1.
Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille
–
The Palais des Beaux-Arts de Lille is a municipal museum dedicated to fine arts, modern art, and antiquities. It is one of the largest art museums in France, the museum opened in 1809 and was initially housed in a church confiscated from the Récollets before being transferred to the citys town hall. In 1866, the musée Wicar, formed from the collection of Jean-Baptiste Wicar, was merged into the Palais des Beaux-Arts, construction of the Palaiss current Belle Époque-style building began in 1885 under the direction of Géry Legrand, mayor of Lille, and it was completed in 1892. The architects chosen to design the new building were Edouard Bérard, the building is located on the place de la République, in the center of the city, facing the préfecture of Lille. It was renovated during the 1990s and reopened in 1997, at the start of the 1990s, the buildings poor state and the moving of Vaubans relief models of fortified towns to Lille forced the town to renovate the building. Work began in 1991, under the architects Jean-Marc Ibos and Myrto Vitart and this allowed the creation of a new 700 m² basement room for temporary exhibitions, as well as departments for the relief models and for 19th-century sculpture. Overall the museum covers 22000 m² and held 72430 pieces in 2015, seated man wearing a shirt, bare arms
2.
Art museum
–
An art museum or art gallery is a building or space for the exhibition of art, usually visual art. Museums can be public or private, but what distinguishes a museum is the ownership of a collection, the term is used for both public galleries, which are non-profit or publicly owned museums that display selected collections of art. On the other hand, private galleries refers to the commercial enterprises for the sale of art, however, both types of gallery may host traveling exhibits or temporary exhibitions including art borrowed from elsewhere. In broad terms, in North American usage, the word gallery alone often implies a private gallery, the term contemporary art gallery refers usually to a privately owned for-profit commercial gallery. These galleries are found clustered together in large urban centers. Smaller cities are home to at least one gallery, but they may also be found in towns or villages. Contemporary art galleries are open to the general public without charge, however. They usually profit by taking a portion of art sales, from 25% to 50% is typical, there are also many non-profit or collective galleries. Some galleries in cities like Tokyo charge the artists a flat rate per day, curators often create group shows that say something about a certain theme, trend in art, or group of associated artists. Galleries sometimes choose to represent artists exclusively, giving them the opportunity to show regularly, a gallerys definition can also include the artist cooperative or artist-run space, which often operates as a space with a more democratic mission and selection process. A vanity gallery is an art gallery that charges fees from artists in order to show their work, the shows are not legitimately curated and will frequently or usually include as many artists as possible. Most art professionals are able to identify them on an artists resume, University art museums and galleries constitute collections of art that are developed, owned, and maintained by all kinds of schools, community colleges, colleges, and universities. This phenomenon exists in both the West and East, making it a global practice, although largely overlooked, there are over 700 university art museums in America alone. This number, in comparison to other kinds of art museums, throughout history, large and expensive works of art have generally been commissioned by religious institutions and monarchs and been displayed in temples, churches, and palaces. Although these collections of art were private, they were made available for viewing for a portion of the public. In classical times, religious institutions began to function as a form of art gallery. Wealthy Roman collectors of engraved gems and other precious objects often donated their collections to temples and it is unclear how easy it was in practice for the public to view these items. At the Palace of Versailles, entrance was restricted to wearing the proper apparel – the appropriate accessories could be hired from shops outside
3.
Museum
–
Most large museums are located in major cities throughout the world and more local ones exist in smaller cities, towns and even the countryside. Museums have varying aims, ranging from serving researchers and specialists to serving the general public, the goal of serving researchers is increasingly shifting to serving the general public. There are many types of museums, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, war museums, the city with the largest number of museums is Mexico City with over 128 museums. According to The World Museum Community, there are more than 55,000 museums in 202 countries, the English museum comes from the Latin word, and is pluralized as museums. The first museum/library is considered to be the one of Plato in Athens, however, Pausanias gives another place called Museum, namely a small hill in Classical Athens opposite to the Akropolis. The hill was called Mouseion after Mousaious, a man who used to sing on the hill, the purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display items of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the education of the public. The purpose can also depend on ones point of view, to a family looking for entertainment on a Sunday afternoon, a trip to a local history museum or large city art museum could be a fun, and enlightening way to spend the day. To city leaders, a healthy museum community can be seen as a gauge of the health of a city. To a museum professional, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museums mission, Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. In 1829, James Smithsons bequest, that would fund the Smithsonian Institution, stated he wanted to establish an institution for the increase, Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the Victorian desire for consumption and for order. Gathering all examples of classification of a field of knowledge for research. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students, while many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is a debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museums collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in efforts to retard decomposition in aging documents, artifacts, artworks. All museums display objects that are important to a culture, as historian Steven Conn writes, To see the thing itself, with ones own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience can be enchanting. Museum purposes vary from institution to institution, some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the Canada Science and Technology Museum favored education over preservation of their objects and they displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia
4.
