticated animals, and jeweled mosaic floors. A disembodied voice tells her to make herself comfortable, and she is entertained at a feast that serves itself, although fearful and without sexual experience, she allows herself to be guided to a bedroom, where in the darkness a being she cannot see makes her his wife. She gradually learns to look forward to his visits, though he always departs before sunrise and forbids her to look upon him, and soon she becomes pregnant
4.
Mars (mythology)
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In ancient Roman religion and myth, Mars was the god of war and also an agricultural guardian, a combination characteristic of early Rome. He was second in only to Jupiter and he was the most prominent of the military gods in the religion of the Roman army. Most of his festivals were held in March, the named for him, and in October. Under the influence of Greek culture, Mars was identified with the Greek god Ares, whose myths were reinterpreted in Roman literature and art under the name of Mars. But the character and dignity of Mars differed in fundamental ways from that of his Greek counterpart, Mars was a part of the Archaic Triad along with Jupiter and Quirinus, the latter of whom as a guardian of the Roman people had no Greek equivalent. Mars altar in the Campus Martius, the area of Rome that took its name from him, was supposed to have been dedicated by Numa, the peace-loving semi-legendary second king of Rome. Although Ares was viewed primarily as a destructive and destabilizing force, Mars represented military power as a way to secure peace, in the mythic genealogy and founding myths of Rome, Mars was the father of Romulus and Remus with Rhea Silvia. Like Ares who was the son of Zeus and Hera, Mars is usually considered to be the son of Jupiter, however, in a version of his birth given by Ovid, he was the son of Juno alone. Jupiter had usurped the mothers function when he gave birth to Minerva directly from his forehead, to restore the balance, Flora obtained a magic flower and tested it on a heifer who became fecund at once. She then plucked a flower ritually using her thumb, touched Junos belly, Juno withdrew to Thrace and the shore of Marmara for the birth. Ovid tells this story in the Fasti, his poetic work on the Roman calendar. In the earliest Roman calendar, March was the first month, Ovid is the only source for the story. The consort of Mars was Nerio or Nerine, Valor and she represents the vital force, power and majesty of Mars. Her name was regarded as Sabine in origin and is equivalent to Latin virtus, in the early 3rd century BC, the comic playwright Plautus has a reference to Mars greeting Nerio, his wife. A source from late antiquity says that Mars and Nerine were celebrated together at a festival held on March 23, in the later Roman Empire, Nerine came to be identified with Minerva. Nerio probably originates as a personification of Mars power, as such abstractions in Latin are generally feminine. Her name appears with that of Mars in an archaic prayer invoking a series of abstract qualities, the influence of Greek mythology and its anthropomorphic gods may have caused Roman writers to treat these pairs as marriages. The union of Venus and Mars held greater appeal for poets and philosophers, in Greek myth, the adultery of Ares and Aphrodite had been exposed to ridicule when her husband Hephaestus caught them in the act by means of a magical snare
5.
Venus (mythology)
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Venus is the Roman goddess whose functions encompassed love, beauty, desire, sex, fertility, prosperity and victory. In Roman mythology, she was the mother of the Roman people through her son, Aeneas, Julius Caesar claimed her as his ancestor. Venus was central to religious festivals, and was revered in Roman religion under numerous cult titles. The Romans adapted the myths and iconography of her Greek counterpart Aphrodite for Roman art, in the later classical tradition of the West, Venus becomes one of the most widely referenced deities of Greco-Roman mythology as the embodiment of love and sexuality. It has connections to venerari and venia through a common root in an Indo-European *wenes- or *u̯enis. Their common Proto-Indo-European root is assumed as *wen- or *u̯en- to strive for, wish for, desire, Venus has been described as perhaps the most original creation of the Roman pantheon, and an ill-defined and assimilative native goddess, combined with a strange and exotic Aphrodite. The ambivalence of her persuasive functions has been perceived in the relationship of the root *venes- with Latin venenum, in the sense of a charm, in myth, Venus-Aphrodite was born of sea-foam. Roman theology presents Venus as the yielding, watery female principle, essential to the generation and her male counterparts in the Roman pantheon, Vulcan and Mars, are active and fiery. Venus absorbs and tempers the male essence, uniting the opposites of male and female in mutual affection and she is essentially assimilative and benign, and embraces several otherwise quite disparate functions. She can give military victory, sexual success, good fortune, in one context, she is a goddess of prostitutes, in another, she turns the hearts of men and women from sexual vice to virtue. Images of Venus have been found in murals, mosaics. Petronius, in his Satyricon, places an image of Venus among the Lares of the freedman Trimalchios lararium, prospective brides offered Venus a gift before the wedding, the nature of the gift, and its timing, are unknown. Some Roman sources say that girls who come of age offer their toys to Venus, it is unclear where the offering is made, in dice-games, a popular pastime among Romans of all classes, the luckiest, best possible roll was known as Venus. Venus signs were for the most part the same as Aphrodites, Venus statues, and her worshipers, wore myrtle crowns at her festivals. Likewise, Roman folk-etymology transformed the ancient, obscure goddess Murcia into Venus of the Myrtles, myrtle was thought a particularly potent aphrodisiac. The female pudendum, particularly the clitoris, was known as murtos, as goddess of love and sex, Venus played an essential role at Roman prenuptial rites and wedding nights, so myrtle and roses were used in bridal bouquets. Marriage itself was not a seduction but a condition, under Junos authority. Venus was also a patron of the ordinary, everyday wine drunk by most Roman men and women, in the rites to Bona Dea, a goddess of female chastity, Venus, myrtle and anything male were not only excluded, but unmentionable
6.
Eros
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In Greek mythology, Eros was the Greek god of sexual attraction. Some myths make him a god, while in other myths. He was one of the winged love gods, Erotes, Eros appears in ancient Greek sources under several different guises. In the earliest sources, he is one of the gods involved in the coming into being of the cosmos. But in later sources, Eros is represented as the son of Aphrodite, whose mischievous interventions in the affairs of gods and mortals cause bonds of love to form, a cult of Eros existed in pre-classical Greece, but it was much less important than that of Aphrodite. However, in antiquity, Eros was worshiped by a fertility cult in Thespiae. In Athens, he shared a very popular cult with Aphrodite, according to Hesiod, one of the most ancient of all Greek sources, Eros was the fourth god to come into existence, coming after Chaos, Gaia, and Tartarus. However, Parmenides, one of the philosophers, makes Eros the first of all the gods to come into existence. The Orphic and Eleusinian Mysteries featured Eros as a very original god, aristophanes, influenced by Orphism, relates the birth of Eros, At the beginning there was only Chaos, Night, Darkness, and the Abyss. Earth, the Air and Heaven had no existence and he mated in the deep Abyss with dark Chaos, winged like himself, and thus hatched forth our race, which was the first to see the light. In later myths, he was the son of the deities Aphrodite and Ares, Eros was associated with athleticism, with statues erected in gymnasia, and was often regarded as the protector of homosexual love between men. Eros was depicted as carrying a lyre or bow and arrow. He was also depicted accompanied by dolphins, flutes, roosters, roses, “We must have a word with Aphrodite. Let us go together and ask her to persuade her boy, if that is possible, to loose an arrow at Aeetes’ daughter, Medea of the spells, and make her fall in love with Jason. ”He smites maids’ breasts with unknown heat. Once, when Venus’ son was kissing her, his quiver dangling down, in fact the wound was deeper than it seemed, though unperceived at first. Enraptured by the beauty of a man, Eros drove Dionysos mad for the girl with the delicious wound of his arrow, then curving his wings flew lightly to Olympus. And the god roamed over the hills scourged with a greater fire. ”The story of Eros and Psyche has a tradition as a folktale of the ancient Greco-Roman world long before it was committed to literature in Apuleius Latin novel. The novel itself is written in a picaresque Roman style, yet Psyche retains her Greek name, Eros and Aphrodite are called by their Latin names, and Cupid is depicted as a young adult, rather than a child
7.
