1.
Hokusai
–
Katsushika Hokusai was a Japanese artist, ukiyo-e painter and printmaker of the Edo period. He was influenced by Sesshū Tōyō and other styles of Chinese painting, born in Edo, Hokusai is best known as author of the woodblock print series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji which includes the internationally iconic print, The Great Wave off Kanagawa. Hokusai created the Thirty-Six Views both as a response to a travel boom and as part of a personal obsession with Mount Fuji. It was this series, specifically The Great Wave print and Fine Wind, Clear Morning, as historian Richard Lane concludes, Indeed, if there is one work that made Hokusais name, both in Japan and abroad, it must be this monumental print-series. While Hokusais work prior to this series is important, it was not until this series that he gained broad recognition. Hokusais date of birth is unclear, but is stated as the 23rd day of the 9th month of the 10th year of the Hōreki era to an artisan family, in the Katsushika district of Edo. It is believed his father was the mirror-maker Nakajima Ise, who produced mirrors for the shogun and his father never made Hokusai an heir, so it is possible that his mother was a concubine. Hokusai began painting around the age of six, perhaps learning from his father, Hokusai was known by at least thirty names during his lifetime. While the use of names was a common practice of Japanese artists of the time. Hokusais name changes are so frequent, and so related to changes in his artistic production and style. At 14, he worked as an apprentice to a wood-carver, until the age of 18, Shunshō was an artist of ukiyo-e, a style of wood block prints and paintings that Hokusai would master, and head of the so-called Katsukawa school. Ukiyo-e, as practiced by artists like Shunshō, focused on images of the courtesans, after a year, Hokusais name changed for the first time, when he was dubbed Shunrō by his master. It was under this name that he published his first prints, during the decade he worked in Shunshōs studio, Hokusai was married to his first wife, about whom very little is known except that she died in the early 1790s. He married again in 1797, although this second wife died after a short time. He fathered two sons and three daughters with two wives, and his youngest daughter Sakae, also known as Ōi, eventually became an artist. Upon the death of Shunshō in 1793, Hokusai began exploring other styles of art and he was soon expelled from the Katsukawa school by Shunkō, the chief disciple of Shunshō, possibly due to studies at the rival Kanō school. This event was, in his own words, inspirational, What really motivated the development of my style was the embarrassment I suffered at Shunkōs hands. Hokusai also changed the subjects of his works, moving away from the images of courtesans, instead, his work became focused on landscapes and images of the daily life of Japanese people from a variety of social levels
Hokusai
–
The Great Wave off Kanagawa, Hokusai's most famous print, the first in the series 36 Views of Mount Fuji
Hokusai
–
Three women
Hokusai
–
Hokusai landscape with two falconers
Hokusai
–
Shunga by Hokusai
2.
Anathema
–
Anathema, in common usage, is something or someone that is detested or shunned. Its other main usage comes from the New Testament and refers to a formal ecclesiastical excommunication, however, in the Old Testament, anathema referred either to something that was consecrated or something denounced as evil or accursed and set aside for sacrificial offering. Anathema derives from Ancient Greek, ἀνάθεμα, anáthema, meaning an offering or anything dedicated, itself derived from the verb ἀνατίθημι, anatíthēmi, meaning to offer up. In the Old Testament, it referred to both objects consecrated to divine use and those dedicated to destruction in the Lords name, such as enemies, since weapons of the enemy were considered unholy, the meaning became anything dedicated to evil or a curse. In Church Latin, anathema was initially used by St. Paul to mean the excommunication of a heretic or an unrepentant heretic that had been excommunicated. Examples, Its no wonder then, that Paul calls down Gods curse, Gods anathema and he shrank from the venerable saint as if to avoid an anathema. In 1054, an anathema was issued by Rome against the Eastern Patriarch who then issued another one against the cardinal who delivered it, in 1526, anathema appeared in English for the first time and was used in the sense of something accursed. The consecrated object meaning was adopted a short time later. Its most common usage is in secular contexts where it is used to mean something or someone that is detested or shunned. Examples, Racial hatred was anathema to her, the idea that one would voluntarily inject poison into ones body was anathema to me. This notion was anathema to most of his countrymen, the New Testament uses the word to mean a curse and forced expulsion of someone from the Christian community. The Hebrew word was used for what was devoted, by virtue of a simple vow, not to the Lord. The noun ἀνάθεμα occurs in the Greek New Testament six times, in 1 Cor 12,3,16,22, Gal 1,8,9, Rom 9,3, Acts 23,14. Since the time of the apostles, the term anathema has come to mean a form of religious sanction. Cyril of Alexandria issued twelve anathemas against Nestorius in 431, the Orthodox Church distinguishes between separation from the communion of the Church and other epitemia laid on a person, and anathema. Epitemia, or excommunication, is limited to a specified period of time—though it always depends on the repentance of the one penanced. The lifting of anathema, however, depends solely on the repentance of the one condemned, the two causes for which a person may be anathematized are heresy and schism. Anathematization is only a last resort, and must always be preceded by attempts to reason with the offender
Anathema
–
Anathema (in the sense of a curse) attributed to
Pope Gregory XI
3.
Wish
–
A wish is a hope or desire for something. Fictionally, wishes can be used as plot devices, in folklore, opportunities for making a wish or for wishes to come true or be granted are themes that are sometimes used. In fiction a wish is a demand placed on the recipients unlimited request. One can wish on many things for example, wishing wells, dandelions when one blows the seeds or light them on fire, stars and much more. When one wishes in a well he or she throws money in, in the hope his or her wish comes true, the money normally goes to a charity. A template for fictional wishes could be The Book of One Thousand and One Nights, specifically the tale of Aladdin, also, Aladdins demands, while outrageous, were mainly variations on wealth. Classically the wish provider is often a spirit, genie or similar entity, releasing the entity from its constraint, usually by some simple action, allows the objects possessor to make a wish. The subservience of the powerful entity to the wisher can be explained in several ways. The entity may be grateful to be free of its constraint, the entity may be bound to obedience by its prison or some other item that the wisher possesses. The entity may, by its nature, be unable to exercise its powers without an initiator, other wish providers are a wide variety of, more or less, inanimate objects. Jacobs Monkeys Paw is an example of this, some wishes appear to be granted by nothing in particular. This is common in a tale involving a person, male or female, wishing for a child, even one that is a hedgehog, or a sprig of myrtle, the number of wishes granted varies. Aladdin had a number in the original story, but was restricted to three wishes in the 1992 Disney film. As in the Charles Perrault tale The Ridiculous Wishes, three is the most common, but others may be granted to fit the constraints of the tale, several authors have spun variations of the wish for more wishes theme, though some disallow this as cheating. In many stories the wording of the wish is extremely important, for example, characters often say, I wish I was wealthy. This wording could be literally, the wish granted so that at one time the wisher was wealthy but is not any more. Saying, I wish to be wealthy, then because to be refers to either the present or the future, a common problem is the granter of the wish being either extremely literal or through malice granting the request in a manner designed to cause maximum distress. Certain authors have tried an always on approach, the careless use of the word wish in everyday conversation having, often unpleasant
Wish
–
A
fairy offering wishes, illustration by
John Bauer to Alfred Smedberg's The seven wishes
4.
Adversity
–
Physiological or biological stress is an organisms response to a stressor such as an environmental condition. Stress is the method of reacting to a challenge. Stimuli that alter an organisms environment are responded to by multiple systems in the body, the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis are two major systems that respond to stress. The second major physiological stress, the HPA axis regulates the release of cortisol, the SAM and HPA axes are regulated by a wide variety of brain regions, including the limbic system, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus, and stria terminalis. Through these mechanisms, stress can alter memory functions, reward, immune function, metabolism, definitions of stress differ, however, one system proposed by Elliot and Eisdorfer suggests five types of stress. The five types of stress are labeled acute time limited stressors, brief naturalistic stressors, stressful event sequence, chronic stressors, acute time limited stressors involve a short term challenge, while brief naturalistic stressors involve an event that is normal but nevertheless challenging. Stressful event sequences are a stressor that occur, and continue to yield stress into the immediate future, chronic stressors are stressors that involve exposure to a long-term stressor. A distant stressor is a stressor that isnt immediate, there is likely a connection between stress and illness. Theories of the stress–illness link suggest that both acute and chronic stress can cause illness, and several studies have suggested such a link, according to these studies, both acute and chronic stress can lead to changes in behavior and in physiology. Behavioral changes can include smoking, changes in eating habits and physical activity, physiological changes can include changes in sympathetic activation or HPA activity, and immunological function. However, there is variability in the link between stress and illness. The HPA axis regulates many bodily functions, both behavioral and physiological, through the release of glucocorticoid hormones, the HPA axis activity varies according to the circadian rhythm, with a spike in the morning. The axis involves the release of corticotropin releasing hormone and vasopressin from the hypothalamus which stimulates the pituitary to secrete ACTH, ACTH may then stimulate the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol. The HPA axis is subject to feedback regulation as well. The release of CRH and VP are regulated by descending glutaminergic and GABAergic pathways from the amygdala, increased cortisol usually acts to increase blood glucose, blood pressure, and surpasses lysosomal, and immunological activity. Under other circumstances, however, the activity may differ, increased cortisol also favors habit based learning, by favoring memory consolidation of emotional memories. Selye demonstrated that stress decreases adaptability of an organism and proposed to describe the adaptability as a special resource, in recent works, it is considered as an internal coordinate on the dominant path in the model of adaptation. Stress can make the more susceptible to physical illnesses like the common cold
Adversity
–
Adrenal gland
Adversity
–
Human brain (hypothalamus=red, amygdala=green, hippocampus/
fornix =blue, pons=gold, pituitary gland=pink)
Adversity
–
A diagram of the General Adaptation Syndrome model.
5.
Supernatural
–
One complicating factor is that there is disagreement about the definition of natural and the limits of naturalism. Concepts in the domain are closely related to concepts in religious spirituality. Sometimes we understand by nature the established course of things, as when we say that nature makes the night succeed the day, nature hath made respiration necessary to the life of men. Sometimes we take nature for the universe, or system of the works of God, as when it is said of a phoenix, or a chimera. And sometimes too, and that most commonly, we would express by nature a semi-deity or other kind of being. Parapsychologists use the term psi to refer to a unitary force underlying the phenomena they study. Views on the supernatural vary, for example it may be seen as, from this perspective, some events occur according to the laws of nature, and others occur according to a separate set of principles external to known nature. For example, in Scholasticism, it was believed that God was capable of performing any miracle so long as it didnt lead to a logical contradiction, others believe that all events have natural and only natural causes. They believe that human beings ascribe supernatural attributes to purely natural events, such as lightning, rainbows, floods, the supernatural is a feature of the philosophical traditions of Neoplatonism and Scholasticism. In contrast, the philosophy of Metaphysical naturalism argues for the conclusion that there are no supernatural entities, objects, most religions include elements of belief in the supernatural while also often featuring prominently in the study of the paranormal and occultism. Process theology is a school of thought influenced by the process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead. It is not possible, in process metaphysics, to conceive divine activity as an intervention into the “natural” order of events. Process theists usually regard the distinction between the supernatural and the natural as a by-product of the doctrine of creation ex nihilo, in process thought, there is no such thing as a realm of the natural in contrast to that which is supernatural. On the other hand, if “the natural” is defined more neutrally as “what is in the nature of things, in Whiteheads words, “It lies in the nature of things that the many enter into complex unity”. It is tempting to emphasize process theisms denial of the supernatural, dreams as a Source of Supernatural Agent Concepts. Riekki T, Lindeman M, Raij T. T, Supernatural Believers Attribute More Intentions to Random Movement than Skeptics, An fMRI Study. CS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list Purzycki Benjamin G, the Minds of Gods, A Comparative Study of Supernatural Agency. Unresolved Mourning, Supernatural Beliefs and Dissociation, A Mediation Analysis, vail K. E, Arndt J, Addollahi A
Supernatural
–
One of the many supernatural acts attributed to
Jesus,
walking on water. Art by
François Boucher Cathédrale Saint-Louis (1766)
Versailles
Supernatural
–
The
patron saint of air travelers, aviators, astronauts, people with a mental handicap, test takers, and poor students is
Saint Joseph of Cupertino, who is said to have been gifted with
supernatural flight.
6.