Library
–
A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing. It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a building or room, or a virtual space. Libraries range in size from a few shelves of books to several million items, in Latin and Greek, the idea of a bookcase is represented by Bibliotheca and Bibliothēkē, derivatives of these mean library in many modern languages, e. g. French bibliothèque. The first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in Sumer. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC. In the 6th century, at the close of the Classical period. A library is organized for use and maintained by a body, an institution. In addition to providing materials, libraries also provide the services of librarians who are experts at finding and organizing information, Libraries often provide quiet areas for studying, and they also often offer common areas to facilitate group study and collaboration. Libraries often provide facilities for access to their electronic resources. Modern libraries are increasingly being redefined as places to get unrestricted access to information in many formats, the first libraries consisted of archives of the earliest form of writing—the clay tablets in cuneiform script discovered in temple rooms in Sumer, some dating back to 2600 BC. These archives, which consisted of the records of commercial transactions or inventories, mark the end of prehistory. Things were much the same in the government and temple records on papyrus of Ancient Egypt, the earliest discovered private archives were kept at Ugarit, besides correspondence and inventories, texts of myths may have been standardized practice-texts for teaching new scribes. There is also evidence of libraries at Nippur about 1900 BC, philosopher Laozi was keeper of books in the earliest library in China, which belonged to the Imperial Zhou dynasty. Also, evidence of catalogues found in some destroyed ancient libraries illustrates the presence of librarians, the Library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was the largest and most significant great library of the ancient world. It flourished under the patronage of the Ptolemaic dynasty and functioned as a center of scholarship from its construction in the 3rd century BC until the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BC. The library was conceived and opened either during the reign of Ptolemy I Soter or during the reign of his son Ptolemy II, an early organization system was in effect at Alexandria. The Library of Celsus in Ephesus, Anatolia, now part of Selçuk, Turkey was built in honor of the Roman Senator Tiberius Julius Celsus Polemaeanus by Celsus’ son, the library was built to store 12,000 scrolls and to serve as a monumental tomb for Celsus. Private or personal libraries made up of books appeared in classical Greece in the 5th century BC
5.
Archive
–
An archive is an accumulation of historical records or the physical place they are located. Archives contain primary source documents that have accumulated over the course of an individual or organizations lifetime, in general, archives consist of records that have been selected for permanent or long-term preservation on grounds of their enduring cultural, historical, or evidentiary value. Archival records are normally unpublished and almost always unique, unlike books or magazines for which many copies exist. This means that archives are quite distinct from libraries with regard to their functions and organization, a person who works in archives is called an archivist. The study and practice of organizing, preserving, and providing access to information, the physical place of storage can be referred to as an archive, an archives, or a repository. When referring to historical records or the places they are kept, the computing use of the term archive should not be confused with the record-keeping meaning of the term. The adjective formed from archive is archival, the practice of keeping official documents is very old. Archaeologists have discovered archives of hundreds of clay tablets going back to the third and second millennia BC in sites like Ebla, Mari, Amarna, Hattusas, Ugarit and these discoveries have been fundamental to know ancient alphabets, languages, literature, and politics. Archives were well developed by the ancient Chinese, the ancient Greeks, however, they have been lost, since documents written on materials like papyrus and paper deteriorated at a faster pace, unlike their stone tablet counterparts. Archives of churches, kingdoms, and cities from the Middle Ages survive and have kept their official status uninterruptedly till now. They are the tool for historical research on these ages. Modern archival thinking has many roots from the French Revolution, historians, genealogists, lawyers, demographers, filmmakers, and others conduct research at archives. The research process at each archive is unique, and depends upon the institution that houses the archive. While there are kinds of archives, the most recent census of archivists in the United States identifies five major types, academic, business, government, non-profit. There are also four main areas of inquiry involved with archives, material technologies, organizing principles, geographic locations and these areas help to further categorize what kind of archive is being created. Archives in colleges, universities, and other facilities are typically housed within a library. Academic archives exist to preserve history and serve the academic community. Access to the collections in these archives is usually by prior appointment only, users of academic archives can be undergraduates, graduate students, faculty and staff, scholarly researchers, and the general public
6.