Love
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Love is a variety of different feelings, states, and attitudes that ranges from interpersonal affection to pleasure. It can refer to an emotion of an attraction and personal attachment. Love can also be a virtue representing human kindness, compassion and it may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, ones self or animals. Ancient Greeks identified four forms of love, kinship or familiarity, friendship, sexual and/or romantic desire, modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love. Non-Western traditions have also distinguished variants or symbioses of these states, Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning—notably in Abrahamic religions. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states. Love in its various forms acts as a facilitator of interpersonal relationships and. Love may be understood as a function to human beings together against menaces. The word love can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts, cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition. Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, abstractly discussed love usually refers to an experience one person feels for another. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing, including oneself, in addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages. The complex and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a thought-terminating cliché, several common proverbs regard love, from Virgils Love conquers all to The Beatles All You Need Is Love. St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as to will the good of another, bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of absolute value, as opposed to relative value. Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is to be delighted by the happiness of another, meher Baba stated that in love there is a feeling of unity and an active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love. Biologist Jeremy Griffith defines love as unconditional selflessness, a person can be said to love an object, principle, or goal to which they are deeply committed and greatly value. People can also love material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things, if sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia. Interpersonal love refers to love human beings
8.
Affection
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Affection, attraction, infatuation, or fondness is a disposition or state of mind or body that is often associated with a feeling or type of love. It has given rise to a number of branches of philosophy and psychology concerning emotion, disease, influence, Affection is popularly used to denote a feeling or type of love, amounting to more than goodwill or friendship. Writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to states of feeling. Some contrast it with passion as being free from the sensual element. Even a very simple demonstration of affection can have a variety of emotional reactions, from embarrassment to disgust to pleasure. It also has a different physical effect on the giver and the receiver, more specifically, the word has been restricted to emotional states, the object of which is a living thing such as a human or animal. Affection is compared with passion, from the Greek pathos, as such it appears in the writings of French philosopher René Descartes, Dutch philosopher Baruch Spinoza, and most of the writings of early British ethicists. However, on grounds, it is generally and usefully distinguished from passion. In this narrower sense the word has played a part in ethical systems. For a consideration of these and similar problems, which depend ultimately on the degree in which the affections are regarded as voluntary, see H. Sidgwick, Affection can be communicated by words, gestures, or touches. Affectionate behavior may have evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards, such affection has been shown to influence brain development in infants. Expressions of affection can be if they pose implied threats to ones well being. If welcomed, affectionate behavior may be associated with health benefits. It has been proposed that positive sentiment increases the propensity of people to interact, Affection can be displayed in different manners in different cultural societies. Some individuals such as alexithymics may have difficulty or even an inability to feel or express affection, spinifex Press, ISBN 187675608X,9781876756086 Elizabeth Sibthorpe Pinchard.2012. Family Affection, A Tale for Youth, publisher- Hardpress Publishing,2012 ISBN1290006709,9781290006705 Joshua Hordern. Political Affections, Civic Participation and Moral Theology, communicating Affection, Interpersonal Behavior and Social Context. Dominance & affection, The making of pets, ISBN0300032226 International Journal of Infant Observation and Its Applications
9.
Human bonding
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Human bonding is the process of development of a close, interpersonal relationship. It most commonly takes place between family members or friends, but can also develop among groups, such as sporting teams, Bonding is a mutual, interactive process, and is different from simple liking. Bonding typically refers to the process of attachment that develops between romantic partners, close friends, or parents and children and this bond is characterized by emotions such as affection and trust. Any two people who spend time together may form a bond, male bonding refers to the establishment of relationships between men through shared activities that often exclude females. The term female bonding refers to the formation of personal relationships between women. In the 4th century BC, the Greek philosopher Plato argued that love directs the bonds of human society, in his Symposium, Eryximachus, one of the narrators in the dialog, states that love goes far beyond simple attraction to human beauty. He states that it occurs throughout the animal and plant kingdoms, Love directs everything that occurs, in the realm of the gods as well as that of humans. Eryximachus reasons that when various opposing elements such as wet and dry are animated by the species of Love. But when the sort of Love that is crude and impulsive controls the seasons, he brings death, Plato concludes that the highest form of love is the greatest. That is, according to Spinoza, when a man is prey to his emotions, he is not his own master, humans in passionate relationships, according to Goethe, are analogous to reactive substances in a chemical equation. The term pair bond originated in 1940 in reference to mated pairs of birds, whilst some form of monogamy may characterize around 90% of bird species, in mammals long-term pairing is rare, at around 3%. The incidence of monogamy in primate species is low in contrast with polygyny. Similarly, whilst the naturalness of monogamy in humans is debated, limerent–Nonlimerent bond, define relationships in which one partner is limerent. Limerent–Limerent bond, define relationships in both partners are limerent. The constitution of these bonds may vary over the course of the relationship, in 1958, British developmental psychologist John Bowlby published the paper the Nature of the Childs Tie to his Mother, in which the precursory concepts of attachment theory were developed. Attachment theory has some of its origins in the observation of and experiments with animals, much of the early research on attachment in humans was done by John Bowlby and his associates. Bowlby proposed that babies have an inbuilt need from birth to make emotional attachments, i. e. bonds, Bowlby did not describe mutuality in attachment. He stated that attachment by mother was an inversion and described only behaviors of the infant
10.
Broken heart
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A broken heart is a term metaphor for the intense emotional—and sometimes physical—stress or pain one feels at experiencing great longing. The concept is cross-cultural, often cited reference to a desired or lost lover. Emotional pain that is severe can cause broken heart syndrome, including damage to the heart. The emotional pain of a heart is believed to be part of the survival instinct. The social-attachment system uses the system to encourage humans to maintain their close social relationships by causing pain when those relationships are lost. The concept is believed to be universal, with many using the same words to describe both physical pain and the feelings associated with relationship loss. The same researchers mention effect of social stressors on the heart, a 2011 study showed that the same regions of the brain that become active in response to painful sensory experiences are activated during intense social rejection or social loss in general. Social psychologist Ethan Kross from University of Michigan, who was involved in the study, said. The research implicates the secondary somatosensory cortex and the posterior insula. For most bereaved individuals, the journey through grief will ultimately culminate in a level of adjustment to a life without their loved one. The Kübler-Ross model postulates that there are five stages of grief after the loss of a loved-one, denial, anger, bargaining, depression, ruminating, or having intrusive thoughts that are continuous, uncontrollable, and distressing, is often a component of grieving. When rejection is involved, shame may also be involved – the painful feeling of being inherently unacceptable, disposable, in one study, 24% of mourners were depressed at two months, 23% at seven months, 16% at 13 months and 14% at 25 months. Although there are overlapping symptoms, uncomplicated grief can be distinguished from a depressive episode. Major depression tends to be pervasive and is characterized by significant difficulty in experiencing self-validating. Major depression is composed of a recognizable and stable cluster of debilitating symptoms, accompanied by a protracted and it tends to be persistent and associated with poor work and social functioning, pathological immunological function, and other neurobiological changes, unless treated. In relationship breakups, mourners may turn their anger about the rejection toward themselves and this can deepen the depression and cause narcissistic wounding. A contributing factor to the event is that being left can trigger primal separation fear – the fear of being left with no one to take care of ones vital needs. Mourners may also experience the stress of helplessness
11.