Spirituality
–
Modern spirituality typically includes a belief in a supernatural realm, personal growth, a quest for an ultimate/sacred meaning, religious experience, or an encounter with ones own inner dimension. The meaning of spirituality has developed and expanded over time, the term spirituality originally developed within early Christianity, referring to a life oriented toward the Holy Spirit. The term spirit means animating or vital principle in man and animals and it is derived from the Old French espirit which comes from the Latin word spiritus and is related to spirare. In the Vulgate the Latin word spiritus is used to translate the Greek pneuma, the term spiritual, matters concerning the spirit, is derived from Old French spirituel, which is derived from Latin spiritualis, which comes from spiritus or spirit. The term spirituality is derived from Middle French spiritualité, from Late Latin spiritualitatem, there is no single, widely agreed definition of spirituality. A survey of reviews by McCarroll e. a. dealing with the topic of spirituality gave twenty-seven explicit definitions and this causes some difficulty in trying to study spirituality systematically, i. e. it impedes both understanding and the capacity to communicate findings in a meaningful fashion. To accomplish this, the re-formation is oriented at a mold, which represents the shape, in Judaism the Torah, in Christianity there is Christ, for Buddhism, Buddha. Houtman and Aupers suggest that modern spirituality is a blend of humanistic psychology, mystical and esoteric traditions, Spirituality is sometimes associated with philosophical, social, or political movements such as liberalism, feminist theology, and green politics. Some argue spirituality is intimately linked to resolving mental health issues, managing substance abuse, marital functioning, parenting, words translatable as spirituality first began to arise in the 5th century and only entered common use toward the end of the Middle Ages. In a Biblical context the term means being animated by God, to be driven by the Holy Spirit, in the 11th century this meaning changed. Spirituality began to denote the mental aspect of life, as opposed to the material and sensual aspects of life, in the 13th century spirituality acquired a social and psychological meaning. In the 17th and 18th century a distinction was made higher and lower forms of spirituality, A spiritual man is one who is Christian more abundantly. The word was associated with mysticism and quietism, and acquired a negative meaning. Modern notions of spirituality developed throughout the 19th and 20th century, mixing Christian ideas with westen esoteric traditions and elements of Asian, especially Indian, Spirituality became increasingly disconnected from traditional religious organisations and institutions. Ralph Waldo Emerson was a pioneer of the idea of spirituality as a distinct field, the Transcendentalists emphasised an intuitive, experiential approach of religion. Following Schleiermacher, an individuals intuition of truth was taken as the criterion for truth, in the late 18th and early 19th century, the first translations of Hindu texts appeared, which were also read by the Transcendentalists, and influenced their thinking. A major influence on modern spirituality was the Theosophical Society, which searched for secret teachings in Asian religions and it aims to present Hinduism as a homogenized ideal of Hinduism with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the world, since the 19th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity
Spirituality
–
Union with Christ is the purpose of Christian mysticism.
Spirituality
–
Jñāna marga
Spirituality
–
Bhakti marga
Spirituality
–
Rāja marga
7.
God
–
In monotheism, God is conceived of as the Supreme Being and principal object of faith. The concept of God as described by most theologians includes the attributes of omniscience, omnipotence, omnipresence, divine simplicity, many theologians also describe God as being omnibenevolent and all loving. Furthermore, some religions attribute only a purely grammatical gender to God, incorporeity and corporeity of God are related to conceptions of transcendence and immanence of God, with positions of synthesis such as the immanent transcendence of Chinese theology. God has been conceived as personal or impersonal. In theism, God is the creator and sustainer of the universe, while in deism, God is the creator, in pantheism, God is the universe itself. In atheism, God is not believed to exist, while God is deemed unknown or unknowable within the context of agnosticism, God has also been conceived as the source of all moral obligation, and the greatest conceivable existent. Many notable philosophers have developed arguments for and against the existence of God, there are many names for God, and different names are attached to different cultural ideas about Gods identity and attributes. In the ancient Egyptian era of Atenism, possibly the earliest recorded monotheistic religion, this deity was called Aten, premised on being the one true Supreme Being and creator of the universe. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, He Who Is, I Am that I Am, in the Christian doctrine of the Trinity, God, consubstantial in three persons, is called the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. In Judaism, it is common to refer to God by the titular names Elohim or Adonai, in Islam, the name Allah is used, while Muslims also have a multitude of titular names for God. In Hinduism, Brahman is often considered a concept of God. In Chinese religion, God is conceived as the progenitor of the universe, intrinsic to it, other religions have names for God, for instance, Baha in the Baháí Faith, Waheguru in Sikhism, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism. The earliest written form of the Germanic word God comes from the 6th-century Christian Codex Argenteus, the English word itself is derived from the Proto-Germanic * ǥuđan. The reconstructed Proto-Indo-European form * ǵhu-tó-m was likely based on the root * ǵhau-, in the English language, the capitalized form of God continues to represent a distinction between monotheistic God and gods in polytheism. The same holds for Hebrew El, but in Judaism, God is also given a proper name, in many translations of the Bible, when the word LORD is in all capitals, it signifies that the word represents the tetragrammaton. Allāh is the Arabic term with no plural used by Muslims and Arabic speaking Christians and Jews meaning The God, Ahura Mazda is the name for God used in Zoroastrianism. Mazda, or rather the Avestan stem-form Mazdā-, nominative Mazdå and it is generally taken to be the proper name of the spirit, and like its Sanskrit cognate medhā, means intelligence or wisdom. Both the Avestan and Sanskrit words reflect Proto-Indo-Iranian *mazdhā-, from Proto-Indo-European mn̩sdʰeh1, literally meaning placing ones mind, Waheguru is a term most often used in Sikhism to refer to God
God
–
"God the Father", a representation of the theistic version of God, by
Ludovico Mazzolino (1480 –
c. 1528)
God
–
Detail of
Sistine Chapel fresco Creation of the Sun and Moon by
Michelangelo (c. 1512), a well-known example of the depiction of
God the Father in Western art
God
–
Depiction of God in the Catholic Church, Latin America
God
–
St. Thomas Aquinas summarized
five arguments which he believed were proof for the existence of God
8.
Spirit
–
The English word spirit, from Latin spiritus breath, has many different meanings and connotations, most of them relating to a non-corporeal substance contrasted with the material body. It can also refer to a subtle as opposed to gross material substance, the word spirit is often used metaphysically to refer to the consciousness or personality. e. A manifestation of the spirit of a deceased person, the term may also refer to any incorporeal or immaterial being, such as demons or deities. In the Bible, the Spirit, specifically denotes the Holy Spirit, the English word spirit comes from the Latin spiritus, meaning breath, but also spirit, soul, courage, vigor, ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European *peis. It is distinguished from Latin anima, soul, in Greek, this distinction exists between pneuma, breath, motile air, spirit, and psykhē, soul. The word spirit came into Middle English via Old French, the distinction between soul and spirit also developed in the Abrahamic religions, Arabic nafs opposite rūħ, Hebrew neshama or nephesh נֶ֫פֶשׁ nép̄eš opposite ruach. In a lecture delivered to the literary Society of Augsburg, October 20,1926, on the theme of “Nature and Spirit, the mistrust of verbal concepts, inconvenient as it is, nevertheless seems to me to be very much in place in speaking of fundamentals. Spirit and Life are familiar enough words to us, very old acquaintances in fact, pawns that for thousands of years have pushed back. It can scarcely be an accident onomatopoeic words like ruach, ruch, roho mean ‘spirit’ no less clearly than the Greek πνεύμα and the Latin spiritus”. In spiritual and metaphysical terms, spirit has acquired a number of meanings, An incorporeal but ubiquitous, unlike the concept of souls a spirit develops and grows as an integral aspect of a living being. This concept of the individual spirit occurs commonly in animism, note the distinction between this concept of spirit and that of the pre-existing or eternal soul, belief in souls occurs specifically and far less commonly, particularly in traditional societies. One might more properly term this type/aspect of spirit life or aether rather than spirit, people usually conceive of a ghost as a wandering spirit from a being no longer living, having survived the death of the body yet maintaining at least vestiges of mind and consciousness. In religion and spirituality, the respiration of a human has for obvious reasons become seen as linked with the very occurrence of life. A similar significance has become attached to human blood, Spirit, in this sense, means the thing that separates a living body from a corpse—and usually implies intelligence, consciousness, and sentience. Latter-day Saint prophet Joseph Smith Jr. taught that the concept of spirit as incorporeal or without substance was incorrect, all spirit is matter, but it is more fine or pure, and can only be discerned by purer eyes. In some Native American spiritual traditions the Great Spirit or Wakan Tanka is a term for the Supreme Being, individual spirits envisaged as interconnected with all other spirits and with The Spirit. This concept relates to theories of a unified spirituality, to universal consciousness, the experience of such a connection can become a primary basis for spiritual belief. Christian spiritual theology can use the term Spirit to describe God, or aspects of God — as in the Holy Spirit, Spirit forms a central concept in pneumatology
Spirit
–
Theodor von Holst, Bertalda, Assailed by Spirits, c. 1830
9.
Natural phenomenon
–
A natural phenomenon is an observable event which is not man-made. Types of natural phenomena include, but are not limited to, decomposition – by which organic substances are broken down into a much simpler form of matter Metabolism Catabolism Anabolism Fermentation – converts sugar to acids, gases and/or alcohol. Violent Meteorological phenomena are called storms, regular, cyclical phenomena include seasons and atmospheric circulation. Elementary particle interactions Supernova Oceanographic phenomena include tsunamis, ocean currents and breaking waves
Natural phenomenon
–
An
aurora is a natural phenomenon.
Natural phenomenon
–
Crystal in VCGS furnace
Natural phenomenon
–
Geology:
parabola -shaped
lava flow illustrates
Galileo 's
law of falling bodies, as well as
blackbody radiation. The
temperature can be discerned from the color of the
blackbody.
Natural phenomenon
–
Lightning strikes during the eruption of the
Galunggung volcano in 1982
10.
Spell (paranormal)
–
A spell, charm, invocation, or hex is a set of words, spoken or unspoken, which are considered by its user to invoke some magical effect. Historical attestations exist for the use of some variety of incantations in many cultures around the world. Spells can be used in calling upon or summoning a spirit, demon, god or other supernatural agent, spells would generally be distinguished from magic symbols, words, patterns, recipes, practices and other forms of magic that were not directly exercised by a collection of words. However, some spells were combinations or repetitions of words that were considered to have magic power, surviving examples from northern Europe include For a Swarm of Bees, the Nine Herbs Charm and the Merseburg Incantations. Due to the written record of ancient Egyptian culture, a number of references to magic. In particular the embalming and interring process involved the use of many documented spells, the performance of magic almost always involves the use of language. Whether spoken out loud or unspoken, words are used to access or guide magical power. In The Magical Power of Words S. J. Tambiah argues that the connection between language and magic is due to a belief in the inherent ability of words to influence the universe. Magical speech is therefore an act and is of equal or even greater importance to the performance of magic than non-verbal acts. Not all speech is considered magical, only certain words and phrases or words spoken in a specific context are considered to have magical power. Magical language, according to C. K, Magical language is therefore particularly adept at constructing metaphors that establish symbols and link magical rituals to the world. Malinowski argues that the language of magic is sacred, set, the two forms of language are differentiated through word choice, grammar, style, or by the use of specific phrases or forms, prayers, spells, songs, blessings, or chants, for example. Sacred modes of language often employ archaic words and forms in an attempt to invoke the purity or truth of a religious or a golden age. The use of Hebrew in Judaism is an example, another potential source of the power of words is their secrecy and exclusivity. Much sacred language is differentiated enough from common language that it is incomprehensible to the majority of the population, in this respect, Tambiah argues that magical languages violate the primary function of language, communication. Incantation Invocation Magic word Mantra Prayer
Spell (paranormal)
–
Manuscript with the
Merseburg Incantations.
11.
Magic (paranormal)
–
Magic or sorcery is the use of rituals, symbols, actions, gestures, and language with the aim of exploiting supernatural forces. The term magic has a variety of meanings, and there is no agreed upon definition of what it is or how it can be used. Religious scholars have defined magic in many different ways, one approach, associated with the anthropologists Edward Tylor and James G. Frazer, has magic and science be opposites. Many scholars of religion have rejected the utility of the term magic, the term magic comes from the Old Persian magu, a word that applied to a form of religious functionary about which little is known. This meaning of the term was adopted by Latin in the first century BCE. The concept was incorporated into Christian theology during the first century CE. This concept was pervasive throughout the Middle Ages, although in the modern period Italian humanists reinterpreted the term in a positive sense to establish the idea of natural magic. Both negative and positive understandings of the term were retained in Western culture over the following centuries, throughout Western history, there have been examples of individuals claiming to be practitioners of magic and referring to themselves as magicians. This trend has proliferated in the period, with a growing number of magicians appearing within the esoteric milieu. Scholars of religion have failed to agree on a definition of magic is. The subject has one of intense dispute, with some scholars criticizing the validity of the term in the first place. Even among those throughout history who have described themselves as magicians, there has been some debate among scholars as to whether to use the term magic at all. The scholar of religion Jonathan Z. Smith for example argued that it had no utility as a term that scholars should use. Religious historian Wouter Hanegraaff agreed, stating that the magic is an important object of historical research. Since the 1990s its usage among scholars has declined, within Western culture, magic has been linked to the idea of the Other. Using the term magic when discussing non-Western cultures or pre-modern forms of Western society raises problems, alternately, this term implies that all categories of magic are ethnocentric and that such Western preconceptions are an unavoidable component of scholarly research. Magic is one of the most heavily theorized concepts in the study of religion, the intellectualist approach to defining magic is associated with two prominent British anthropologists, Edward Tylor and James G. Frazer. This was an approach that viewed magic as being the theoretical opposite of science, in his 1871 book Primitive Culture, Tylor characterized magic as beliefs based on the error of mistaking ideal analogy for real analogy
Magic (paranormal)
–
"
Circe Offering the Cup to Ulysses " by
John William Waterhouse
Magic (paranormal)
–
The "
Magician " card from a 15th-century
tarot deck.
Magic (paranormal)
–
Juju charm protecting dugout canoe on riverbank, in
Suriname.1954.
Magic (paranormal)
–
Traditional welcome performance,
Mitral,
Kheda district, Gujarat
12.