Heritage interpretation
–
Heritage interpretation refers to all the ways in which information is communicated to visitors to an educational, natural or recreational site, such as a museum, park or science centre. Some international authorities in museology prefer the term mediation for the same concept and its modalities can be extremely varied and may include guided walks, talks, drama, staffed stations, displays, signs, labels, artwork, brochures, interactives, audio-guides and audio-visual media. The process of developing an approach to interpreting these stories, messages. The interpretive process is assisted by new technologies such as visualizing techniques. By weaving compelling, thematic stories about environmental phenomena and historical events, interpreters aim to provoke visitors to learn, effective interpretation enables the visitors to make associations between the information given and their previous perceptions. According to Moscardo interpretation can produce Mindful Visitors who are carefully processing information, Interpretation is often used by landowning government agencies and NGOs to promote environmental stewardship of the lands they manage. Any communication process designed to reveal meanings and relationships of cultural and natural heritage to the public, through involvement with an object, artifact. Interpretation is a communication process that forges emotional and intellectual connections between the interests of the audience and the meanings inherent in the resource. Interpretation enriches our lives through engaging emotions, enhancing experiences and deepening understanding of people, places, events and objects from past, Interpretation refers to the full range of potential activities intended to heighten public awareness and enhance understanding of cultural heritage site. Mediation is the translation of the French médiation, which has the same general meaning as interpretation. Mediation is defined as an action aimed at reconciling parties or bringing them to agreement, in the context of the museum, it is the mediation between the museum public and what the museum gives its public to see. Information, as such, is not Interpretation, Interpretation is revelation based upon information. But they are different things. Interpretation is an art, which combines many arts, whether the materials presented are scientific, any art is in some degree teachable. The chief aim of Interpretation is not instruction, but provocation, Interpretation should aim to present a whole rather than a part, and must address itself to the whole man rather than any phase. Interpretation addressed to children should not be a dilution of the presentation to adults, to be at its best it will require a separate program. For the past 50 years, Tildens principles have remained relevant to interpreters across the world. In 2002 Larry Beck and Ted Cable published Interpretation for the 21st Century - Fifteen Guiding Principles for Interpreting Nature and Culture, in 2011, Beck and Cable released a new version of their principles in The Gift of Interpretation
7.
Collections care
–
Collections care, which is sometimes called preventive conservation, involves any actions taken to prevent or delay the deterioration of cultural heritage. The primary goal is to identify and reduce hazards to heritage with thoughtful control of their surroundings. The professions most influenced by collections care include conservator-restorers, curators, collection managers, effects stemming from these issues can be treated and sometimes reversed with interventive conservation after the damage has occurred. However, many of the sources of danger mentioned above are controllable, environmental conditions are highly controllable in most indoor situations. They include the temperature, relative humidity, light levels present in a space on any given day. Two types of light offer potential decay to cultural heritage, ultraviolet light, contaminants can come in many forms including naturally occurring chemical breakdowns in certain compounds, particulate pollutants, and accidental human contamination. Protecting collections from contaminants can be as simple as creating barriers to prevent abuse or as complicated as taking preventive actions to protect an object from its own chemical breakdown, different materials react to temperature in different ways. For example, ceramics are vulnerable to heat on a mechanical level. Human comfort levels must also be considered, in galleries, however, viewers must feel comfortable enough with the temperature to spend time there, otherwise the collection will simply not be viewed and lose its purpose in being on display. This phenomenon is naturally reversible within a range of 50% ± 15% RH, moisture has strong effects on nearly all cultural heritage materials, with ceramics and glass being exceptions to these effects in most cases. Metals face the risk of corrosion as RH increases, a risk which is enhanced by surface contaminants, additionally, mold growth is far more likely as humidity increases, which not only could cause allergic reactions for viewers but it also weakens the collections afflicted and attracts other pests. In contrast to this requisite for dry conditions, if the atmosphere is not humid enough wooden objects could crack or warp, although minor and gentle fluctuations in RH can reasonably be withstood by most collections, quick or drastic shifts can be harmful. Anistropic materials such as wood and ivory are especially responsive to humidity changes, the metal acts as a restraint, hindering the organic materials’ ability to expand and contract as needed. Visual light, measured in lux or foot-candles, cannot be eliminated, unfortunately, this means that harmful oxidation effects which visual light makes possible also cannot be eliminated, but merely reduced to the amount necessary for the task at hand. In recent decades the cumulative nature of light degradation has become better understood by conservation science, practical compromise between protection of cultural heritage and allowing the artifacts to fulfill their visual purpose means there is an allowance of some physical risk. Even with this flexibility, light interaction should be limited to moments when an object is on view or undergoing study, and the level of lighting should be chosen accordingly. Moderately sensitive materials, such as oils and acrylics on board and composite inorganic objects, the traditional levels recommended for the least light-sensitive materials, such as stone, ceramics, metals, and glass, are not more than 300 lux or 30fc. Because lighting effects are cumulative, any limit in exposure – whether in time or in intensity – prevents material degradation, a period of intense or lengthy light exposure should be balanced out with periods of low exposure
8.