Courtly love
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Courtly love was a medieval European literary conception of love that emphasized nobility and chivalry. Medieval literature is filled with examples of knights setting out on adventures and this kind of love is originally a literary fiction created for the entertainment of the nobility, but as time passed, these ideas about love changed and attracted a larger audience. In the high Middle Ages, a game of love developed around these ideas as a set of social practices, loving nobly was considered to be an enriching and improving practice. Courtly love began in the ducal and princely courts of Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne, ducal Burgundy, the term courtly love was first popularized by Gaston Paris and has since come under a wide variety of definitions and uses. Its interpretation, origins and influences continue to be a matter of critical debate, Paris said amour courtois was an idolization and ennobling discipline. Sexual satisfaction, Paris said, may not have been a goal or even end result, the term and Pariss definition were soon widely accepted and adopted. In addition, other terms and phrases associated with courtliness and love are common throughout the Middle Ages and this presents a clear problem in the understanding of courtliness. The practice of love was developed in the castle life of four regions, Aquitaine, Provence, Champagne and ducal Burgundy. Eleanor of Aquitaine brought ideals of love from Aquitaine first to the court of France, then to England. Her daughter Marie, Countess of Champagne brought courtly behavior to the Count of Champagnes court, Courtly love found its expression in the lyric poems written by troubadours, such as William IX, Duke of Aquitaine, one of the first troubadour poets. The troubadours model of the lady was the wife of his employer or lord. When her husband was away on Crusade or other business she dominated the household and cultural affairs, the lady was rich and powerful and the poet gave voice to the aspirations of the courtier class, for only those who were noble could engage in courtly love. This new kind of love saw nobility not based on wealth and family history, lovers in the context of courtly love need not refer to sex, but rather the act of emotional loving. These lovers had short trysts in secret, which escalated mentally, the rules of courtly love were codified by the late 12th century in Andreas Capellanus highly influential work De Amore. De amore lists such rules as Marriage is no excuse for not loving, He who is not jealous cannot love, No one can be bound by a double love. Much of its structure and its sentiments were derived from Ovids Ars amatoria, given that practices similar to courtly love were already prevalent in Al-Andalus and elsewhere in the Islamic world, it is very likely that Islamic practices influenced the Christian Europeans. William of Aquitane, for example, was involved in the First Crusade, the notions of love for loves sake and exaltation of the beloved lady have been traced back to Arabic literature of the 9th and 10th centuries. The notion of the power of love was developed in the early 11th century by the Persian psychologist and philosopher, Ibn Sina
12.
Troubadour
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A troubadour was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages. Since the word troubadour is etymologically masculine, a female troubadour is usually called a trobairitz, the troubadour school or tradition began in the late 11th century in Occitania, but it subsequently spread into Italy and Spain. Under the influence of the troubadours, related movements sprang up throughout Europe, the Minnesang in Germany, trovadorismo in Galicia and Portugal, dante Alighieri in his De vulgari eloquentia defined the troubadour lyric as fictio rethorica musicaque poita, rhetorical, musical, and poetical fiction. The texts of troubadour songs deal mainly with themes of chivalry, most were metaphysical, intellectual, and formulaic. Many were humorous or vulgar satires, works can be grouped into three styles, the trobar leu, trobar ric, and trobar clus. The oldest mention of the word troubadour as trobadors is found in a 12th-century Occitan text by Cercamon. The English word troubadour is a rendition from a French word first recorded in 1575 in an historical context to mean langue doc poet at the court in the 12th and 13th century. The French word is borrowed itself from the Occitan word trobador and this recreated form is deduced from the Latin root tropus, meaning a trope and the various meanings of the Old Occitan related words. In turn, the Latin word derives ultimately from Greek τρόπος, meaning turn, B Intervocal Latin shifted regularly to in Occitan. The Latin suffix -ātor, -atōris explains the Occitan suffix, according to its declension and accentuation, Gallo-Romance *TROPĀTOR > Occitan trobaire, there is an alternative theory to explain the meaning of trobar as “to compose, to discuss, to invent. It has the support of some historians, specialists of literature, According to them, the Arabic word ṭaraba “song could partly be the etymon of the verb trobar. Another Arabic root had already been proposed before, Ḍ-R-B “strike and they entertain the possibility that the nearly homophonous Ḍ-R-B root may have contributed to the sense of the newly coined Romance verb trobar. In archaic and classical poetry, the word is only used in a mocking sense. Cercamon writes, Ist trobador, entre ver e mentir, Afollon drutz e molhers et espos, Peire dAlvernha also begins his famous mockery of contemporary authors cantarai daquest trobadors, after which he proceeds to explain why none of them is worth anything. When referring to themselves seriously, troubadours almost invariably use the word chantaire, the early study of the troubadours focused intensely on their origins. No academic consensus was achieved in the area. In his study, Lévi-Provençal is said to have found four Arabo-Hispanic verses nearly or completely recopied in Williams manuscript, trend admitted that the troubadours derived their sense of form and even the subject matter of their poetry from the Andalusian Muslims. Meg Bogin, American translator of the trobairitz, held this hypothesis, to such a strong and multi-faceted tradition of love literature and song nearby must be added the presence of the Toledo School of Translators starting in 1126
13.
Falling in love
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In romantic relationships, falling in love is the concept of moving from a feeling of neutrality towards a person to one of love. The use of the fall comes from a common metaphor that equates becoming in love with the act of falling. Deep-set psychological parallels between two people may also underpin their pairing-bonding, which can border on mere narcissistic identification. Jungians view the process of falling in love as one of projecting the anima or animus onto the other person, with regard to sociobiology, it is stressed that mate selection cannot be left to the head alone and must require complex neurochemical support. Biologist Jeremy Griffith suggests that people fall in love in order to themselves to the dream of an ideal state. Empirical studies suggest that men fall in love earlier than women and women are quicker to fall out of love than men, robert J Sternberg and Karen Sternberg, editors. Denis de Rougemont, Love in the Western World, eric Fromm, The Art of Loving Francesco Alberoni, Falling in Love Roland Barthes, A Lovers Discourse Claire Battye, Falling in love
14.
Friendship
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Friendship is a relationship of mutual affection between people. Friendship is a form of interpersonal bond than an association. Friendship has been studied in fields such as communication, sociology, social psychology, anthropology. Various academic theories of friendship have been proposed, including social exchange theory, equity theory, relational dialectics, a World Happiness Database study found that people with close friendships are happier. Although there are forms of friendship, some of which may vary from place to place. While there is no limit on what types of people can form a friendship, friends tend to share common backgrounds, occupations. In the typical sequence of an individuals emotional development, friendships come after parental bonding, the absence of friends can be emotionally damaging. The evolutionary psychology approach to development has led to the theory of Dunbars number. He theorized that there is a limit of approximately 150 people with whom a human can maintain stable social relationships, in childhood, friendships are often based on the sharing of toys, and the enjoyment received from performing activities together. These friendships are maintained through affection, sharing, and creative playtime and they begin to see their friends points of view, and enjoy playing in groups. They also experience peer rejection as they move through the middle childhood years, establishing good friendships at a young age helps a child to be better acclimated in society later on in their life. In a 1975 study, Bigelow and La Gaipa found that expectations for a best friend become increasingly complex as a child gets older, the study investigated such criteria in a sample of 480 children between the ages of six and fourteen. Their findings highlighted three stages of development in friendship expectations, in the first stage, children emphasized shared activities and the importance of geographical closeness. In the second, they emphasized sharing, loyalty, and commitment, in the final stage, they increasingly desired similar attitudes, values, and interests. High-quality friendships have often assumed to have positive effects on many aspects of childrens social development. Perceived benefits from such friendships include enhanced social success, but they apparently do not include an effect on childrens general self-esteem, numerous studies with adults suggest that friendships and other supportive relationships do enhance self-esteem. Other potential benefits of friendship include the opportunity to learn about empathy, coaching from parents can be useful in helping children to make friends. Eileen Kennedy-Moore describes three key ingredients of childrens friendship formation, openness, similarity, and shared fun, parents can also help children understand social guidelines they havent learned on their own
15.