Witchcraft
–
Witchcraft broadly means the practice of, and belief in, magical skills and abilities that are able to be exercised by individuals and certain social groups. Witchcraft often occupies a religious, divinatory or medicinal role, and is present within societies. The concept of witchcraft and the belief in its existence have existed throughout recorded history and it posits a theosophical conflict between good and evil, where witchcraft was generally evil and often associated with the Devil and Devil worship. Christian views in the day are diverse and cover the gamut of views from intense belief and opposition to non-belief. From the mid-20th century, witchcraft – sometimes called contemporary witchcraft to clearly distinguish it from older beliefs – became the name of a branch of modern paganism and it is most notably practiced in the Wiccan and modern witchcraft traditions, and no longer practices in secrecy. The Western mainstream Christian view is far from the only societal perspective about witchcraft, Beliefs related to witchcraft and magic in these cultures were at times influenced by the prevailing Western concepts. Suspicion of modern medicine due to beliefs about illness being due to witchcraft also continues in countries to this day. HIV/AIDS and Ebola virus disease are two examples of infectious disease epidemics whose medical care and containment has been severely hampered by regional beliefs in witchcraft. Other severe medical conditions whose treatment is hampered in this way include tuberculosis, leprosy, epilepsy, the word witchcraft derives from the Old English wiccecræft, a compound of wicce and cræft. This definition was pioneered in a study of central African magical beliefs by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, European witchcraft is seen by historians and anthropologists as an ideology for explaining misfortune, however, this ideology has manifested in diverse ways, as described below. Some modern commentators believe the malefic nature of witchcraft is a Christian projection, many examples appear in early texts, such as those from ancient Egypt and Babylonia. Malicious magic users can become a cause for disease, sickness in animals, bad luck, sudden death, impotence. Witchcraft of a benign and socially acceptable sort may then be employed to turn the malevolence aside. The folk magic used to identify or protect against malicious magic users is often indistinguishable from that used by the witches themselves, there has also existed in popular belief the concept of white witches and white witchcraft, which is strictly benevolent. Many neopagan witches strongly identify with this concept, and profess ethical codes that prevent them from performing magic on a person without their request. Probably the most obvious characteristic of a witch was the ability to cast a spell, spell being the word used to signify the means employed to carry out a magical action. A spell could consist of a set of words, a formula or verse, or a ritual action, or any combination of these. Strictly speaking, necromancy is the practice of conjuring the spirits of the dead for divination or prophecy – although the term has also applied to raising the dead for other purposes
Witchcraft
–
Witches by
Hans Baldung. Woodcut, 1508
Witchcraft
–
Magic Circle by
John William Waterhouse, 1886
Witchcraft
–
A painting in the
Rila Monastery in
Bulgaria, condemning witchcraft and traditional
folk magic
Witchcraft
–
Execution of alleged witches, 1587
13.
Ritual
–
A ritual is a sequence of activities involving gestures, words, and objects, performed in a sequestered place, and performed according to set sequence. Rituals may be prescribed by the traditions of a community, including a religious community, Rituals are characterized but not defined by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, and performance. Rituals are a feature of all human societies. Even common actions like hand-shaking and saying hello may be termed rituals, the field of ritual studies has seen a number of conflicting definitions of the term. One given by Kyriakidis is that a ritual is an outsiders or etic category for a set activity that, to the outsider, seems irrational, non-contiguous, or illogical. The term can be used also by the insider or emic performer as an acknowledgement that this activity can be seen as such by the uninitiated onlooker, the English word ritual derives from the Latin ritualis, that which pertains to rite. In Roman juridical and religious usage, ritus was the way of doing something, or correct performance. The word ritual is first recorded in English in 1570, there are hardly any limits to the kind of actions that may be incorporated into a ritual. Catherine Bell argues that rituals can be characterized by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-governance, sacral symbolism, Ritual utilizes a limited and rigidly organized set of expressions which anthropologists call a restricted code. Maurice Bloch argues that ritual obliges participants to use this formal oratorical style, which is limited in intonation, syntax, vocabulary, loudness, in adopting this style, ritual leaders speech becomes more style than content. Because this formal speech limits what can be said, it induces acceptance, compliance, Bloch argues that this form of ritual communication makes rebellion impossible and revolution the only feasible alternative. Ritual tends to support forms of social hierarchy and authority. Rituals appeal to tradition and are concerned to repeat historical precedents accurately. Traditionalism varies from formalism in that the ritual may not be yet still makes an appeal to historical. An example is the American Thanksgiving dinner, which may not be formal, thus, the appeal to history is important rather than accurate historical transmission. Catherine Bell states that ritual is also invariant, implying careful choreography and this is less an appeal to traditionalism than a striving for timeless repetition. The key to invariance is bodily discipline, as in prayer and meditation meant to mold dispositions. This bodily discipline is frequently performed in unison, by groups, Rituals tend to be governed by rules, a feature somewhat like formalism
Ritual
–
A priest elevates the Host during a
Catholic Mass, one of the most widely performed rituals in the world.
Ritual
–
The use of Latin in a Tridentine Catholic Mass is an example of a "restricted code".
Ritual
–
The First Thanksgiving 1621, oil on canvas by
Jean Leon Gerome Ferris (1863–1930). The painting shows common misconceptions about the event that persist to modern times: Pilgrims did not wear such outfits, and the Wampanoag are dressed in the style of
Plains Indians.
Ritual
–
Masquerade at the
Carnival of Venice.
14.
Kerameikos
–
The area took its name from the city square or dēmos of the Kerameis, which in turn derived its name from the word κέραμος. The cemetery was also where the Ηiera Hodos began, along which the moved for the Eleusinian Mysteries. The quarter was located there because of the abundance of clay mud carried over by the Eridanos River, the area has undergone a number of archaeological excavations in recent years, though the excavated area covers only a small portion of the ancient dēmos. It was originally an area of marshland along the banks of the Eridanos river which was used as a cemetery as long ago as the 3rd millennium BC. It became the site of a cemetery from about 1200 BC, numerous cist graves. Houses were constructed on the drier ground to the south. During the Archaic period increasingly large and complex grave mounds and monuments were built along the bank of the Eridanos. The building of the new city wall in 478 BC, following the Persian sack of Athens in 480 BC, at the suggestion of Themistocles, all of the funerary sculptures were built into the city wall and two large city gates facing north-west were erected in the Kerameikos. The Sacred Way ran through the Sacred Gate, on the southern side, on the northern side a wide road, the Dromos, ran through the double-arched Dipylon Gate and on to the Platonic Academy a few miles away. State graves were built on side of the Dipylon Gate, for the interment of prominent personages such as notable warriors and statesmen. The construction of such lavish mausolea was banned by decree in 317 BC, the Roman occupation of Athens led to a resurgence of monument-building, although little is left of them today. During the Classical period an important public building, the Pompeion and this served a key function in the procession in honour of Athena during the Panathenaic Festival. It consisted of a courtyard surrounded by columns and banquet rooms. During the 2nd century AD, a storehouse was constructed on the site of the Pompeion, the ruins became the site of potters workshops until about 500 AD, when two parallel colonnades were built behind the city gates, overrunning the old city walls. A new Festival Gate was constructed to the east with three entrances leading into the city and this was in turn destroyed in raids by the invading Avars and Slavs at the end of the 6th century, and the Kerameikos fell into obscurity. It was not rediscovered until a Greek worker dug up a stele in April 1863, Archaeological excavations in the Kerameikos began in 1870 under the auspices of the Greek Archaeological Society. They have continued from 1913 to the present day under the German Archaeological Institute at Athens, during the construction of Kerameikos station for the expanded Athens Metro, a plague pit and approximately 1,000 tombs from the 4th and 5th centuries BC were discovered. The Greek archaeologist Efi Baziotopoulou-Valavani, who excavated the site, has dated the grave to between 430 and 426 BC, thucydides described the panic caused by the plague, possibly an epidemic of typhoid which struck the besieged city in 430 BC
Kerameikos
–
Kerameikos
Kerameikos
–
Inner Kerameikos, view northwest. Sacred Gate on the left, Pompeion on the right.
Kerameikos
–
Eridanos river
Kerameikos
–
Road to the
Platonic Academy
15.
Athens
–
Athens is the capital and largest city of Greece. In modern times, Athens is a cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic, financial, industrial, maritime. In 2015, Athens was ranked the worlds 29th richest city by purchasing power, Athens is recognised as a global city because of its location and its importance in shipping, finance, commerce, media, entertainment, arts, international trade, culture, education and tourism. It is one of the biggest economic centres in southeastern Europe, with a financial sector. The municipality of Athens had a population of 664,046 within its limits. The urban area of Athens extends beyond its administrative city limits. According to Eurostat in 2011, the Functional urban areas of Athens was the 9th most populous FUA in the European Union, Athens is also the southernmost capital on the European mainland. The city also retains Roman and Byzantine monuments, as well as a number of Ottoman monuments. Athens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery, Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it welcomed home the 2004 Summer Olympics. In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was Ἀθῆναι a plural, in earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as Ἀθήνη. It was possibly rendered in the later on, like those of Θῆβαι and Μυκῆναι. During the medieval period the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as Ἀθήνα, an etiological myth explaining how Athens has acquired its name was well known among ancient Athenians and even became the theme of the sculpture on the West pediment of the Parthenon. The goddess of wisdom, Athena, and the god of the seas, Poseidon had many disagreements, in an attempt to compel the people, Poseidon created a salt water spring by striking the ground with his trident, symbolizing naval power. However, when Athena created the tree, symbolizing peace and prosperity. Different etymologies, now rejected, were proposed during the 19th century. Christian Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word ἄθος or ἄνθος meaning flower, ludwig von Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb θάω, stem θη- to denote Athens as having fertile soil. In classical literature, the city was referred to as the City of the Violet Crown, first documented in Pindars ἰοστέφανοι Ἀθᾶναι. In medieval texts, variant names include Setines, Satine, and Astines, today the caption η πρωτεύουσα, the capital, has become somewhat common
Athens
–
From upper left: the
Acropolis, the
Hellenic Parliament, the
Zappeion, the
Acropolis Museum,
Monastiraki Square, Athens view towards the sea
Athens
–
Athena, patron goddess of Athens;
National Archaeological Museum
Athens
–
Acropolis of Athens, with
Odeon of Herodes Atticus seen on bottom left
16.
Folk religion
–
The precise definition of folk religion varies among scholars. Sometimes also termed popular belief, it consists of ethnic or regional religious customs under the umbrella of a religion, the term folk religion is generally held to encompass two related but separate subjects. The first is the dimension of folk culture, or the folk-cultural dimensions of religion. Chinese folk religion, Folk Christianity, Folk Hinduism, and Folk Islam are examples of religion associated with major religions. Don Yoder argued that there were five separate ways of defining folk religion and this definition would view folk religion in Catholic Europe as the survivals of pre-Christian religion and the folk religion in Protestant Europe as the survivals of Medieval Catholicism. The fourth definition provided by Yoder stated that folk religion represented the folk interpretation and expression of religion and his fifth and final definition represented a practical working definition that combined elements from these various other definitions. Yoder described folk religion as existing in a society in relation to. Its relatively unorganized character differentiates it from organized religion and this term was first employed by a German Lutheran preacher, Paul Drews, in a 1901 article that he published which was titled Religiöse Volkskunde, eine Aufgabe der praktischen Theologie. Although developing within an environment, the term came to be adopted by German academics in the field of folkloristics. Over the coming decades, Georg Schreiber established an Institut für religiöse Volkskund in Munich while a department was established in Salzburg by Hanns Koren. Throughout the 20th century, many studies were made of folk religion in Europe, paying attention to such subjects as pilgrimage. In the Americas, the study of folk religion developed among cultural anthropologists studying the syncretistic cultures of the Caribbean and Latin America. The pioneer in this field was Redfield, whose 1930 book Tepoztlán, Yoder later noted that although the earliest known usage of the term folk religion in the English language was unknown, it probably developed as a translation of the German Volksreligion. One of the earliest prominent usages of the term was in the title of Joshua Trachtenbergs 1939 work Jewish Magic and Superstition, A Study in Folk Religion. Courses on the study of religion came to be taught at various universities in the United States, such as John Messengers at Indiana University. Although the subject of folk religion fell within the remit of scholars operating in both folkloristics and religious studies, by 1974 Yoder noted that U. S. He also lamented that many U. S. -based folklorists also neglected the subject of religion because it did not fit within the standard genre-based system for cataloguing folklore, the term folk religion came to be increasingly rejected in the 1990s and 2000s by scholars seeking more precise terminology. Yoder noted that one problem with the use of the folk religion was that it did not fit into the work of those scholars who used the term religion in reference solely to organized religion
Folk religion
–
Botánicas such as this one in
Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts,
USA, sell religious goods such as statues of
saints and
candles decorated with
prayers alongside
folk medicine and
amulets.
17.