Packaging and labeling
–
Packaging is the technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of designing, evaluating, Packaging can be described as a coordinated system of preparing goods for transport, warehousing, logistics, sale, and end use. Packaging contains, protects, preserves, transports, informs, in many countries it is fully integrated into government, business, institutional, industrial, and personal use. Package labeling or labelling is any written, electronic, or graphic communication on the package or on a separate but associated label. The first packages used the materials available at the time, baskets of reeds, wineskins, wooden boxes, pottery vases, ceramic amphorae, wooden barrels, woven bags. Processed materials were used to form packages as they were developed, for example, early glass, the study of old packages is an important aspect of archaeology. The use of tinplate for packaging dates back to the 18th century, by 1697, John Hanbury had a rolling mill at Pontypool for making Pontypoole Plates. The method pioneered there of rolling iron plates by means of cylinders enabled more uniform black plates to be produced than was possible with the practice of hammering. Tinplate boxes first began to be sold from ports in the Bristol Channel in 1725, the tinplate was shipped from Newport, Monmouthshire. By 1805,80,000 boxes were made and 50,000 exported, tobacconists in London began packaging snuff in metal-plated canisters from the 1760s onwards. With the discovery of the importance of airtight containers for food preservation by French inventor Nicholas Appert, after receiving the patent, Durand did not himself follow up with canning food. By 1813, they were producing the first canned goods for the Royal Navy, the progressive improvement in canning stimulated the 1855 invention of the can opener. In 1858, another lever-type opener of a complex shape was patented in the United States by Ezra Warner of Waterbury. Set-up boxes were first used in the 16th century and modern folding cartons date back to 1839, the first corrugated box was produced commercially in 1817 in England. Corrugated paper received a British patent in 1856 and was used as a liner for tall hats, scottish-born Robert Gair invented the pre-cut paperboard box in 1890—flat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair discovered that by cutting and creasing in one operation he could make prefabricated paperboard boxes, commercial paper bags were first manufactured in Bristol, England, in 1844, and the American Francis Wolle patented a machine for automated bag-making in 1852. Packaging advancements in the early 20th century included Bakelite closures on bottles, transparent cellophane overwraps and these innovations increased processing efficiency and improved food safety. As additional materials such as aluminum and several types of plastic were developed, they were incorporated into packages to improve performance, in 1952, Michigan State University became the first university in the world to offer a degree in Packaging Engineering
9.
Joshua Reynolds
–
Sir Joshua Reynolds RA FRS FRSA was an influential eighteenth-century English painter, specialising in portraits. He promoted the Grand Style in painting which depended on idealization of the imperfect and he was a founder and first president of the Royal Academy of Arts, and was knighted by George III in 1769. Reynolds was born in Plympton, Devon, on 16 July 1723 the third son of the Rev. Samuel Reynolds and his father had been a fellow of Balliol College, Oxford, but did not send any of his sons to the university. One of his sisters was Mary Palmer, seven years his senior, author of Devonshire Dialogue, in 1740 she provided £60, half of the premium paid to Thomas Hudson the portrait-painter, for Joshuas pupilage, and nine years later advanced money for his expenses in Italy. His other siblings included Frances Reynolds and Elizabeth Johnson, as a boy, he came under the influence of Zachariah Mudge, whose Platonistic philosophy stayed with him all his life. The work that came to have the most influential impact on Reynolds was Jonathan Richardsons An Essay on the Theory of Painting, having shown an early interest in art, Reynolds was apprenticed in 1740 to the fashionable London portrait painter Thomas Hudson, who had been born in Devon. Hudson had a collection of old master drawings, including some by Guercino, although apprenticed to Hudson for four years, Reynolds only remained with him until summer 1743. Having left Hudson, Reynolds worked for some time as a portrait-painter in Plymouth Dock and he returned to London before the end of 1744, but following his fathers death in late 1745 he shared a house in Plymouth Dock with his sisters. In 1749, Reynolds met Commodore Augustus Keppel, who invited him to join HMS Centurion, of which he had