Romantic friendship
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It may include for example holding hands, cuddling, hugging, kissing, giving massages, and sharing a bed, or co-sleeping, without sexual intercourse or other physical sexual expression. In historical scholarship, the term may be used to describe a close relationship between people of the same sex during a period of history when homosexuality did not exist as a social category. The content of Shakespeares works has raised the question of whether he may have been bisexual, although twenty-six of Shakespeares sonnets are love poems addressed to a married woman, one hundred and twenty-six are addressed to an adolescent boy. The French philosopher Montaigne described the concept of friendship in his essay On Friendship. Lincoln and Speed lived together, shared a bed in their youth, such distancing is still practiced today. Proponents of the romantic friendship hypothesis also make reference to the Bible, boswells own interpretation has been thoroughly critiqued, notably by Brent D. Several small groups of advocates and researchers have advocated for the use of the term, or the related term Boston marriage
16.
Intimate relationship
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An intimate relationship is an interpersonal relationship that involves physical and/or emotional intimacy. Physical intimacy is characterized by friendship, platonic love, romantic love, while the term intimate relationship commonly implies the inclusion of a sexual relationship, the term is also used as a euphemism for a relationship that is strictly sexual. Intimate relationships play a role in the overall human experience. Humans have a desire to belong and to love, which is usually satisfied within an intimate relationship. These relationships involve feelings of liking or loving one or more people, romance, physical or sexual attraction, sexual relationships, Intimate relationships allow a social network for people to form strong emotional attachments. Intimacy generally refers to the feeling of being in a personal association. It is a familiar and very close connection with another as a result of a bond that is formed through knowledge. Genuine intimacy in human relationships requires dialogue, transparency, vulnerability, the verb intimate means to state or make known. The activity of intimating underpins the meanings of intimate when used as a noun, the noun intimate means a person with whom one has a particularly close relationship. The adjective intimate indicates detailed knowledge of a thing or person, in human relationships, the meaning and level of intimacy varies within and between relationships. Intimate conversations become the basis for confidences that bind people together, to sustain intimacy for any length of time requires well-developed emotional and interpersonal awareness. Intimacy requires an ability to be separate and together participants in an intimate relationship. It results in a connection in which there is an emotional range involving both robust conflict and intense loyalty, lacking the ability to differentiate oneself from the other is a form of symbiosis, a state that is different from intimacy, even if feelings of closeness are similar. From a center of self-knowledge and self differentiation, intimate behavior joins family members and it evolves through reciprocal self-disclosure and candor. Psychological consequences of intimacy problems are found in adults who have difficulty in forming and maintaining intimate relationships, individuals often experience the human limitations of their partners, and develop a fear of adverse consequences of disrupted intimate relationships. Studies show that fear of intimacy is negatively related to comfort with emotional closeness and with relationship satisfaction, scholars distinguish between four different forms of intimacy, physical, emotional, cognitive, and experiential. Physical intimacy is sensual proximity or touching, examples include being inside someones personal space, holding hands, emotional intimacy, particularly in sexual relationships, typically develops after a certain level of trust has been reached and personal bonds have been established. Cognitive or intellectual intimacy takes place when two people exchange thoughts, share ideas and enjoy similarities and differences between their opinions, if they can do this in an open and comfortable way, they can become quite intimate in an intellectual area
17.
Limerence
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Limerence, which is not exclusively sexual, has also been defined in terms of its potentially inspirational effects and in relation to attachment theory. Attachment theory emphasizes that many of the most intense emotions arise during the formation, the maintenance, the disruption, pair-forming stage of human affectionate bonding. The concept of limerence provides a particular carving up of the domain of love. For Tennov, sexual attraction is a component of limerence. The limerent is a sex partner. Limerence is sometimes interpreted as infatuation, or what is colloquially known as a crush. However, in speech, infatuation includes aspects of immaturity and extrapolation from insufficient information. Attractive characteristics are exaggerated and unattractive characteristics are given little or no attention and she notes that one form may evolve into the other, Those whose limerence was replaced by affectional bonding with the same partner might say. We were very much in love when we married, today we love each very much. Limerence is characterized by intrusive thinking and pronounced sensitivity to events that reflect the disposition of the limerent object towards the individual. It can be experienced as intense joy or as extreme despair, basically, it is the state of being completely carried away by unreasoned passion or love, even to the point of addictive-type behavior. Usually, one is inspired with a passion or admiration for someone. Limerence can be difficult to understand for those who have never experienced it, Tennov differentiates between limerence and other emotions by asserting that love involves concern for the other persons welfare and feeling. While limerence does not require it, those concerns may certainly be incorporated, physical contact with the object is neither essential nor sufficient to an individual experiencing limerence, unlike with one experiencing sexual attraction. Lack of reciprocation may in such instances serve to reinforce lessons learned in earlier, unhealthy bonding experiences, Limerence involves intrusive thinking about the limerent object. Other characteristics include acute longing for reciprocation, fear of rejection, in cases of unrequited limerence, transient relief may be found by vividly imagining reciprocation from the limerent object. Tennov suggests that feelings of limerence can be intensified through adversity, obstacles, a limerent person may have acute sensitivity to any act, thought, or condition that can be interpreted favorably. This may include a tendency to devise, fabricate, or invent reasonable explanations for why neutral actions are a sign of passion in the limerent object
18.
Love addiction
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Love addiction is a proposed model of pathological passion-related behavior involving the feeling of being in love. A medical review of related behaviors in animals and humans concluded that current medical evidence does not support a model for maladaptive passion-related behaviors. The modern history of the concept of the love addict - ignoring such precursors as Robert Burtons dictum that love extended is mere madness - extends to the decades of the 20th century. Freuds study of the Wolf Man highlighted his liability to compulsive attacks of falling physically in love, even Søren Kierkegaard in Works of Love said Spontaneous love makes a man free and in the next moment dependent. Spontaneous love can become unhappy, can reach the point of despair, however, it was not until the 1970s and 1980s that the concept came to the popular fore. All of this dimension has been removed, and the attention to love addiction has been channeled in the direction of regarding it as an individual. In 1976, the 12-Step program Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous started hosting weekly meetings based on Alcoholics Anonymous and they published their Basic Text, Sex and Love Addicts Anonymous, in 1986 discussing characteristics of and recovery from both love addiction and sex addiction. As of late 2012, S. L. A. A. s membership had grown to an estimated 16,000 members in 43 countries, in 1985, Robin Norwoods Women Who Love Too Much popularized the concept of love addiction for women. Since, variations on the dynamics of love addiction have become popularized in the 1990s and 2000s by multiple authors. In A Spy in the House of Love, the heroine Sabina is said to have seen her love anxieties as resembling those of an addict, of alcoholics. The same irresistible impulse, tension, compulsion and then following the yielding to the impulse. As a result, she has subsequently described as feeling like a love addict enslaved to obsessive-compulsive patterns of behaviour. P. G. a new burst of life, but it does not last, books Love and Addiction by Stanton Peele, PhD. ISBN 978-1-55874-526-1 Women, Sex, and Addiction, A Search for Love, ISBN 978-0-06-097321-6 When You Love too Much by Stephen Arterburn ISBN 978-0-8307-3623-2 Facing Love Addiction, Giving Yourself the Power to Change the Way You Love by Pia Mellody. ISBN 978-0-06-250604-7 The Betrayal Bond, Breaking Free of Exploitive Relationships by Patrick Carnes, ISBN 978-1-55874-526-1 Confusing Love with Obsession, When Being in Love Means Being in Control by John D Moore. ISBN 978-1-59285-356-4 Surviving Withdrawal, The Breakup Workbook for Love Addicts by Jim Hall, MS ISBN 978-1-4675-7312-2 Love Addict, Sex, Romance, and Other Dangerous Drugs by Ethlie Ann Vare
19.