Folklore
–
Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs and jokes and they include material culture, ranging from traditional building styles to handmade toys common to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore, the forms and rituals of celebrations like Christmas and weddings, folk dances, each one of these, either singly or in combination, is considered a folklore artifact. Just as essential as the form, folklore also encompasses the transmission of these artifacts from one region to another or from one generation to the next, for folklore is not taught in a formal school curriculum or studied in the fine arts. Instead these traditions are passed along informally from one individual to another either through verbal instruction or demonstration, the academic study of folklore is called folkloristics. To fully understand folklore, it is helpful to clarify its component parts and it is well-documented that the term was coined in 1846 by the Englishman William Thoms. He fabricated it to replace the contemporary terminology of popular antiquities or popular literature, the second half of the compound word, lore, proves easier to define as its meaning has stayed relatively stable over the last two centuries. Coming from Old English lār instruction, and with German and Dutch cognates, it is the knowledge and traditions of a particular group, the concept of folk proves somewhat more elusive. When Thoms first created this term, folk applied only to rural, frequently poor, a more modern definition of folk is a social group which includes two or more persons with common traits, who express their shared identity through distinctive traditions. Folk is a concept which can refer to a nation as in American folklore or to a single family. This expanded social definition of folk supports a view of the material, i. e. the lore. These now include all things people make with words, things they make with their hands, Folklore is no longer circumscribed as being chronologically old or obsolete. The folklorist studies the traditional artifacts of a group and how they are transmitted. Transmission is a part of the folklore process. Without communicating these beliefs and customs within the group over space and time, for folklore is also a verb. These folk artifacts continue to be passed along informally, as a rule anonymously, the folk group is not individualistic, it is community-based and nurtures its lore in community. As new groups emerge, new folklore is created… surfers, motorcyclists, in direct contrast to high culture, where any single work of a named artist is protected by copyright law, folklore is a function of shared identity within the social group. Having identified folk artifacts, the professional folklorist strives to understand the significance of these beliefs, customs, for these cultural units would not be passed along unless they had some continued relevance within the group
Folklore
–
Horse and Sulky weathervane, Smithsonian American Art Museum
Folklore
–
Hansel and Gretel,
Arthur Rackham, 1909
Folklore
–
The story of
Jahangir and
Anarkali is popular folklore in the former territories of the
Mughal Empire.
18.
Hindu
–
Hindu refers to any person who regards themselves as culturally, ethnically, or religiously adhering to aspects of Hinduism. It has historically used as a geographical, cultural, or religious identifier for people indigenous to South Asia. The historical meaning of the term Hindu has evolved with time, by the 16th century, the term began to refer to residents of India who were not Turks or Muslims. The historical development of Hindu self-identity within the Indian population, in a religious or cultural sense, is unclear, competing theories state that Hindu identity developed in the British colonial era, or that it developed post-8th century CE after the Islamic invasion and medieval Hindu-Muslim wars. A sense of Hindu identity and the term Hindu appears in texts dated between the 13th and 18th century in Sanskrit and regional languages. The 14th- and 18th-century Indian poets such as Vidyapati, Kabir and Eknath used the phrase Hindu dharma, the Christian friar Sebastiao Manrique used the term Hindu in religious context in 1649. In the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the followers of Indian religions collectively as Hindus, in contrast to Mohamedans for Mughals, scholars state that the custom of distinguishing between Hindus, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs is a modern phenomenon. Hindoo is a spelling variant, whose use today may be considered derogatory. At more than 1.03 billion, Hindus are the third largest group after Christians. The vast majority of Hindus, approximately 966 million, live in India, according to Indias 2011 census. After India, the next 9 countries with the largest Hindu populations are, in decreasing order, Nepal, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, United States, Malaysia, United Kingdom and Myanmar. These together accounted for 99% of the worlds Hindu population, the word Hindu is derived from the Indo-Aryan and Sanskrit word Sindhu, which means a large body of water, covering river, ocean. It was used as the name of the Indus river and also referred to its tributaries, the Punjab region, called Sapta Sindhava in the Vedas, is called Hapta Hindu in Zend Avesta. The 6th-century BCE inscription of Darius I mentions the province of Hidush, the people of India were referred to as Hinduvān and hindavī was used as the adjective for Indian in the 8th century text Chachnama. The term Hindu in these ancient records is an ethno-geographical term, the Arabic equivalent Al-Hind likewise referred to the country of India. Among the earliest known records of Hindu with connotations of religion may be in the 7th-century CE Chinese text Record of the Western Regions by the Buddhist scholar Xuanzang, Xuanzang uses the transliterated term In-tu whose connotation overflows in the religious according to Arvind Sharma. The Hindu community occurs as the amorphous Other of the Muslim community in the court chronicles, wilfred Cantwell Smith notes that Hindu retained its geographical reference initially, Indian, indigenous, local, virtually native. Slowly, the Indian groups themselves started using the term, differentiating themselves, the poet Vidyapatis poem Kirtilata contrasts the cultures of Hindus and Turks in a city and concludes The Hindus and the Turks live close together, Each makes fun of the others religion
Hindu
–
A Hindu wedding ritual in India.
Hindu
–
Hindu culture in Bali,
Indonesia. The Krishna-Arjuna sculpture inspired by the
Bhagavad Gita in
Denpasar (top), and Hindu dancers in traditional dress.
Hindu
Hindu
–
Hindus at
Har Ki Pauri,
Haridwar near river
Ganges in
Uttarakhand state of India.
19.
Culture
–
Culture can be defined in numerous ways. In the words of anthropologist E. B, Tylor, it is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. The Cambridge English Dictionary states that culture is the way of life, especially the customs and beliefs. As a defining aspect of what it means to be human, culture is a concept in anthropology. The word is used in a sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with symbols. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes seen to distinguish civilizations from less complex societies. Mass culture refers to the mass-produced and mass mediated forms of culture that emerged in the 20th century. When used as a count noun, a culture is the set of customs, traditions, in this sense, multiculturalism is a concept that values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes culture is used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society. Samuel Pufendorf took over this metaphor in a context, meaning something similar. His use, and that of many writers after him, refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original barbarism, and through artifice, become fully human. To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensive to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, thus a contrast between culture and civilization is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such. Cultural invention has come to any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior. Humanity is in a global accelerating culture change period, driven by the expansion of commerce, the mass media, and above all. Culture repositioning means the reconstruction of the concept of a society. Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change, Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new cultural models, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany ideological shifts and other types of cultural change, for example, the U. S. feminist movement involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors, Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices
Culture
–
Human
symbolic expression developed as prehistoric humans reached
behavioral modernity
Culture
–
Religion and expressive
art are important aspects of human culture.
Culture
–
Celebrations,
rituals, and patterns of consumption are important aspects of
folk culture.
Culture
–
Social and political organization varies between different cultures.
20.
Rishi
–
In the Vedas the term Rishi denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the Rishis as seers or sages, who after intense meditation realized truths and eternal knowledge, according to Indian tradition, the word may be derived from two different meanings of the root rsh. Sanskrit grammarians derive this word from the meaning, to go. V. S. Apte gives this particular meaning and derivation, another form of this root means to flow, to move near by flowing. Monier-Williams also quotes Tārānātha who compiled the great dictionary named ṛṣati jñānena saṃsāra-pāram, more than a century ago, Monier-Williams tentatively suggested a derivation from drś to see. Monier-Wiliams also quotes the Hibernian form arsan and arrach as related to rishi, Monier-Williams also conjectures that the root drish might have given rise to an obsolete root rish meaning to see. However, the root has a close Avestan cognate ərəšiš an ecstatic, yet the Indo-European dictionary of Julius Pokorny connects the word to a PIE root *h3er-s meaning rise, protrude, in the sense of excellent and thus cognate with Ṛta and right and Asha. Some of the earliest lists of Rishi are found in Jaiminiya Brahmana verse 2.218, in the Vedas, the word denotes an inspired poet of Vedic hymns. In particular, Ṛṣi refers to the authors of the hymns of the Rigveda, post-Vedic tradition regards the Rishis as sages or saints, constituting a peculiar class of divine human beings in the early mythical system, as distinct from Asuras, Devas and mortal men. Swami Vivekananda described Rishis as Mantra-drashtas or the seers of thought, the Sama Veda adds Nodha, Akrishtabhasha, Sikatanivavari and Gaupayana. In Mahabharata 12, on the hand, there is the post-Vedic list of Marici, Atri, Angiras, Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya. The Mahābhārata list explicitly refers to the saptarshis of the first manvantara, each manvantara had a unique set of saptarshi. In Harivamsha 417ff, the names of the Rishis of each manvantara are enumerated, in addition to the Saptarṣi, there are other classifications of sages. In descending order of precedence, they are Brahmarshi, Maharshi, Rajarshi, devarṣi, Paramrṣi, Shrutarṣi and Kāndarṣi are added in Manusmriti iv-94 and xi-236 and in two dramas of Kālidasa. The Chaturvarga-Chintāmani of Hemādri puts riṣi at the place in the eightfold division of Brāhmanas. Amarakosha mentions seven types of riṣis, Shrutarshi, Kāndarshi, Paramarshi, Maharshi, Rājarshi, Brahmarshi and Devarshi, amarakosha strictly distinguishes Rishi from other types of sages, such as sanyāsi, bhikṣu, parivrājaka, tapasvi, muni, brahmachāri, yati, etc. Most medieval era Hindu temples of Java, Indonesia show Rishi Agastya statues or reliefs, some examples include Candi Sambisari and the Prambanan temple near Yogyakarta. Rishi Agastya is known as Phra Reusi Akkhot in Thailand, Ruesi is a hermit sage, the equivalent of Rishi in India
Rishi
–
Rishi Vishwamitra who is considered to be author of
Gayatri mantra in Hindu tradition. In above image, Menaka trying to win him over from an aloof ascetic life to a householder life.
Rishi
Rishi
–
A temple relief showing a Rishi.
21.
Blessing
–
A blessing is the infusion of something with holiness, spiritual redemption, or divine will. The modern English language term bless likely derives from the 1225 term blessen, due to this, the term is related to the term blōd, meaning blood. References to this practice, Blót, exist in related Icelandic sources. To be blessed means to be favored by God, Blessings therefore are directly associated with God and come from God. Thus to express a blessing is like bestowing a wish on someone that they experience the favor of God. May you have a blessed Christmas, therefore can also be translated as, a curse, at least in its most formal sense, is the opposite of a blessing. In the Bible, blessings and curses are related, the book of Deuteronomy prescribes that obedience to the Law of Moses brings Gods blessing, similar constructions appear in the New Testament, as in the blessings and curses of Jesus recorded in the Beatitudes of Luke 6, 20-22. One of the first incidences of blessing in the Bible is in Genesis 12, 1-2 where Abram is ordered by the LORD to leave his country and is told, I will bless you, I will make your name great. In Judaism, a blessing is recited at a moment during a prayer, ceremony or other activity, especially before. The function of these blessings is to acknowledge God as the source of all blessing, a berakhah typically starts with the words, Blessed are You, Lord our God, King of the universe. Judaism teaches that food ultimately is a gift of the one great Provider, God, within Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Anglicanism, Lutheranism, and similar traditions, formal blessings of the church are performed by bishops, priests, and deacons. Particular formulas may be associated with episcopal blessings and papal blessings and they also give blessings to begin divine services and at the dismissal at the end. In the Orthodox Church liturgical blessings are performed over people, objects, or are given at specific points during divine services. A priest or bishop blesses with his hand, but may use a blessing cross, candles, an icon. When blessing with the hand, a priest uses his hand, holding his fingers so that they form the Greek letters IC XC. A bishop does the same, except he uses both hands, or may hold the crozier in his hand, using both to make the Sign of the Cross. A bishop may also bless with special candlesticks known as the dikirion and trikirion, when blessing an object, the rubrics often instruct Orthodox bishops and priests to make use of such substances as incense and holy water. Also, formal ecclesiastical permission to undertake an action is referred to as a blessing, the blessing may be bestowed by a bishop or priest, or by ones own spiritual father
Blessing
–
Isaac Blessing
Jacob, painting by
Govert Flinck (
Rijksmuseum Amsterdam).
Blessing
–
Position in which a Jewish
kohen places his hands and fingers during the
Priestly Blessing.
Blessing
–
Aarti.
Blessing
–
Hindu priest giving blessing.
22.
African American
–
African Americans are an ethnic group of Americans with total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. The term may also be used to only those individuals who are descended from enslaved Africans. As a compound adjective the term is usually hyphenated as African-American, Black and African Americans constitute the third largest racial and ethnic group in the United States. Most African Americans are of West and Central African descent and are descendants of enslaved peoples within the boundaries of the present United States. On average, African Americans are of 73. 2–80. 9% West African, 18–24% European, according to US Census Bureau data, African immigrants generally do not self-identify as African American. The overwhelming majority of African immigrants identify instead with their own respective ethnicities, immigrants from some Caribbean, Central American and South American nations and their descendants may or may not also self-identify with the term. After the founding of the United States, black people continued to be enslaved, believed to be inferior to white people, they were treated as second-class citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1790 limited U. S. citizenship to whites only, in 2008, Barack Obama became the first African American to be elected President of the United States. The first African slaves arrived via Santo Domingo to the San Miguel de Gualdape colony, the ill-fated colony was almost immediately disrupted by a fight over leadership, during which the slaves revolted and fled the colony to seek refuge among local Native Americans. De Ayllón and many of the colonists died shortly afterwards of an epidemic, the settlers and the slaves who had not escaped returned to Haiti, whence they had come. The first recorded Africans in British North America were 20 and odd negroes who came to Jamestown, as English settlers died from harsh conditions, more and more Africans were brought to work as laborers. Typically, young men or women would sign a contract of indenture in exchange for transportation to the New World, the landowner received 50 acres of land from the state for each servant purchased from a ships captain. An indentured servant would work for years without wages. The status of indentured servants in early Virginia and Maryland was similar to slavery, servants could be bought, sold, or leased and they could be physically beaten for disobedience or running away. Africans could legally raise crops and cattle to purchase their freedom and they raised families, married other Africans and sometimes intermarried with Native Americans or English settlers. By the 1640s and 1650s, several African families owned farms around Jamestown and some became wealthy by colonial standards and purchased indentured servants of their own. In 1640, the Virginia General Court recorded the earliest documentation of slavery when they sentenced John Punch. One of Dutch African arrivals, Anthony Johnson, would own one of the first black slaves, John Casor
African American
–
An artist's conception of
Crispus Attucks (1723–1770), the first "
martyr " of the
American Revolution. He was of
Native American and African American descent.