command, while with the ship he visited Lisbon, Cadiz, Algiers, and Minorca. From Minorca he travelled to Livorno in Italy, and then to Rome, while in Rome he suffered a severe cold, which left him partially deaf, and, as a result, he began to carry a small ear trumpet with which he is often pictured. Reynolds travelled homeward overland via Florence, Bologna, Venice, and he was accompanied by Giuseppe Marchi, then aged about 17. Apart from a brief interlude in 1770, Marchi remained in Reynolds employment as an assistant for the rest of the artists career. Following his arrival in England in October 1752, Reynolds spent three months in Devon, before establishing himself in London, where he remained for the rest of his life. He took rooms in St Martins Lane, before moving to Great Newport Street and he achieved success rapidly, and was extremely prolific. In 1760 Reynolds moved into a house, with space to show his works and accommodate his assistants. Alongside ambitious full-length portraits, Reynolds painted large numbers of smaller works, in the late 1750s, at the height of the social season, he received five or six sitters a day, each for an hour. By 1761 Reynolds could command a fee of 80 guineas for a full-length portrait, the clothing of Reynolds sitters was usually painted either by one of his pupils, his studio assistant Giuseppe Marchi, or the specialist drapery painter Peter Toms. Lay figures were used to model the clothes and he had an excellent vantage from his house, Wick House, on Richmond Hill, and painted the view in about 1780
10.
Royal Academy of Arts
–
The Royal Academy of Arts is an art institution based in Burlington House on Piccadilly in London. The Royal Academy of Arts was founded through an act of King George III on 10 December 1768 with a mission to promote the arts of design in Britain through education and exhibition. Supporters wanted to foster a national school of art and to encourage appreciation, fashionable taste in 18th-century Britain was based on continental and traditional art forms, providing contemporary British artists little opportunity to sell their works. From 1746 the Foundling Hospital, through the efforts of William Hogarth, the success of this venture led to the formation of the Society of Artists of Great Britain and the Free Society of Artists. Both these groups were primarily exhibiting societies, their success was marred by internal factions among the artists. The combined vision of education and exhibition to establish a school of art set the Royal Academy apart from the other exhibiting societies. It provided the foundation upon which the Royal Academy came to dominate the art scene of the 18th and 19th centuries, supplanting the earlier art societies. Sir William Chambers, a prominent architect, used his connections with George III to gain royal patronage and financial support of the Academy, the painter Joshua Reynolds was made its first president. Francis Milner Newton was elected the first secretary, a post he held for two decades until his resignation in 1788, the instrument of foundation, signed by George III on 10 December 1768, named 34 founder members and allowed for a total membership of 40. William Hoare and Johann Zoffany were added to this list later by the King and are known as nominated members, among the founder members were two women, a father and daughter, and two sets of brothers. The Royal Academy was initially housed in cramped quarters in Pall Mall, although in 1771 it was given temporary accommodation for its library and schools in Old Somerset House, then a royal palace. In 1780 it was installed in purpose-built apartments in the first completed wing of New Somerset House, located in the Strand and designed by Chambers, the Academy moved in 1837 to Trafalgar Square, where it occupied the east wing of the recently completed National Gallery. These premises soon proved too small to house both institutions, in 1868,100 years after the Academys foundation, it moved to Burlington House, Piccadilly, where it remains. Burlington House is owned by the British Government, and used rent-free by the Royal Academy, the first Royal Academy exhibition of contemporary art, open to all artists, opened on 25 April 1769 and ran until 27 May 1769. 136 works of art were shown and this exhibition, now known as the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition, has been staged annually without interruption to the present day. In 1870 the Academy expanded its programme to include a temporary annual loan exhibition of Old Masters. The range and frequency of these exhibitions have grown enormously since that time. Britains first public lectures on art were staged by the Royal Academy, led by Reynolds, the first president, a program included lectures by Dr. William Hunter, John Flaxman, James Barry, Sir John Soane, and J. M. W. Turner
11.