Love triangle
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A love triangle is usually a romantic relationship involving three people. While it can refer to two people independently romantically linked with a third, it implies that each of the three people has some kind of relationship to the other two. The relationships can be friendships, romantic, or familial. Romantic love is viewed as an exclusive relationship. Statistics suggest that, in Western society, wittingly or not, the term love triangle generally connotes an arrangement unsuitable to one or more of the people involved. One person typically ends up feeling betrayed at some point, a similar arrangement that is agreed upon by all parties is sometimes called a triad, which is a type of polyamory even though polyamory usually implies sexual relations. Within the context of monogamy, love triangles are inherently unstable, with unrequited love, in most cases, the jealous or rejected first party ends a friendship—and sometimes even starts a fight with—the second party over the third-party love interest. Though rare, love triangles have been known to lead to murder or suicide committed by the actual or perceived rejected lover, psychoanalysis has explored the theme of erotic love triangles and their roots in the Oedipal triangle. In such instances, you men who are attracted only by married woman. They need the husband to protect them from a full relationship. as women who repeatedly get involved with married men need the wives, alternatively, the hero or heroine has a choice between a seemingly perfect lover and an imperfect but endearing person. It has been suggested that a network is always needed to keep the triangle eternal. Calm yourself, says the husband, Ill be marrying again and it has been suggested that if men share a sense of brotherhood and they allow a woman into their relationship, an isosceles triangle is created automatically, as in Truffauts film Jules et Jim. In such cases, it cannot be fair to blame the quarrel of the twins on a woman. She is their common scapegoat. Their loyalties are torn, and – except in the best of cases – the one left injured can easily sway the feelings of the children against acknowledging this new relationship. – A mugs game, he told me, is breaking your back at midnight, Love triangles are a popular theme in entertainment, especially romantic fiction, including opera, romance novels, soap operas, romantic comedies, manga, tabloid talk shows, and popular music. Eric Berne termed that conflictual aspect of the love triangle Lets You and Him Fight, because of its dramatic qualities, LYAHF is the basis of much of the worlds literature, both good and bad. Young Adult literature has seen a rise in the popularity of the love triangle story structure, but the love triangle story structure has been around since before early classic writers like William Shakespeare and Alexandre Dumas. Shakespeares famous play Romeo and Juliet featured a triangle between Juliet, Romeo, and Paris. Although more subtle, Dumass classics The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers also feature love triangles strong enough to seek revenge and start a war
20.
Lovesickness
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Lovesickness refers to an informal affliction that describes negative feelings associated with rejection, unrequited love or the absence of a loved one. It can manifest as physical as well as mental symptoms and it is not to be confused with the condition of being lovestruck, which refers to the physical and mental symptoms associated with falling in love. The term lovesickness is rarely used in medical or psychological fields, many people believe lovesickness was created as an explanation for longings, but it can be associated with depression and various mental health problems. Literature and poetry have often described love as a kind of madness, According to the Hippocratic Medicine view, passionate love will almost always fade or turn into love melancholy’ — this is a form of depression or sadness. In both cases, lovesickness can be experienced if love is lost or unrequited, in 1915, Sigmund Freud asked rhetorically, Isnt what we mean by falling in love a kind of sickness and craziness, an illusion, a blindness to what the loved person is really like. Long before Freud, in 360 B. C. E, Plato stated, “Love is a mental disease, ”. Love sickness isn’t just a form of expression for those head-over-heels, scientific study on the topic of lovesickness has found that those in love experience a kind of high similar to that caused by illicit drugs such as cocaine. These neurotransmitters mimic the feeling of amphetamines, on average a psychologist does not get referrals from general practitioners mentioning lovesickness, although this can be prevalent through the language of what the patient feels. This is incredibly dangerous when one does not seek help or cannot cope because love has been known to be fatal and it is possible, therefore, that many mental illnesses, such as lovesickness, will never have strong enough evidence to officially be considered a legitimate affliction. Similarly, health experts agree that lovesickness has been known to kill, rapid mood swings According to Tallis, many symptoms of being lovesick can be categorized under the DSM-IV and the ICD-10. Obsessive-Compulsive disorder is a symptom of lovesickness because it includes a preoccupation, this would include constantly checking ones cellphone, Facebook, william Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet portrays the true madness of love and the grief that the two young, infatuated lovers feel. When Romeo finds his dead, with the thought of living without his true love. Juliet, after awaking and upon seeing his body is also overcome with despair
21.
Passion (emotion)
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Passion is a very strong feeling about a person or thing. Passion is an emotion, a compelling enthusiasm or desire for something. It is particularly used in the context of romance or sexual desire though it implies a deeper or more encompassing emotion than that implied by the term lust. They can be so strong as to inhibit all practice of personal freedom and it was only with the Romantic movement that a valorisation of passion over reason took hold in the Western tradition, the more Passion there is, the better the Poetry. Antonio Damasio studied what ensued when something severed ties between the centres of the emotional brain. and the thinking abilities of the neocortex. The passions, he concluded, have a say on how the rest of the brain, a frame of reference – as opposed to Descartes error. the Cartesian idea of a disembodied mind. A tension or dialectic between marriage and passion can be traced back in Western society at least as far as the Middle Ages, denis de Rougemont has argued that since its origins in the twelfth century, passionate love was constituted in opposition to marriage. There are different reasons individuals are motivated for an occupation, one of these includes passion for the occupation. When an individual is passionate about their occupation they tend to be obsessive about their behavior while on their job, resulting in more work being done. These same individuals have higher levels of psychological well-being, when people genuinely enjoy their profession and are motivated by their passion, they tend to be more satisfied with their work and more psychologically healthy. When individuals are unsatisfied with their profession they tend to also be dissatisfied with their family relationships, other reasons people are more satisfied when they are motivated by their passion for their occupation include the effects of intrinsic and external motivations. When an individual is doing the job to satisfy others, they tend to have levels of satisfaction. Also, these individuals have shown they are motivated by several beliefs. Thirdly, though some individuals believe one should not work extreme hours, on the other hand, this may also put a strain on family relationships and friendships. The balance of the two is something that is hard to achieve and it is hard to satisfy both parties. There are different components that qualify as reasons for considering an individual as a workaholic, burke & Fiksenbaum refer to Spence and Robbins by stating two of the three workaholism components that are used to measure workaholism. These include feeling driven to work because of pressure and work enjoyment. Both of these affect an individual differently and each has different outcomes, to begin, work enjoyment brings about more positive work outcomes and is unrelated to health indicators
22.
Platonic love
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Platonic love is a type of love that is non-sexual. Platonic love in this sense of the term is examined in Platos dialogue, the Symposium. It explains the possibilities of how the feeling of love began, of particular importance is the speech of Socrates, relating the idea of platonic love as attributed to the prophetess Diotima, which presents it as a means of ascent to contemplation of the divine. For Diotima, and for Plato generally, the most correct use of love of human beings is to ones mind to love of divinity. In short, with genuine platonic love, the beautiful or lovely other person inspires the mind, Socrates, in Platos Symposium, explained two types of love or Eros—Vulgar Eros or earthly love and Divine Eros or divine love. Vulgar Eros is nothing but mere material attraction towards a body for physical pleasure. Divine Eros begins the journey from physical attraction i. e. attraction towards beautiful form or body and this concept of Divine Eros is later transformed into the term Platonic love. In Middle Ages arose a new interest in Plato, his philosophy and this was caused by Georgios Gemistos Plethon during the Councils of Ferrara and Firenze in 1438-1439. The English term dates back to William Davenants The Platonic Lovers and it is derived from the concept in Platos Symposium of the love of the idea of good which lies at the root of all virtue and truth. For a brief period, Platonic love was a subject at the English royal court, especially in the circle around Queen Henrietta Maria. Platonic love was the theme of some of the courtly masques performed in the Caroline era—though the fashion soon waned under pressures of social and political change, childhood sweetheart Greek love Infatuation Puppy love Bromance DallOrto, Giovanni. Socratic Love as a Disguise for Same-Sex Love in the Italian Renaissance, the Pursuit of Sodomy, Male Homosexuality in Renaissance and Enlightenment Europe. K. Sharpe, Criticism and Compliment, ch.2, T. Reeser, Setting Plato Straight, Translating Platonic Sexuality in the Renaissance Plato on Friendship and Eros – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
23.
Romance (love)
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Romance is the expressive and pleasurable feeling from an emotional attraction towards another person often associated with sexual attraction. It is eros rather than agape, philia, or storge, historically, the term romance originates with the medieval ideal of chivalry as set out in its chivalric romance literature. Humans have an inclination to form bonds with one another through social interactions. The debate over an exact definition of love may be found in literature as well as in the works of psychologists, philosophers, biochemists and other professionals. The addition of drama to relationships of close, deep and strong love, psychologist Charles Lindholm defined love to be. an intense attraction that involves the idealization of the other, within an erotic context, with expectation of enduring sometime into the future. The word was originally an adverb of the Latin origin Romanicus, the connecting notion is that European medieval vernacular tales were usually about chivalric adventure, not combining the idea of love until late into the seventeenth century. In primitive societies, tension existed between marriage and the erotic, but this was expressed in taboo regarding the menstrual cycle. Anthropologists such as Claude Lévi-Strauss show that there were forms of courtship in ancient as well as contemporary primitive societies. There may not be evidence, however, that members of such societies formed loving relationships distinct from their established customs in a way that would parallel modern romance, before the 18th century, many marriages were not arranged, but rather developed out of more or less spontaneous relationships. After the 18th century, illicit relationships took on an independent role. In bourgeois marriage, illicitness may have become more formidable and likely to cause tension, in Ladies of the Leisure Class, Rutgers University professor Bonnie G. Smith depicts courtship and marriage rituals that may be viewed as oppressive to modern people. She writes When the young women of the Nord married, they did so without illusions of love and they acted within a framework of concern for the reproduction of bloodlines according to financial, professional, and sometimes political interests. Subsequent sexual revolution has lessened the conflicts arising out of liberalism, anthony Giddens, in his book The Transformation of Intimacy, Sexuality, Love and Eroticism in Modern Society, states that romantic love introduced the idea of a narrative into an individuals life. He adds that telling a story was one of the meanings of romance, according to Giddens, the rise of romantic love more or less coincided with the emergence of the novel. It was then that romantic love, associated with freedom and therefore the ideals of romantic love, for the discourse of intimacy emotional closeness was much more important than passion. This does not mean by any means that intimacy is to replace romance, on the contrary, intimacy and romance coexist. The 21st century has seen the growth of globalization and people now live in a world of transformations that affect almost every aspect of our lives, one example of the changes experienced in relationships was explored by Giddens regarding homosexual relationships. According to Giddens since homosexuals were not able to marry they were forced to more open
24.
Self-love
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Self love has often been seen as a moral flaw, akin to vanity and selfishness. The Merriam-Webster dictionary later describes self-love as being “love of self” or “regard for ones own happiness or advantage, Self-Love was first recognized in 1563 but was only later studied by philosophers William James and Erich Fromm who studied emotional human behaviour such as self-esteem and self-worth. Augustine however - with his theology of evil as a distortion of the good - considered that the sin of pride was only a perversion of a normal. Erik H. Self-love or self-worth was later defined by A. P. Gregg, sedikides in 2003 as “referring to a persons subjective appraisal of himself or herself as intrinsically positive or negative”. According to the American Association of Suicidology, there have been 44,193 suicides in 2015 alone,5,491 of them being youth aged from 15–24 years old. The number of teenager and young adult suicides is escalating at an alarming rate every year, the association conducted a study in 2008 which researched the impact of low self-esteem and lack of self-love and its relation to suicidal tendencies and attempts. They defined self-love as being “beliefs about oneself and beliefs about how other people regard oneself. ”This type of study demonstrates how lack of self-love can single-handedly cause suicidal thoughts and attempts. History Self-love was first promoted in the years of the Hippie era also known as the Beat Generation of the 1960’s. This post-war community was very vulnerable to persuasion but began encouraging freedom, harmony. These protests took place on almost all continents and included such as the United States, England. Their dedication, perseverance and empathy towards human life defined this generation as being peace advocates and these protests not only promoted equality but they suggested that women recognize their self-worth through the knowledge and acceptance of self-love. This historical essay suggests that a lack of self-esteem and fear of self-love affects modern women due to lingering post-industrial gender conditions, modern Self-Love Platforms The emergence of new technologies has given society an easier way to communicate with one another and research faster. “Self-Esteem and Suicide Ideation in Psychiatric Outpatients”, Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior 38. Malvolio is described as “sick of self-love. a distempered appetite” in Twelfth Night, Self-love or self-worth was later defined by A. P. Gregg and C. Sedikides in 2003 in shaw, Bershan, Self Love Expert, New York,68 Jay St, Brooklyn, New York 12001
25.
Unrequited love
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Unrequited love or one-sided love is love that is not openly reciprocated or understood as such by the beloved. The beloved may not be aware of the deep and strong romantic affection. The Merriam Webster Online Dictionary defines unrequited as not reciprocated or returned in kind. Psychiatrist Eric Berne states in his book Sex in Human Loving that Some say that love is better than none. Others, however, like the philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, considered that indispensable. to the lover is his unrequited love and it can also be contrasted with redamancy or the act of reciprocal love. According to Dr. Roy Baumeister, what makes a man or woman desirable, of course, is a complex and highly personal mix of many qualities, according to some psychologists, opposites do attract, but it is not possible to attract those whose moral values are different. The inability of the lover to express and fulfill emotional needs may lead to feelings such as depression, low self-esteem, anxiety. There are two bad sides to unrequited love, but only one is made familiar by our culture - that of the lover, not the rejector. In fact, research suggests that the object of unrequited affection experiences a variety of emotions on a par with those of the suitor, including anxiety, frustration. As Freud long since pointed out, when a woman sues for love, to reject, unrequited love has been a frequent subject in popular culture. Movies, books and songs often portray the would-be lovers persistence as paying off when the comes to his or her senses. The presence of this makes it easy to understand why an unrequited lover persists in the face of rejection. Platonic friendships provide a fertile soil for unrequited love, the comics strip Peanuts features multiple different characters engaged in unrequited love relationships. Commenting on the abundance of unrequited love in the series, author Charles Schulz said that he doesnt know why there is so much unrequited love, unrequited love has long been depicted as noble, an unselfish and stoic willingness to accept suffering. Eric Berne considered that the man who is loved by a woman is lucky indeed, how much greater is Dante gazing at Beatrice than Beatrice walking by him in apparent disdain. Roman poet Ovid in his Remedia Amoris provides advice on how to overcome inappropriate or unrequited love, the solutions offered include travel, teetotalism, bucolic pursuits, and ironically, avoidance of love poets. Dorothy Tennov has suggested that the cure for being in love is to get indisputable evidence that the target of ones love is not interested. In the wake of his experiences with Maud Gonne, in a further twist
26.
Ren (Confucianism)
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Ren is the Confucian virtue denoting the good feeling a virtuous human experiences when being altruistic. Ren is exemplified by a normal adults protective feelings for children and it is considered the outward expression of Confucian ideals. Yan Hui, one of the Four Sages, once asked his master to describe the rules of ren, Confucius replied, One should see nothing improper, hear nothing improper, say nothing improper, do nothing improper. Confucius also defined ren in the way, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others, wishing to be enlarged himself. Confucius also said, Ren is not far off, he who seeks it has found it. Ren is close to man and never leaves him, the single logogram for ren is a composite of two distinct common hanzi, 人 and 二, with 人 assuming its common form inside another character, to which various interpretations have been assigned. One often hears that ren means how two people should treat one another, while such folk etymologies are common in discussions of Chinese characters, they often are as misleading as they are entertaining. In the case of ren - usually translated as benevolence or humaneness - Humaneness is Human-ness, for Confucius the interaction of completely dependent infant and caring parent is the most emotionally charged human interaction, “To love a thing means wanting it to live…”. The Way of humaneness is human interaction and through shared experience knowing one’s family, the Master said it is loving people. The Master said it is knowing people”, in other words, human love and interaction is the source of humaneness, the source of the human self. Another common interpretation of the elements is Man or a man connecting Heaven. 人+二=仁 man on two on right, the relationship between two human beings, means humanity, benevolence, seed. Originally the character was just written as丨二 representing yin yang, the line is yang. The character 人 and 仁 have the same pronunciation, when a human is unable to be humane, he or she does not qualify to be a human but an animal. Pre-imperial epigraphic sources testify to alternative writings of the character, 忎, 身 with 心 below. The principle of ren is related to the concepts of li, li is often translated as ritual while yi is often translated as righteousness. These three interrelated terms deal with agency as Confucians conceive it, li is the action which has been deemed appropriate by society, yi is the action that is indeed correct, while ren deals with the relationship between the agent and object of the action. Often li and yi are the same, however, that is not always the case, li is the outward expression of Confucian ideals, while ren is both the inward and outward expressions of those same ideals
27.
Greek love
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Greek love is a term originally used by classicists to describe the sexual, primarily homoerotic, customs, practices and attitudes of the ancient Greeks. It was frequently used as a euphemism for homosexuality and pederasty, the phrase is a product of the enormous impact of the reception of classical Greek culture on historical attitudes toward sexuality, and its influence on art and various intellectual movements. Following the work of sexuality theorist Michel Foucault, the validity of an ancient Greek model for gay culture has been questioned. In his essay Greek Love, Alastair Blanshard sees Greek love as one of the defining and it often serves as a coded phrase for pederasty, or to sanitize homosexual desire in historical contexts where it was considered unacceptable. The German term griechische Liebe appears in German literature between 1750 and 1850, along with socratische Liebe and platonische Liebe in reference to male-male attractions. Ancient Greece became a reference point by which homosexual men of a certain class. In the early Modern period, a disjuncture was carefully maintained between idealized male eros in the tradition, which was treated with reverence, and sodomy. In his classic study Greek Homosexuality, Kenneth Dover points out that the English nouns a homosexual, there was no concept in ancient Greece equivalent to the modern conception of sexual preference, it was assumed that a person would have both hetero- and homosexual responses at different times. Evidence for same-sex attractions and behaviors is more abundant for men than for women, both romantic love and sexual passion between men were often considered normal, and under some circumstances healthy or admirable. The most common male-male relationship was paiderasteia, an institution in which a mature male bonded with or mentored a teen-aged youth. Martin Litchfield West views Greek pederasty as a substitute for heterosexual love, Greek art and literature portray these relationships as sometimes erotic or sexual, or sometimes idealized, educational, non-consummated, or non-sexual. Some Greek myths have been interpreted as reflecting the custom of paiderasteia, the death of Hyacinthus is also frequently referenced as a pederastic myth. The main Greek literary sources for Greek homosexuality are lyric poetry, Athenian comedy, the works of Plato and Xenophon, vase paintings from the 500s and 400s BCE depict courtship and sex between males. In Latin, mos Graeciae or mos Graecorum refers to a variety of behaviors the ancient Romans regarded as Greek, including but not confined to sexual practice. Slaves often were given, and prostitutes sometimes assumed, Greek names regardless of their ethnic origin, the use of slaves defined Roman pederasty, sexual practices were somehow Greek when they were directed at freeborn boys openly courted in accordance with the Hellenic tradition of pederasty. Effeminacy or a lack of discipline in managing ones sexual attraction to another male threatened a mans Roman-ness, by the close of the 2nd century BCE, however, the elevation of Greek literature and art as models of expression caused homoeroticism to be regarded as urbane and sophisticated. The consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus was among a circle of poets who made short, one of his few surviving fragments is a poem of desire addressed to a male with a Greek name, signaling the new aesthetic in Roman culture. The poems of Gaius Valerius Catullus, written in forms adapted from Greek meters and his Latin name and free-born status subvert pederastic tradition at Rome
28.
Agape
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Agape is a Greco-Christian term referring to love, the highest form of love, charity, and the love of God for man and of man for God. Not to be confused with philia – brotherly love – agape embraces a universal, unconditional love that transcends, that serves regardless of circumstances. The noun form first occurs in the Septuagint, but the form goes as far back as Homer, translated literally as affection, as in greet with affection. Other ancient authors have used forms of the word to love of a spouse or family, or affection for a particular activity, in contrast to philia and eros. Agape is considered to be the originating from God or Christ for humankind. In the New Testament, it refers to the covenant love of God for humans, as well as the reciprocal love for God. The word is not limited for use, agape can extend to sub-divine beings. The notion of agape has been examined as to traditions, whether Judeo-Christian or other religions, religious ethics. A journalist of Time magazine has described John 3,16 as one of the most famous and it has been called the Gospel in a nutshell because it is considered a summary of the central doctrines of Christianity. The verb translated loved in this verse is ἠγάπησεν, past tense of agapaō, for God so loved the world, that he gave his only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in him should not perish, but have everlasting life. Agape was also used by the early Christians to refer to the love of God for humanity. Agape has been expounded on by many Christian writers in a specifically Christian context, the Christian usage of the term agape comes almost directly from the canonical Gospels accounts of the teachings of Jesus. When asked what was the commandment, Jesus said unto him, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul. This is the first and great commandment, and the second is like unto it, Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. On these two commandments hang all the law and the prophets, in Judaism, the first, is part of the Shema. In the King James Version of the New Testament, the word agape is translated charity which has a connotation of giving to meet needs of the less fortunate. In the Sermon on the Mount, Jesus said, You have heard that it was said, You shall love your neighbor, for if you love those who love you, what reward have you. Tertullian, in his 2nd century defense of Christians, remarks how Christian love attracted pagan notice, only look, they say, look how they love one another
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Xenia (Greek)