African American
–
Jesse Owens shook racial stereotypes both with Nazis and segregationists in the USA at the 1936 Berlin Olympics.
African American
–
An African-American boy outside of
Cincinnati,
Ohio in the 1940s.
African American
–
March on Washington, August 28, 1963, shows civil rights leaders and union leaders.
23.
Pennsylvania Dutch
–
The Pennsylvania Dutch are a cultural group formed by early German-speaking immigrants to Pennsylvania and their descendants. The word Dutch does not refer to the Dutch people or their descendants, the early wave of settlers, which would eventually coalesce to form the Pennsylvania Dutch, began in the late 17th century and concluded in the late 18th century. Historically they spoke the dialect of German known as Pennsylvania German or Pennsylvania Dutch, the first major emigration of Germans to America resulted in the founding of the Borough of Germantown, in northwest Philadelphia County, Pennsylvania, on October 6,1683. Mass emigration of Palatines began out of Germany in the early 18th century from areas along the Rhine River, the Pennsylvania Dutch maintained numerous religious affiliations, with the greatest number being Lutheran or Reformed, but with many Anabaptists as well. The Anabaptist religions promoted a lifestyle, and their adherents were known as Plain people or Plain Dutch. This was in contrast to the Fancy Dutch, who tended to more easily into the American mainstream. Over time, the dialects spoken by these immigrants fused into a unique dialect known as Pennsylvania German or Pennsylvania Dutch. At one time, more than one-third of Pennsylvanias population spoke this language, a number of German cultural practices continue to this day, and German Americans remain the largest ancestry group claimed in Pennsylvania by people in the census. Pennsylvania Dutch is most likely a corruption of the endonym Deitsch, the word Dutch and Deutsch share the same origin and similar pronunciation. The pronunciation though for Dutch is with the u like in but, so in the latter it sounds like Doych. During the Middle Ages the use of Dutch in English referred to West Germanic speakers of continental Europe in general, from c.1600 onward it was mainly restricted to the inhabitants of the Low Countries. This has resulted in communities of Pennsylvania Dutch speakers emigrating to Canada. Today, the language is spoken in the Waterloo Region. Many Pennsylvania Dutch are descendants of refugees from the Palatinate of the German Rhine, most of the Pennsylvania Dutch have roots going much further back in the Palatinate. During the War of the Grand Alliance, French troops pillaged the Palatinate, the War of the Palatinate, also called the War of the League of Augsburg, began in 1688 as Louis XIV took claim of the Electorate of the Palatinate. French forces devastated all major cities of the region, including Cologne, by 1697 the war came to a close with the Treaty of Ryswick, now Rijswijk in the Netherlands, and the Palatinate remained free of French control. However, by 1702, the War of Spanish Succession began, French expansionism forced many Palatines to flee as refugees. None of the Frankfurt Company ever came to Pennsylvania except Pastorius himself and they were joined by eight more Dutch-speaking families from Hamburg-Altona in 1700 and five German-speaking families from the Palatinate in 1707
Pennsylvania Dutch
–
Pictures from Old-Germantown. Shown here is the first log cabin of Pastorius about 1683, Pastorius' later house about 1715, print shop and house of Saurs about 1735, and the market square about 1820.
24.
President of the United States
–
The President of the United States is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed Forces. The president is considered to be one of the worlds most powerful political figures, the role includes being the commander-in-chief of the worlds most expensive military with the second largest nuclear arsenal and leading the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The office of President holds significant hard and soft power both in the United States and abroad, Constitution vests the executive power of the United States in the president. The president is empowered to grant federal pardons and reprieves. The president is responsible for dictating the legislative agenda of the party to which the president is a member. The president also directs the foreign and domestic policy of the United States, since the office of President was established in 1789, its power has grown substantially, as has the power of the federal government as a whole. However, nine vice presidents have assumed the presidency without having elected to the office. The Twenty-second Amendment prohibits anyone from being elected president for a third term, in all,44 individuals have served 45 presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms. On January 20,2017, Donald Trump was sworn in as the 45th, in 1776, the Thirteen Colonies, acting through the Second Continental Congress, declared political independence from Great Britain during the American Revolution. The new states, though independent of each other as nation states, desiring to avoid anything that remotely resembled a monarchy, Congress negotiated the Articles of Confederation to establish a weak alliance between the states. Out from under any monarchy, the states assigned some formerly royal prerogatives to Congress, only after all the states agreed to a resolution settling competing western land claims did the Articles take effect on March 1,1781, when Maryland became the final state to ratify them. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each of the former colonies, with peace at hand, the states each turned toward their own internal affairs. Prospects for the convention appeared bleak until James Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in securing George Washingtons attendance to Philadelphia as a delegate for Virginia. It was through the negotiations at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U. S. The first power the Constitution confers upon the president is the veto, the Presentment Clause requires any bill passed by Congress to be presented to the president before it can become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the president has three options, Sign the legislation, the bill becomes law. Veto the legislation and return it to Congress, expressing any objections, in this instance, the president neither signs nor vetoes the legislation
President of the United States
–
Incumbent
Barack Obama since January 20, 2009 (2009-01-20)
President of the United States
–
Presidential Seal
President of the United States
–
Obama signing legislation at the
Resolute desk
President of the United States
–
Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, successfully preserved the
Union during the
American Civil War
25.
Ronald Reagan
–
Ronald Wilson Reagan was an American politician and actor who was the 40th President of the United States, from 1981 to 1989. Before his presidency, he was the 33rd Governor of California, from 1967 to 1975, after a career as a Hollywood actor and union leader. Raised in a family in small towns of northern Illinois, Reagan graduated from Eureka College in 1932. After moving to Hollywood in 1937, he became an actor, Reagan was twice elected President of the Screen Actors Guild, the labor union for actors, where he worked to root out Communist influence. In the 1950s, he moved into television and was a speaker at General Electric factories. Having been a lifelong Democrat, his views changed and he became a conservative and in 1962 switched to the Republican Party. In 1964, Reagans speech, A Time for Choosing, in support of Barry Goldwaters foundering presidential campaign, Building a network of supporters, he was elected Governor of California in 1966. Entering the presidency in 1981, Reagan implemented sweeping new political, in his first term he survived an assassination attempt, spurred the War on Drugs, and fought public sector labor. During his re-election bid, Reagan campaigned on the notion that it was Morning in America, foreign affairs dominated his second term, including ending of the Cold War, the bombing of Libya, and the Iran–Contra affair. Publicly describing the Soviet Union as an empire, and during his famous speech at the Brandenburg Gate. Jack, a salesman and storyteller, was the grandson of Irish Catholic immigrants from County Tipperary, Reagan had one older brother, John Neil Reagan, who became an advertising executive. As a boy, Reagans father nicknamed his son Dutch, due to his fat little Dutchman-like appearance and Dutchboy haircut, Reagans family briefly lived in several towns and cities in Illinois, including Monmouth, Galesburg, and Chicago. In 1919, they returned to Tampico and lived above the H. C, Pitney Variety Store until finally settling in Dixon. After his election as president, residing in the upstairs White House private quarters, for the time, Reagan was unusual in his opposition to racial discrimination, and recalled a time in Dixon when the local inn would not allow black people to stay there. Reagan brought them back to his house, where his mother invited them to stay the night and have breakfast the next morning, after the closure of the Pitney Store in late 1920 and the familys move to Dixon, the midwestern small universe had a lasting impression on Reagan. Reagan attended Dixon High School, where he developed interests in acting, sports and his first job was as a lifeguard at the Rock River in Lowell Park in 1927. Over a six-year period, Reagan reportedly performed 77 rescues as a lifeguard and he attended Eureka College, a Disciples-oriented liberal arts school, where he became a member of the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity, a cheerleader, and studied economics and sociology. While involved, the Miller Center of Public Affairs described him as an indifferent student and he majored in economics and sociology, and graduated with a C grade
Ronald Reagan
–
Ronald Reagan
Ronald Reagan
–
Ronald Reagan (with "Dutch" haircut), his elder brother Neil, and their parents Jack and Nelle Reagan. Photograph circa 1916–17.
Ronald Reagan
–
Ronald Reagan as a teenager in
Dixon, Illinois.
Ronald Reagan
–
With wife
Jane Wyman in 1942
26.
George W. Bush
–
George Walker Bush is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009. He was also the 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 and he is the eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush. After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975, Bush married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter. He later co-owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election and he is the second president to assume the nations highest office after his father, following the lead of John Quincy Adams. He is also a brother of Jeb Bush, a former Governor of Florida who was a candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election, the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred eight months into Bushs first term as president. Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine, launching a War on Terror, a military campaign that included the war in Afghanistan in 2001. He also promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, Social Security reform and his tenure included national debates on immigration, Social Security, electronic surveillance, and torture. In the 2004 Presidential race, Bush defeated Democratic Senator John Kerry in another close election. After his re-election, Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War, Hurricane Katrina. Amid this criticism, the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections, Bush left office in 2009, returning to Texas where he purchased a home in Crawford. He wrote a memoir, Decision Points and his presidential library was opened in 2013. His presidency has been ranked among the worst in historians polls published in the late 2000s and 2010s. George Walker Bush was born on July 6,1946, at Grace-New Haven Hospital in New Haven, Connecticut, as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and his wife, the former Barbara Pierce. He was raised in Midland and Houston, Texas, with four siblings, Jeb, Neil, Marvin, another younger sister, Robin, died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953. His grandfather, Prescott Bush, was a U. S and his father, George H. W. Bush, was Ronald Reagans Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U. S. President from 1989 to 1993. Bush has English and some German ancestry, along with more distant Dutch, Welsh, Irish, French, Bush attended public schools in Midland, Texas, until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade. He then spent two years at The Kinkaid School, a school in Houston. Bush attended high school at Phillips Academy, a school in Andover, Massachusetts
George W. Bush
–
George W. Bush
George W. Bush
–
Lt. George W. Bush while in the
Texas Air National Guard
George W. Bush
–
George W. Bush with his father outside the White House, April 29, 1992
George W. Bush
–
Governor Bush (right) with father, former president
George H. W. Bush and wife, Laura, in 1997
27.
Rigoletto
–
Rigoletto is an opera in three acts by Giuseppe Verdi. The Italian libretto was written by Francesco Maria Piave based on the play Le roi samuse by Victor Hugo. Despite serious initial problems with the Austrian censors who had control over northern Italian theatres at the time and it is considered by many to be the first of the operatic masterpieces of Verdis middle-to-late career. Its tragic story revolves around the licentious Duke of Mantua, his court jester Rigoletto. The operas original title, La maledizione, refers to the placed on both the Duke and Rigoletto by a courtier whose daughter had been seduced by the Duke with Rigolettos encouragement. The curse comes to fruition when Gilda likewise falls in love with the Duke, Verdi was commissioned to write a new opera by the La Fenice opera house in Venice in 1850. By this time he was already a composer and had a degree of freedom in choosing the works he would prefer to set to music. He then asked Francesco Maria Piave to examine the play Kean by Alexandre Dumas, père, Verdi soon stumbled upon Victor Hugos five-act play Le roi samuse. He later explained that The subject is grand, immense, and there is a character that is one of the greatest creations that the theatre can boast of, in any country and in all history. It was a controversial subject, and Hugo himself had already had trouble with censorship in France. As Austria at that time controlled much of Northern Italy. Hugos play depicted a king as an immoral and cynical womanizer, from the beginning, Verdi was aware of the risks, as was Piave. In a letter which Verdi wrote to Piave, Use four legs, run through the town, correspondence between a prudent Piave and an already committed Verdi followed, but the two underestimated the power and the intentions of Austrians and remained at risk. Even the friendly Guglielmo Brenna, secretary of La Fenice, who had promised them that they would not have problems with the censors, was wrong, at the beginning of the summer of 1850, rumours started to spread that Austrian censorship was going to forbid the production. The censors considered the Hugo work to verge on lèse majesté, in August, Verdi and Piave prudently retired to Busseto, Verdis hometown, to continue the composition and prepare a defensive scheme. They wrote to the theatre, assuring them that the doubts about the morality of the work were not justified but since very little time was left. Verdi was completely against this solution and preferred instead to have direct negotiations with censors, arguing over each. At this point, Brenna, La Fenices secretary, showed the Austrians some letters and articles depicting the bad character but the value of the artist
Rigoletto
–
Set design by Philippe Chaperon.
Rigoletto
–
Francesco Maria Piave, the librettist of Rigoletto
Rigoletto
–
La Fenice 's poster for the world premiere of Rigoletto
Rigoletto
–
Felice Varesi, the first Rigoletto
28.