Karl Kirchwey
–
Karl Kirchwey is an award–winning American poet who has lived in both Europe and the United States and whose work is strongly influenced by the Greek and Roman past. He often looks to the world for inspiration with themes which have included loss, loneliness, nostalgia and modern atrocities. While he is best known for his poems, he also is a reviewer, award-winning teacher of creative writing, translator, arts administrator, literary curator. He attended Yale but described his first two years as unfocused and unproductive. He took a class on versification taught by Penelope Laurans which gave him the sense that he had an ear for verse and he took a year off and worked at Cutlers Record Shop in New Haven. After his year off, he studied with poet John Hollander, Kirchwey graduated with a B. A. degree in English literature from Yale and with an M. A. in English literature from Columbia. Between 1979 and 1984, Kirchwey taught English literature and composition at the Andover Summer Session and he also taught at the American School in Switzerland in Lugano, and at Elisabeth Irwin High School in New York City. From 1995-97, Kirchwey drove weekly between New York City and western Massachusetts, where he taught writing at Smith College, during these drives, he would listen to tapes of epic poetry, including a translation of Vergil by Robert Fitzgerald. Creusas ghost appears to Aeneas to tell him that her death had been fated and that nothing he can do about it. Kirchwey wrote how his experience in Hartford was similar to that of Aeneas in Troy, Kirchwey taught at Smith, Yale, Wesleyan and he taught at Bryn Mawr from 2000–2014, where he was Professor of the Arts and Director of Creative Writing. From 2010–2013 he took leave from Bryn Mawr to serve as Andrew Heiskell Arts Director at the American Academy in Rome. At Bryn Mawr he taught writing courses in poetry and memoir and literature courses in Classical Myth and its contemporary updates, modernist poetry. He received Bryn Mawrs Rosalyn R. Schwartz Teaching Award in 2003, College president Nancy Vickers applauded Kirchweys efforts to bring talented writers to lecture on the campus. L. Actors Claire Bloom and John Neville did a reading of Miltons Samson Agonistes. Its mission is to foster the pursuit of advanced research and independent study in the arts and humanities. Kirchwey returned to Bryn Mawr for the 2013-14 academic year, a Bryn Mawr publication described Kirchweys role in Italy as shaping and articulating the Academy’s broad vision for the arts in terms of guiding programs. Beginning in September 2014 he will be Professor and Director of the MFA Program in Creative Writing at Boston University. Kirchwey has written poetry consistently during his career and by 2011 had published six books of poetry in addition to a translation of Paul Verlaines first book of poems as Poems Under Saturn
12.
History of art
–
The history of art is the history of any activity or product made by humans in a visual form for aesthetical or communicative purposes, expressing ideas, emotions or, in general, a worldview. The subsequent expansion of the list of arts in the 20th century reached to nine, architecture, dance, sculpture, music, painting, poetry, film, photography. The study of the history of art was developed during the Renaissance. Today, art enjoys a network of study, dissemination and preservation of all the artistic legacy of mankind throughout history. The rise of media has been crucial in improving the study, international events and exhibitions like the Whitney Biennial and biennales of Venice and São Paulo or the Documenta of Kassel have helped the development of new styles and trends. Institutions like UNESCO, with the establishment of the World Heritage Site lists, the field of art history was developed in the West, and originally dealt exclusively with European art history, with the High Renaissance as the defining standard. Gradually, over the course of the 20th century, a vision of art history has developed. This expanded version includes societies from across the globe, and it attempts to analyze artifacts in terms of the cultural values in which they were created. Thus, art history is now seen to all visual art. The history of art is often told as a chronology of masterpieces created in each civilization and it can thus be framed as a story of high culture, epitomized by the Wonders of the World. On the other hand, vernacular art expressions can also be integrated into art historical narratives, in the latter cases art objects may be referred to as archeological artifacts. One way to examine how art history is organized is by examining the major survey textbooks, information on canonical art history is also found in the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, which is sponsored by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City. The first tangible artifacts of human art that have found are from the Stone Age. During the Paleolithic, humans practiced hunting and gathering and lived in caves, in the Bronze Age, the first protohistoric civilizations arose. The Paleolithic had its first artistic manifestation in 25,000 BCE, the first traces of human-made objects appeared in southern Africa, the Western Mediterranean, Central and Eastern Europe, Siberia, India and Australia. These first traces are generally worked stone, wood or bone tools, to paint in red, iron oxide was used, in black, manganese oxide and in ochre, clay. Surviving art from this period includes small carvings in stone or bone, cave paintings have been found in the Franco-Cantabrian region. There are pictures with magical-religious character and also pictures with a naturalistic sense, sculpture is represented by the so-called Venus figurines, feminine figures which were probably used in fertility cults, such as the Venus of Willendorf
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Curator". Encyclopædia Britannica. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 636.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "