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Xenia is the ancient Greek concept of hospitality, the generosity and courtesy shown to those who are far from home and/or associates of the person bestowing guest-friendship. The rituals of hospitality created and expressed a reciprocal relationship between guest and host expressed in both material benefits as well as non-material ones, the Greek god Zeus is sometimes called Zeus Xenios in his role as a protector of guests. He thus embodied the religious obligation to be hospitable to travelers and these stories caution mortals that any guest should be treated as if potentially a disguised divinity and help establish the idea of xenia as a fundamental Greek custom. The term theoxenia also covered entertaining among the gods themselves, a subject in classical art. Xenia consists of two rules, The respect from host to guest. The host must be hospitable to the guest and provide him/her with food, drink, bath and it is not polite to ask questions until the guest has finished the meal provided to them. The respect from guest to host, the guest must be courteous to the host and not be a burden. The guest should also provide a gift if they have one, Xenia was considered to be particularly important in ancient times when people thought gods mingled among them. If one had poorly played host to a stranger, there was the risk of incurring the wrath of a god disguised as the stranger. It is thought that the Greek practice of theoxenia may have been the antecedent of the Roman rite of Lectisternium, the Trojan war described in the Iliad of Homer actually resulted from a violation of xenia. Paris, from the house of Priam of Troy, was a guest of Menelaus, king of Mycenaean Sparta, therefore, the Achaeans were required by duty to Zeus to avenge this transgression, which, as a violation of xenia, was an insult to Zeus authority. Diomedes and Glaucus meet in No mans land, however, Diomedes does not want to fight another man descendant from the Gods, so he asks Glaucus about his lineage. Upon revealing it, Diomedes realizes that their fathers had practiced xenia with each other, therefore, they decide not to fight, but to continue their heriditary guest-friendship by trading armor. Another example of xenia in the Iliad is Hector talking to Ajax and they are talking about exchanging presents so that people will remember them for dropping their hatred and becoming friends. While this is not an example of xenia, it does demonstrate the power of friendship in the Greek culture. In Book 9, Achilles invites Odysseus into his home and asks Patroclus to make the strongest wine for them to drink, Patroclus also brings meat with the wine. The men eat and have light chatter before Odysseus delivers Agamemnons offer to Achilles, in Book 18, Hephaestus hosts Thetis in his home. Xenia is important between humans and also between gods, Hephaestus is worried about making Thetis feel at home in his home so he lays out entertainment and puts away his tools
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India
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India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and it is bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast. It shares land borders with Pakistan to the west, China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, in the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. Indias Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a border with Thailand. The Indian subcontinent was home to the urban Indus Valley Civilisation of the 3rd millennium BCE, in the following millennium, the oldest scriptures associated with Hinduism began to be composed. Social stratification, based on caste, emerged in the first millennium BCE, early political consolidations took place under the Maurya and Gupta empires, the later peninsular Middle Kingdoms influenced cultures as far as southeast Asia. In the medieval era, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived, much of the north fell to the Delhi sultanate, the south was united under the Vijayanagara Empire. The economy expanded in the 17th century in the Mughal empire, in the mid-18th century, the subcontinent came under British East India Company rule, and in the mid-19th under British crown rule. A nationalist movement emerged in the late 19th century, which later, under Mahatma Gandhi, was noted for nonviolent resistance, in 2015, the Indian economy was the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP and third largest by purchasing power parity. Following market-based economic reforms in 1991, India became one of the major economies and is considered a newly industrialised country. However, it continues to face the challenges of poverty, corruption, malnutrition, a nuclear weapons state and regional power, it has the third largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations. India is a constitutional republic governed under a parliamentary system. It is a pluralistic, multilingual and multi-ethnic society and is home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats. The name India is derived from Indus, which originates from the Old Persian word Hindu, the latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu, which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River. The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi, which translates as The people of the Indus, the geographical term Bharat, which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country, is used by many Indian languages in its variations. Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B. C. E and it is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata. Gaṇarājya is the Sanskrit/Hindi term for republic dating back to the ancient times, hindustan is a Persian name for India dating back to the 3rd century B. C. E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then and its meaning varied, referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety
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Kama
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Kama means desire, wish, longing in Indian literature. Kama is one of the four goals of life in Hindu traditions. It is considered an essential and healthy goal of life when pursued without sacrificing the other three goals, Dharma, Artha and Moksha. Together, these four aims of life are called Puruṣārtha, Kama means “desire, wish or longing”. In contemporary literature, kama refers usually to sexual desire, however, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature. The concept kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in Vedas, for example, Book 10 of Rig Veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat. The Mahabharata, for example, provides one of the definitions of kama. Kama often implies the short form of the word kamana, Kama, however, is more than kamana. Vatsyayana, the author of Kamasutra, describes kama as happiness that is a manasa vyapara, experiencing harmonious music is kama, as is being inspired by natural beauty, the aesthetic appreciation of a work of art, and admiring with joy something created by another human being. Kama Sutra, in its discourse on kama, describes forms of art, dance. Karl Potter describes kama as an attitude and capacity, a little girl who hugs her teddy bear with a smile is experiencing kama, as are two lovers in embrace. During these experiences, the person connects and identifies the beloved as part of oneself and feels more complete, fulfilled and this, in the Indian perspective, is kāma. Hindery notes the inconsistent and diverse exposition of kama in various ancient texts of India, both Sita and Rama, frequently express their unwillingness and inability to live without the other. Gavin Flood explains kama as “love” without violating dharma, artha, in Hinduism, kama is regarded as one of the four proper and necessary goals of human life, the others being Dharma, Artha and Moksha. Ancient Indian literature emphasizes that dharma precedes and is essential, if dharma is ignored, artha and kama lead to social chaos. Vatsyayana in Kama Sutra recognizes relative value of three goals as follows, artha precedes kama, while dharma precedes both kama and artha. Vatsyayana, in Chapter 2 of Kama sutra, presents a series of philosophical objections argued against kama, the pursuit of pleasure, claim objectors, encourages individuals to commit unrighteous deeds, bring distress, carelessness, levity and suffering later in life. These objections were then answered by Vatsyayana, with the declaration that kama is as necessary to human beings as food, just like good food is necessary for the well being of the body, good pleasure is necessary for healthy existence of a human being, suggests Vatsyayana
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Bhakti
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Bhakti literally means attachment, participation, fondness for, homage, faith or love, devotion, worship, piety. Bhakti, in Hinduism, refers to devotion and the love of a god or a representational god by a devotee. Bhakti in Indian religions is emotional devotionalism, particularly to a god or to spiritual ideas. The term also refers to a movement that arose between the 7th century and 10th century CE in India, focused on the gods Vishnu and Shiva, the Bhakti movement reached North India during the Delhi Sultanate era and grew throughout the Mughal era. It evolved the characteristics of Hinduism as the religion of the population as dhimmi under the Islamic rulers in parts of the Indian subcontinent. Bhakti-like movements also spread to other Indian religions during this period, the term bhakti, in the modern era, is used to refer to any tradition of Hindu devotionalism, including Shaivism, Vaishnavism, or Shaktism. The Bhagavata Purana is a associated with the Bhakti movement which elaborates the concept of bhakti as found in the Bhagavad Gita. Along with Hinduism, nirguni Bhakti is found in Sikhism, the Sanskrit word bhakti is derived from the root bhaj, which means divide, share, partake, participate, to belong to. The word also means attachment, devotion to, fondness for, homage, faith or love, worship, piety to something as a spiritual, the meaning of the term Bhakti is analogous to but different from Kama. Kama connotes emotional connection, sometimes with sensual devotion and erotic love, Bhakti, in contrast, is spiritual, a love and devotion to religious concepts or principles, that engages both emotion and intellection. Karen Pechelis states that the word Bhakti should not be understood as uncritical emotion, one who practices bhakti is called a bhakta. It may refer to devotion towards a teacher as guru-bhakti, or to a personal god. The term Bhakti also refers to one of several alternate spiritual paths to moksha in Hinduism, the other paths are Jnana marga, Karma marga, Rāja marga. The term bhakti has been translated as devotion in Orientalist literature. The colonial era authors variously described Bhakti as a form of mysticism or primitive religious devotion of lay people with monotheistic parallels, however, modern scholars state devotion is a misleading and incomplete translation of bhakti. Bhakti in Indian religions is not a ritualistic devotion to a god or to religion and it involves, among other things, refining ones state of mind, knowing god, participating in god, and internalizing god. Increasingly, instead of devotion, the participation is appearing in scholarly literature as a gloss for the term bhakti. David Lorenzen states that bhakti is an important term in Sikhism and Hinduism and they both share numerous concepts and core spiritual ideas, but bhakti of nirguni is particularly significant in Sikhism
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