Romeo and Juliet
–
Romeo and Juliet is a tragedy written by William Shakespeare early in his career about two young star-crossed lovers whose deaths ultimately reconcile their feuding families. It was among Shakespeares most popular plays during his lifetime and along with Hamlet, is one of his most frequently performed plays, today, the title characters are regarded as archetypal young lovers. Romeo and Juliet belongs to a tradition of tragic romances stretching back to antiquity. The plot is based on an Italian tale translated into verse as The Tragical History of Romeus and Juliet by Arthur Brooke in 1562, Shakespeare borrowed heavily from both but expanded the plot by developing a number of supporting characters, particularly Mercutio and Paris. Believed to have written between 1591 and 1595, the play was first published in a quarto version in 1597. The text of the first quarto version was of quality, however. Shakespeares use of his dramatic structure has been praised as an early sign of his dramatic skill. The play ascribes different poetic forms to different characters, sometimes changing the form as the character develops, Romeo, for example, grows more adept at the sonnet over the course of the play. Romeo and Juliet has been adapted numerous times for stage, film, musical, during the English Restoration, it was revived and heavily revised by William Davenant. David Garricks 18th-century version also modified several scenes, removing material then considered indecent, Performances in the 19th century, including Charlotte Cushmans, restored the original text and focused on greater realism. John Gielguds 1935 version kept very close to Shakespeares text and used Elizabethan costumes, the play, set in Verona, Italy, begins with a street brawl between Montague and Capulet servants who, like their masters, are sworn enemies. Prince Escalus of Verona intervenes and declares that further breach of the peace will be punishable by death, later, Count Paris talks to Capulet about marrying his daughter Juliet, but Capulet asks Paris to wait another two years and invites him to attend a planned Capulet ball. Lady Capulet and Juliets nurse try to persuade Juliet to accept Pariss courtship, meanwhile, Benvolio talks with his cousin Romeo, Montagues son, about Romeos recent depression. Benvolio discovers that it stems from unrequited infatuation for a girl named Rosaline, one of Capulets nieces, persuaded by Benvolio and Mercutio, Romeo attends the ball at the Capulet house in hopes of meeting Rosaline. However, Romeo instead meets and falls in love with Juliet, Juliets cousin, Tybalt, is enraged at Romeo for sneaking into the ball but is only stopped from killing Romeo by Juliets father, who does not wish to shed blood in his house. Romeo makes himself known to her and they agree to be married, with the help of Friar Laurence, who hopes to reconcile the two families through their childrens union, they are secretly married the next day. Tybalt, meanwhile, still incensed that Romeo had sneaked into the Capulet ball, Romeo, now considering Tybalt his kinsman, refuses to fight. Mercutio is offended by Tybalts insolence, as well as Romeos vile submission, Mercutio is fatally wounded when Romeo attempts to break up the fight
Romeo and Juliet
–
An 1870 oil painting by
Ford Madox Brown depicting the play's famous balcony scene
Romeo and Juliet
–
L’ultimo bacio dato a Giulietta da Romeo by
Francesco Hayez. Oil on canvas, 1823.
Romeo and Juliet
–
Title page of
Arthur Brooke 's poem, Romeus and Juliet.
Romeo and Juliet
–
Title page of the first edition
29.
Sleeping Beauty
–
Sleeping Beauty by Charles Perrault, or Little Briar Rose by the Brothers Grimm, is a classic fairy tale which involves a beautiful princess, a sleeping enchantment, and a handsome prince. The version collected by the Brothers Grimm was an orally transmitted version of the originally literary tale published by Charles Perrault in Histoires ou contes du temps passé in 1697. This in turn was based on Sun, Moon, and Talia by Italian poet Giambattista Basile, the earliest known version of the story is found in the narrative Perceforest, composed between 1330 and 1344 and first printed in 1528. At the christening of a king and queens long-wished-for child, seven good fairies are invited to be godmothers to the infant princess, the fairies attend the banquet at the palace. Each fairy is presented with a plate and drinking cups adorned with jewels. Soon after, an old fairy enters the palace and is seated with a plate of fine china and this old fairy is overlooked because she has been within a tower for many years and everyone had believed her to be deceased. Six of the seven fairies then offer their gifts of beauty, wit, grace, dance, song. The evil fairy is very angry about having been forgotten, and as her gift, enchants the infant princess so that she one day prick her finger on a spindle of a spinning wheel. The seventh fairy, who hasnt yet given her gift, attempts to reverse the evil fairys curse, however, she can only do so partially. Instead of dying, the Princess will fall into a deep sleep for 100 years, the King orders that every spindle and spinning wheel in the kingdom to be destroyed, to try to save his daughter from the terrible curse. Fifteen or sixteen years pass and one day, when the king and queen are away, the princess, who has never seen anyone spin before, asks the old woman if she can try the spinning wheel. The curse is fulfilled as the princess pricks her finger on the spindle, the old woman cries for help and attempts are made to revive the princess. The king attributes this to fate and has the Princess carried to the finest room in the palace and placed upon a bed of gold, the king and queen kiss their daughter goodbye and depart, proclaiming the entrance to be forbidden. The good fairy who altered the evil prophecy is summoned, having great powers of foresight, the fairy sees that the Princess will awaken to distress when she finds herself alone, so the fairy puts everyone in the castle to sleep. The fairy also summons a forest of trees, brambles and thorns that spring up around the castle, shielding it from the outside world, a hundred years pass and a prince from another family spies the hidden castle during a hunting expedition. The prince then braves the tall trees, brambles and thorns which part at his approach and he passes the sleeping castle folk and comes across the chamber where the Princess lies asleep on the bed. Struck by the radiant beauty before him, he falls on his knees before her, the enchantment comes to an end by a kiss and the princess awakens and converses with the prince for a long time. Meanwhile, the rest of the castle awakens and go about their business, the prince and princess are later married by the chaplain in the castle chapel
Sleeping Beauty
–
"Sleeping Beauty", by
Henry Meynell Rheam
Sleeping Beauty
–
Sleeping Beauty is shown a
spindle by the old woman. "Sleeping Beauty", by
Alexander Zick (1845–1907)
Sleeping Beauty
–
An older image of the sleeping princess:
Brünnhilde, surrounded by magical fire rather than roses (illustration by
Arthur Rackham to
Richard Wagner 's
Die Walküre
Sleeping Beauty
–
Illustration to Tennyson's 1830 poem,
Sleeping Beauty
30.
Beauty and the Beast
–
Beauty and the Beast is a traditional fairy tale written by French novelist Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuve and published in 1740 in La Jeune Américaine et les contes marins. Variants of the tale are known across Europe, amour pour amour, by Nivelle de la Chaussée, is a 1742 play based on Gabrielle-Suzanne Barbot de Villeneuves version. According to researchers at universities in Durham and Lisbon, the story originated around 4,000 years ago, a widowed merchant lives in a mansion with his six children, three sons and three daughters. They secretly taunt Beauty and treat her more like a servant than a sister, the merchant eventually loses all of his wealth in a tempest at sea. He and his children are forced to live in a small farmhouse. Some years later, the merchant hears that one of the ships he had sent off has arrived back in port. Before leaving, he asks his children if they wish for him to bring any gifts back for them. The sons ask for weaponry and horses to hunt with, whereas his oldest daughters ask for clothing, jewels, Beauty is satisfied with the promise of a rose as none grow in their part of the country. The merchant, to his dismay, finds that his ships cargo has been seized to pay his debts, leaving him penniless, during his return, the merchant becomes lost during a storm. Seeking shelter, he enters a dazzling palace, a hidden figure opens the giant doors and silently invites him in. The merchant finds tables inside laden with food and drink, which seem to have left for him by the palaces invisible owner. The merchant accepts this gift and spends the night there, the next morning, as the merchant is about to leave, he sees a rose garden and recalls that Beauty had desired a rose. The merchant begs to be set free, arguing that he had picked the rose as a gift for his youngest daughter. The Beast agrees to let him give the rose to Beauty, the merchant is upset but accepts this condition. The Beast sends him on his way, with wealth, jewels and fine clothes for his sons and daughters, the merchant, upon arriving home, tries to hide the secret from Beauty, but she pries it from him. Her brothers say they will go to the castle and fight the Beast, Beauty then agrees to go to the Beasts castle. The Beast receives her graciously and informs her that she is now mistress of the castle and he gives her lavish clothing and food and carries on lengthy conversations with her. Every night, the Beast asks Beauty to marry him, only to be refused each time, Beauty does not make the connection between the handsome prince and the Beast and becomes convinced that the Beast is holding the prince captive somewhere in the castle
Beauty and the Beast
–
Illustration for Beauty and the Beast by
Walter Crane.
Beauty and the Beast
–
Beauty dines with the Beast in an illustration by
Anne Anderson.
Beauty and the Beast
–
Illustration by
Warwick Goble.
31.
World Snooker Championship
–
The World Snooker Championship is the leading snooker tournament both in terms of prestige and prize money. The first championship was held in 1927 and was won by Joe Davis, Davis won the first 15 championships before retiring from the event, undefeated, after his 1946 success. In the 1950s snooker went into a period of decline and the championship was not held after 1952, in 1964 the championship was revived on a challenge basis and in 1969 the championship became a knock-out event again. Since 1977 it has played at the Crucible Theatre in Sheffield. The tournament is played over 17 days and ends on the first Monday in May. In the modern era, the best record is that of Stephen Hendry, Steve Davis and Ray Reardon both won six times while Ronnie OSullivan has won five titles. The current champion is Mark Selby, who has won the tournament twice, the first championship was held in 1927 and was called the Professional Snooker Championship. It was the first important professional snooker tournament although the English Amateur Championship has been contested since 1916, ten professionals entered including most of the leading billiards players. Matches were over 15 frames with the semi-finals over 23 frames, the first match played was between Melbourne Inman and Tom Newman at Thurstons Hall, Leicester Square in London. The snooker was played as an extra to the main event. The match started on Monday 29 November 1926 and one frame of snooker was played at the end of each session, Inman won 8–5, the match finishing on the Monday afternoon, a week after it started. One other match was played in connection with a billiards contest, with minimal prize money, players mainly made money from their share of the gate receipts. Because of this it was common for dead frames to be played after the result of the match had been decided, the final between Joe Davis and Tom Dennis was played over four days in early May at Camkins Hall in Birmingham. Davis won the first seven frames and led throughout, taking a winning 16–7 lead on the third day, the highest break of the tournament was 60, made by Albert Cope in his semi-final match against Davis, in a dead frame after Davis had won the match. Davis made a 57 break of the final, the 1928 Championship was played on a challenge basis, with the other 6 entries playing off for the right to challenge Joe Davis in the final. Davis met Fred Lawrence in the final, winning 16–13, the challenge system was dropped in 1929. Davis met Tom Dennis in the final, played in Denniss home town of Nottingham, Davis made a new record break of 61 on the way to a 17–12 victory. The same pair met in the 1930 final, played for the first time at Thurstons Hall in London, the final was extended to 49 frames played over 6 days
World Snooker Championship
–
The World Snooker Championship trophy
32.
Crucible Theatre
–
The Crucible Theatre is a theatre built in 1971 in the city centre of Sheffield, South Yorkshire, England. As well as performances, it hosts the most prestigious event in professional snooker. The Crucible Theatre was built by M J Gleeson and opened in 1971, in 1967 Colin George, the founding Artistic Director of the Crucible, recommended a thrust stage for Sheffield, inspired by theatres created by Sir Tyrone Guthrie. Tanya Moiseiwitsch, who had involved in designing Guthrie’s theatres, was the designer. The architects Renton Howard Wood Levin Architects were engaged and the building began to take shape in 1969. The audience sits on three sides but no member is more than the length of a cricket wicket –22 yards – from the performer, consequently, although it seats 980 people the spectator has an intimate relationship with the activity on stage. In 2001, the Crucible was awarded the Barclays ‘Theatre of the Year Award’ and it is a Grade II listed building. The building went through a £15 million refurbishment between 2007 and late 2009 – opening during that period only for the 2008 and 2009 World Snooker Championships. The Crucible reopened as a theatre on 11 February 2010 with a production of Henrik Ibsens An Enemy of the People, the Crucible is a producing theatre, meaning shows are designed and rehearsed in-house. These productions are normally overseen by the Sheffield Theatres Group, the World Snooker Championship tournament has been played annually in the Crucible since 1977. The Ladies World Snooker Championship was also held at the Crucible between 1998 and 2003 but was withdrawn due to financial difficulties. The venue has also hosted championships of other sports, such as table tennis
Crucible Theatre
–
The redeveloped Crucible Theatre, 2010. Also visible is the Lyceum theatre (right) and the redeveloped Tudor Square (bottom)
33.
Sheffield
–
Sheffield is a city and metropolitan borough in South Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, its derives from the River Sheaf. With some of its southern suburbs annexed from Derbyshire, the city has grown from its industrial roots to encompass a wider economic base. The population of the City of Sheffield is 569,700, Sheffield is the third largest English district by population. The metropolitan population of Sheffield is 1,569,000, in the 19th century, Sheffield gained an international reputation for steel production. Known as the Steel City, many innovations were developed locally, including crucible and stainless steel, Sheffield received its municipal charter in 1843, becoming the City of Sheffield in 1893. International competition in iron and steel caused a decline in these industries in the 1970s and 1980s, the 21st century has seen extensive redevelopment in Sheffield along with other British cities. Sheffields gross value added has increased by 60% since 1997, standing at £9.2 billion in 2007, the economy has experienced steady growth averaging around 5% annually, greater than that of the broader region of Yorkshire and the Humber. The city is in the foothills of the Pennines, and the valleys of the River Don and its four tributaries, the Loxley, the Porter Brook, the Rivelin. 61% of Sheffields entire area is space, and a third of the city lies within the Peak District national park. The area now occupied by the City of Sheffield is believed to have inhabited since at least the late Upper Palaeolithic period. The earliest evidence of occupation in the Sheffield area was found at Creswell Crags to the east of the city. In the Iron Age the area became the southernmost territory of the Pennine tribe called the Brigantes and it is this tribe who are thought to have constructed several hill forts in and around Sheffield. Gradually, Anglian settlers pushed west from the kingdom of Deira, a Celtic presence within the Sheffield area is evidenced by two settlements called Wales and Waleswood close to Sheffield. The settlements that grew and merged to form Sheffield, however, date from the half of the first millennium. In Anglo-Saxon times, the Sheffield area straddled the border between the kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria, after the Norman conquest, Sheffield Castle was built to protect the local settlements, and a small town developed that is the nucleus of the modern city. By 1296, a market had been established at what is now known as Castle Square, from 1570 to 1584, Mary, Queen of Scots, was imprisoned in Sheffield Castle and Sheffield Manor. During the 1740s, a form of the steel process was discovered that allowed the manufacture of a better quality of steel than had previously been possible
Sheffield
–
Clockwise from top left: The
Sheffield Town Hall;
St Paul's Tower from Arundel Gate; the
Wheel of Sheffield;
Meadowhall shopping centre;
Sheffield station and
Sheaf Square.
Park Hill at the bottom.
Sheffield
–
Sheffield shown within
South Yorkshire
Sheffield
–
Sheffield Manor ruins as they appeared c1819
34.
Chicago Cubs
–
The Chicago Cubs are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago, Illinois. The Cubs compete in Major League Baseball as a club of the National League Central division. The team plays its games at Wrigley Field, located on the citys North Side. The Cubs are one of two league teams in Chicago, the other, the Chicago White Sox, is a member of the American League Central division. The Cubs, first known as the White Stockings, was a member of the NL in 1876. The Cubs have appeared in a total of eleven World Series, the 1906 Cubs won 116 games, finishing 116–36 and posting a modern-era record winning percentage of.763, before losing the World Series to the Chicago White Sox by four games to two. The Cubs won back-to-back World Series championships in 1907 and 1908, the 108-year drought was also the longest such occurrence in all major North American sports. Since the start of play in 1969, the Cubs have appeared in the postseason eight times through the 2016 season. The Cubs are known as the North Siders, a reference to the location of Wrigley Field within the city of Chicago, there is a divisional rivalry with the St. Louis Cardinals and also a newer rivalry with the Milwaukee Brewers. There is also a rivalry with the White Sox. The Cubs began play in 1876 as the Chicago White Stockings, joining the National League as a charter member. Owner William Hulbert signed multiple star players, such as pitcher Albert Spalding and infielders Ross Barnes, Deacon White, the White Stockings played their home games at West Side Grounds and quickly established themselves as one of the new leagues top teams. Spalding won forty-seven games and Barnes led the league in hitting at.429 as Chicago won the first ever National League pennant, which at the time was the games top prize. After back-to-back pennants in 1880 and 1881, Hulbert died, and Spalding, the White Stockings, with Anson acting as player-manager, captured their third consecutive pennant in 1882, and Anson established himself as the games first true superstar. In 1885 and 86, after winning N. L. pennants, both seasons resulted in match ups with the St. Louis Brown Stockings, with the clubs tying in 1885 and with St. Louis winning in 1886. This was the genesis of what would become one of the greatest rivalries in sports. In all, the Anson-led Chicago Base Ball Club won six National League pennants between 1876 and 1886. As a result, Chicagos club nickname transitioned, and by 1890 they had known as the Chicago Colts, or sometimes Ansons Colts
Chicago Cubs
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The 1876 White Stockings won the N.L. Championship
Chicago Cubs
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Team logo
Chicago Cubs
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The 1906 Cubs won a record 116 of 154 games. They then won back-to-back World Series titles in 1907–08
Chicago Cubs
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Club logo 1927 - 1936
35.
Curse of the Bambino
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The Curse of the Bambino was a superstition evolving from the failure of the Boston Red Sox baseball team to win the World Series in the 86-year period from 1918 to 2004. While some fans took the curse seriously, most used the expression in a tongue-in-cheek manner and this misfortune began after the Red Sox sold star player Babe Ruth, sometimes called The Bambino, to the New York Yankees in the off-season of 1919–1920. Before that point, the Red Sox had been one of the most successful baseball franchises, winning the first World Series. The curse became a point of the Yankees–Red Sox rivalry over the years. Louis Cardinals to win the 2004 World Series, after the Red Sox won the last game of the World Series that year, the road sign was edited to read Curse Reversed in celebration. It became a key part of Red Sox lore in the media thereafter, although the title drought dated back to 1918, the sale of Ruth to the Yankees was completed January 3,1920. In standard curse lore, Red Sox owner and theatrical producer Harry Frazee used the proceeds from the sale to finance the production of a Broadway musical, usually said to be No, No, Nanette. In 1921, Red Sox manager Ed Barrow left to take over as manager of the Yankees. Other Red Sox players were sold or traded to the Yankees as well. Neither the lore, nor the debunking of it, entirely tells the story and that play had, indeed, been financed as a direct result of the Ruth deal. Yankee fans taunted the Red Sox with chants of 1918, the demeaning chant echoed at Yankee Stadium each time the Red Sox were there. Yankee fans also taunted the Red Sox with signs saying 1918, CURSE OF THE BAMBINO, pictures of Babe Ruth, and wearing 1918. T-shirts each time they were at the Stadium, before Ruth left Boston, the Red Sox had won five of the first fifteen World Series, with Ruth pitching for the 1916 and 1918 championship teams. The Yankees had not played in any World Series up to that time, in the 84 years after the sale, the Yankees played in 39 World Series, winning 26 of them, twice as many as any other team in Major League Baseball. Meanwhile, over the time span, the Red Sox played in only four World Series. Even losses that occurred years before the first mention of the supposed curse. Some of these instances are listed below, In 1946, the Red Sox appeared in their first World Series since the sale of Babe Ruth and were favored to beat the St. Louis Cardinals, the series went to a seventh game at Sportsmans Park in St. Louis. In the bottom of the inning, with the score tied at 3–3
Curse of the Bambino
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Babe Ruth —"The Bambino"—in his earlier days as a pitcher for the Red Sox
Curse of the Bambino
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Harry Frazee sold Babe Ruth to the Yankees.
Curse of the Bambino
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Dan Shaughnessy of The Boston Globe publicized the Curse of the Bambino.
Curse of the Bambino
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Main
36.
Boston Red Sox
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The Boston Red Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Boston, Massachusetts. The Red Sox compete in Major League Baseball as a club of the American League East division. The Red Sox have won eight World Series championships and have played in 13, founded in 1901 as one of the American Leagues eight charter franchises, the Red Sox home ballpark has been Fenway Park since 1912. The Red Sox name was chosen by the owner, John I. Taylor, around 1908, following the lead of previous teams that had known as the Boston Red Stockings. Boston was a dominant team in the new league, defeating the Pittsburgh Pirates in the first World Series in 1903 and winning four more championships by 1918. Following their victory in the 2013 World Series, they became the first team to win three World Series trophies in the 21st century, including championships in 2004 and 2007. Red Sox history has also marked by the teams intense rivalry with the Yankees. The Boston Red Sox are owned by Fenway Sports Group, which owns the Liverpool F. C. of the Premier League in England. The Red Sox are consistently one of the top MLB teams in road attendance. From May 15,2003 to April 10,2013, the Red Sox sold out every home game—a total of 820 games for a professional sports record. Neil Diamonds Sweet Caroline has become an anthem for the Red Sox, the name Red Sox, chosen by owner John I. Taylor after the 1907 season, refers to the red hose in the team uniform beginning 1908. Sox had been adopted for the Chicago White Sox by newspapers needing a headline-friendly form of Stockings. The team name Red Sox had previously used as early as 1888 by a colored team from Norfolk. The Spanish language media sometimes refers to the team as Medias Rojas, the official Spanish site uses the variant Los Red Sox. The Red Stockings nickname was first used by a team by the Cincinnati Red Stockings. Managed by Harry Wright, Cincinnati adopted a uniform with white knickers and red stockings and earned the famous nickname, the Boston Red Stockings won four championships in the five seasons of the new National Association, the first professional league. Other names were used before Boston officially adopted the nickname Braves in 1912
Boston Red Sox
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The 1901 Boston Americans team photograph
Boston Red Sox
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Team logo
Boston Red Sox
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Iconic photo of the Huntington Avenue Grounds before the first modern World Series game
Boston Red Sox
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The Huntington Avenue Grounds during a game. Note building from which the famous 1903 "bird's-eye" photo was taken.
37.
Babe Ruth
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George Herman Babe Ruth Jr. was an American professional baseball player whose career in Major League Baseball spanned 22 seasons, from 1914 through 1935. Ruth established many MLB batting records, including home runs, runs batted in, bases on balls, slugging percentage, and on-base plus slugging. Ruth is regarded as one of the greatest sports heroes in American culture and is considered by many to be the greatest baseball player of all time, in 1936, Ruth was elected into the Baseball Hall of Fame as one of its first five inaugural members. At age seven, Ruth was sent to St, in 1914, Ruth was signed to play minor-league baseball for the Baltimore Orioles but was soon sold to the Red Sox. By 1916, he had built a reputation as a pitcher who sometimes hit long home runs. With regular playing time, he broke the MLB single-season home run record in 1919, after that season, Red Sox owner Harry Frazee sold Ruth to the Yankees amid controversy. The trade fueled Bostons subsequent 86 year championship drought and popularized the Curse of the Bambino superstition, in his 15 years with New York, Ruth helped the Yankees win seven American League championships and four World Series championships. As part of the Yankees vaunted Murderers Row lineup of 1927, Ruth hit 60 home runs and he retired in 1935 after a short stint with the Boston Braves. During his career, Ruth led the AL in home runs during a season twelve times, Ruths legendary power and charismatic personality made him a larger-than-life figure in the Roaring Twenties. During his career, he was the target of press and public attention for his baseball exploits. His often reckless lifestyle was tempered by his willingness to do good by visiting children at hospitals, after his retirement as a player, he was denied a managerial job in baseball, most likely due to poor behavior during parts of his playing career. In his final years, Ruth made many appearances, especially in support of American efforts in World War II. In 1946, he became ill with cancer, and died two years later, George Herman Ruth Jr. was born in 1895 at 216 Emory Street in Pigtown, a working-class section of Baltimore, Maryland, named for its meat-packing plants. Its population included recent immigrants from Ireland, Germany and Italy, Ruths parents, George Herman Ruth, Sr. and Katherine Schamberger, were both of German American ancestry. According to the 1880 census, his parents were born in Maryland, the paternal grandparents of Ruth, Sr. were from Prussia and Hanover. Ruth, Sr. had a series of jobs, including lightning rod salesman and streetcar operator, before becoming a counterman in a combination grocery. George Ruth Jr. was born in the house of his grandfather, Pius Schamberger. Only one of young Georges seven siblings, his younger sister Mamie, many details of Ruths childhood are unknown, including the date of his parents marriage
Babe Ruth
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Ruth in his New York Yankees uniform, in 1920
Babe Ruth
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Babe Ruth birthplace in Baltimore, Maryland
Babe Ruth
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Ruth (top row, center) at St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1912
Babe Ruth
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Baseball card depicting Ruth as a
Baltimore Oriole, 1914
38.
New York Yankees
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The New York Yankees are an American professional baseball team based in the New York City borough of the Bronx. The Yankees compete in Major League Baseball as a club of the American League East division. The Yankees are one of two league clubs based in New York City, the other being the NL New York Mets. In the 1901 season, the club play in the AL as the Baltimore Orioles. Frank Farrell and Bill Devery purchased the franchise and moved it to New York City, the Highlanders were officially renamed the Yankees in 1913. The team is owned by Yankee Global Enterprises, an LLC controlled by the family of the late George Steinbrenner, Brian Cashman is the teams general manager, and former catcher Joe Girardi is the teams skipper. The teams home games were played at the original Yankee Stadium from 1923 to 1973, in 2009, they moved into a new ballpark of the same name after the previous facility was closed and demolished. The team is perennially among the leaders in MLB attendance—in 2011, one of the most successful sports clubs in the world, the Yankees have won 18 division titles,40 AL pennants, and 27 World Series championships, all of which are MLB records. In pursuit of winning championships, the franchise has used a large payroll to attract talent, according to Forbes, the Yankees are the second highest valued sports franchise in the United States and the fourth in the world, with an estimated value of approximately $3.4 billion. The Yankees have garnered enormous popularity and a fanbase, as well as widespread enmity from fans of other MLB teams. The teams rivalry with the Boston Red Sox is one of the most well-known rivalries in U. S. sports, at the end of 1900, Ban Johnson, president of the American League—a minor league previously known as the Western League —reorganized the league. He added teams in three East Coast cities, forming the American League as a league in an attempt to challenge the National League for supremacy. Plans to add another a team in New York City were blocked by the NLs New York Giants, instead, a team was placed in Baltimore, Maryland, a city which the NL abandoned when it contracted from 12 to 8 teams in 1900. Nicknamed the Orioles, the team playing in 1901 and was managed. During the 1902 season, McGraw feuded with Johnson and secretly jumped to the Giants, in January 1903, a peace conference was held between the two leagues to settle disputes and try to coexist. At the conference, Johnson requested that an AL team be put in New York and it was put to a vote, and 15 of the 16 major league owners agreed on it, with only John T. The Orioles new owners, Frank J. Farrell and William S. Devery, found a location not blocked by the Giants. The teams new ballpark, Hilltop Park, was constructed in one of Upper Manhattans highest points—between 165th and 168th Streets—just a few blocks away from the much larger Polo Grounds, the team came to be known as the New York Highlanders
New York Yankees
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Hilltop Park, home of the Highlanders
New York Yankees
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Team logo
New York Yankees
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The
Polo Grounds, home of the Yankees from 1913 to 1922
New York Yankees
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With his hitting prowess,
Babe Ruth ushered in an offensive-oriented era of baseball and helped lead the Yankees to 4 World Series titles
39.
American League Championship Series
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The American League Championship Series is a best-of-seven series played in October in the Major League Baseball postseason that determines the winner of the American League pennant. The winner of the advances to play the winner of the National League Championship Series in the World Series. It started in 1969, when the AL reorganized into two divisions, East and West, the winners of each division played each other in a best-of-five series to determine who would advance to the World Series. In 1985, the changed to best-of-seven. The winners of that round then advanced to the best-of-seven ALCS and this is the system currently in use. The series concludes when one team records its fourth win, since 1998, home field advantage has been given to the team that has the better regular season record, unless that team happens to be the Wild Card team. In that case, the team gets home field advantage. In the event that both teams have identical records in the season, home field advantage goes to the team that has the winning head-to-head record. From 1969 to 1993, home field advantage alternated between the two divisions, and from 1995 to 1997 home field advantage was determined before the season, every current American League team except for the Houston Astros has played in the ALCS at least once. The Milwaukee Brewers, an American League team between 1969 and 1997, is the franchise to play in the ALCS and NLCS. No franchise has won both the National League and American League Championship Series, the William Harridge Trophy is awarded to the ALCS champion. The trophys namesake comes from the American League president from 1931 to 1959, see, League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award#American League winners The Lee MacPhail Most Valuable Player award is given to the outstanding player in the ALCS. No MVP award is given for Division Series play, although the National League began its LCS MVP award in 1977, the American League did not begin its LCS MVP award till 1980. The winners are listed below in the section on ALCS results, in the Series MVP column, at League Championship Series Most Valuable Player Award, click the link on the far left for detailed information on that series. Key List of American League pennant winners American League Division Series List of American League Wild Card winners ALCS Boxscores and Play-by-Play at Baseball-Reference. com
American League Championship Series
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1900s
40.
St. Louis Cardinals
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The St. Louis Cardinals are an American professional baseball team based in St. Louis, Missouri. The Cardinals compete in Major League Baseball as a club of the National League Central division. Busch Stadium has been their home ballpark since 2006, with origins as one of the early professional baseball clubs in St. Upon the discontinuation of the AA, St. Louis joined the NL in 1892, at time, they were called the Browns. One of the most successful franchises in history, the Cardinals have won 11 World Series championships. Their 19 National League pennants rank third in NL history, in addition, St. Louis has won 13 division titles in the East and Central divisions. While still in the AA, St. Louis won four league championships, the Cardinals have won 105 or more games in four different seasons and won 100 or more a total of nine times. Cardinals players have won 20 league MVPs, four batting Triple Crowns, and three Cy Young Awards. Baseball Hall of Fame inductees include Lou Brock, Dizzy Dean, Bob Gibson, Whitey Herzog, Rogers Hornsby, Joe Medwick, Stan Musial, Branch Rickey, Red Schoendienst, Ozzie Smith, and Bruce Sutter. In 2016, Forbes valued the Cardinals at $1.6 billion, making them the 7th-most valuable franchise in MLB, their revenue the year was $300 million. Since their purchase in 1995, owner William DeWitt, Jr. s investment group has seen enormous growth from the $147 million purchase price, John Mozeliak is the general manager and Mike Matheny is the manager. Professional baseball began in St. Louis with the inception of the Brown Stockings in the National Association in 1875, the NA folded following that season, and the next season, St. Louis joined the National League as a charter member, finishing in third place at 45-19. George Bradley hurled the first no-hitter in Major League history, the NL expelled St. Louis from the league after 1877 due to a game-fixing scandal and the team went bankrupt. Without a league, they continued play as a barnstorming team through 1881. For the 1882 season, Chris von der Ahe purchased the team, reorganized it, and made it a member of the American Association. 1882 is generally considered to be the first year existence of the St. Louis Cardinals, the next season, St. Louis shortened their name to the Browns. Soon thereafter they became the dominant team in the AA, as manager Charlie Comiskey guided St. Louis to four pennants in a row from 1885 to 1888. Pitcher and outfielder Bob Caruthers led the league in ERA and wins in 1885 and he also led the AA in OBP and OPS in 1886 and finished fourth in batting average in 1886 and fifth in 1887
St. Louis Cardinals
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Charles Comiskey, shown here circa 1910, guided the Browns to four
American Association titles.
St. Louis Cardinals
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Team logo
St. Louis Cardinals
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Rogers Hornsby won two
Triple Crowns as a Cardinal.
St. Louis Cardinals
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Pitcher
Chris Carpenter, essential in two
World Series titles, won 10 playoff games with a 3.00 postseason ERA.
41.
2004 World Series
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The 2004 World Series was the 100th edition of Major League Baseballs championship series. It featured the American League champions Boston Red Sox against the National League champions St. Louis Cardinals, the Red Sox defeated the Cardinals by four games to none in the best-of-seven series, played at Fenway Park and Busch Memorial Stadium. The series was played from October 23–27,2004, broadcast on Fox, the Cardinals earned their berth into the playoffs by winning the National League Central, and had the best win–loss record in the National League. The Red Sox won the American League wild card to earn theirs, the Cardinals reached the World Series by defeating the Los Angeles Dodgers in the best-of-five National League Division Series and the Houston Astros in the best-of-seven Championship Series. The Red Sox defeated the Anaheim Angels in the American League Division Series, after being down three games to none to the New York Yankees, they came back to win the 2004 American League Championship Series and advanced to their first World Series since 1986. The Cardinals made their first appearance in the World Series since 1987, the Red Sox won the World Series for the first time since 1918. With the New England Patriots winning Super Bowl XXXVIII, the World Series made Boston the first city to have Super Bowl and World Series championship teams in the same year since Pittsburgh in 1979. Mark Bellhorn helped the Red Sox win Game 1 with a home run, the Red Sox won the first two games despite committing four errors in each. The Red Sox won Game three, aided by seven shutout innings by Pedro Martínez, a home run by Johnny Damon in the first inning helped to win Game four for the Red Sox to secure the series. The Cardinals did not lead in any of the games in the series, Manny Ramírez was named the series Most Valuable Player. When each team played in a World Series, both won their respective series—the Cardinals in 2006 and the Red Sox in 2007. When the Cardinals won, Tony La Russa joined Sparky Anderson as the men to have managed World Series championship teams in both leagues, a feat he failed to achieve in 2004. The Red Sox and Cardinals faced each other again in the 2013 World Series, the Red Sox had lost in the previous seasons American League Championship Series against the New York Yankees. The loss was blamed on the decision by then-manager Grady Little to keep starting pitcher Pedro Martínez in the game in the 8th inning of Game 7. During the off-season, the Red Sox hired Terry Francona as their new manager and they also signed Keith Foulke as their closer and traded for Curt Schilling as a starting pitcher. The Red Sox played two notable games against the Yankees during the regular season. The Yankees won the game in the inning to take an 8-game lead in the American League East. In the 3rd inning of a game on July 24, Red Sox pitcher Bronson Arroyo hit Yankees batter Alex Rodriguez with one of his pitches, as Rodriguez walked towards first base, he began shouting profanities at Arroyo
2004 World Series
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The Red Sox hired
Terry Francona as their manager during the 2003–04 off-season.
2004 World Series
2004 World Series
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Albert Pujols, seen here in 2007, hit 46 home runs, then a career-high.
2004 World Series
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Schilling, seen here in 2007, started and won Game 2 for the Red Sox.
42.
2007 World Series
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The 2007 World Series, the 103rd edition of Major League Baseballs championship series, began on Wednesday, October 24 and ended on Sunday, October 28. It featured the National League champions Colorado Rockies and American League champions Boston Red Sox, the Red Sox swept the Rockies to collect their second World Series championship in four seasons and their seventh overall, it also marked the third sweep in four years by the AL champions. Terry Francona became the second Red Sox manager to win two World Series titles, following Bill Carrigan, who won the 1915 and 1916 World Series, including the last three games of the ALCS, the Red Sox outscored their opposition 59–15 over their final seven games. Francona also became the first manager to win his first 8 World Series games and they also beat the San Diego Padres in the NL Wild Card tie-breaker. Neither participating team was in the previous years postseason, the Rockies eight-day layoff was the longest in MLB postseason history, caused by their sweep in the NLCS, the ALCS going seven games, and scheduling by MLB. Per the 2006 Collective Bargaining Agreement, the Red Sox had home-field advantage in the World Series following the American Leagues 5–4 win in the 2007 All-Star Game, the first two games took place in Boston, with games 3 and 4 in Denver. AL Boston Red Sox vs. Mike Timlin and Eric Gagne pitched a perfect eighth and ninth, Rookie Dustin Pedroia led off the Sox first inning with a home run over the Green Monster in Fenway Park off of Jeff Francis. Pedroias homer was only the second home run to start a World Series. Kevin Youkilis then doubled to right, moved to third on David Ortizs groundout, after Mike Lowell flew out, Jason Varitek singled before J. D. Drew doubled to score Ramirez and make it 3-0 Red Sox, in the fourth, the Red Sox loaded the bases with two outs on a single, double, and intentional walk when Variteks two-run double put them up 6-1. They put the game out of reach with seven runs in the fifth, Julio Lugo hit a leadoff single off of reliever Franklin Morales before Jacoby Ellsbury bunted into a forceout at second. After Pedroia popped out, a balk moved Ellsbury to second before he scored on Youkiliss double, Ortizs double and Ramirezs single scored a run each. The Red Sox loaded the bases on a double and walk before Drews single scored another run, ryan Speier relieved Morales and walked all three batters he faced to force in three more Boston runs. Matt Herges relieved Speier and got Youkilis to fly out to right to end the inning, the last 11 of the Red Sox runs came with 2 outs. After the debacle of Game 1, Colorado appeared to return to form, scoring quickly on a groundout by Todd Helton with runners on second and third in the first. However, this would be the time the Rockies ever led in the series as postseason veteran Curt Schilling. Matt Holliday had four of Colorados five hits in Game 2, before throwing another pitch, Papelbon caught Holliday leaning too far off first base and picked him off—Papelbons first career pickoff. This was the first World Series game ever played in Colorado, at 4 hours 19 minutes, it became the longest nine-inning game in World Series history
2007 World Series
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Victorious Red Sox players being honored at the
White House by President
George W. Bush.
2007 World Series
2007 World Series
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The countdown page seen by many people attempting to buy World Series tickets: when the countdown completed it would either load a page to select seats or just restart the countdown.
2007 World Series
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1900s
43.
Colorado Rockies
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The Colorado Rockies are an American professional baseball team based in Denver, Colorado. The Rockies compete in Major League Baseball as a club of the National League West division. The teams home venue is Coors Field, located in the Lower Downtown area of Denver, the Rockies have won one National League championship, in 2007, after having won 21 of their final 22 games in order to secure a Wild Card position. In the World Series they were swept by the American League champion Boston Red Sox in four games and they are one of two MLB franchises to have never won a division title. Denver had long been a hotbed of Denver Bears/Zephyrs Minor League Baseball, following the Pittsburgh drug trials, an unsuccessful attempt was made to purchase the Pittsburgh Pirates and relocate them. However, in 1991, as part of Major League Baseballs two-team expansion, Monus were granted a franchise, they took the name Rockies due to Denvers proximity to the Rocky Mountains, which is reflected in their logo. Monus and Antonucci were forced to out in 1992 after Monus reputation was ruined by an accounting scandal. Trucking magnate Jerry McMorris stepped in at the 11th hour to save the franchise, the Rockies shared Mile High Stadium with the National Football League s Denver Broncos for their first two seasons while Coors Field was constructed. It was completed for the 1995 Major League Baseball season, in 1993, they started play in the Western division of the National League. Since that date, the Rockies have reached the Major League Baseball postseason three times, each time as the National League wild card team, twice they were eliminated in the first round of the playoffs. In 2007, the Rockies advanced to the World Series, only to be swept by the Boston Red Sox, the Rockies have played their home games at Coors Field since 1995. Their newest Spring training home, Salt River Fields at Talking Stick in Scottsdale, Arizona, at the start of the 2012 season, the Rockies introduced Purple Mondays in which the team wears its purple uniform every Monday game day. No inducted members of the Baseball Hall of Fame have played for or managed the Rockies. 1997 – Larry Walker 2007 – Matt Holliday In 1998, Todd Helton finished second in Rookie of the Year voting 2002 – Jason Jennings In 2007, jackie Robinsons number,42, was retired throughout all of baseball in 1997. Keli McGregor had worked with the Rockies since their inception in 1993, rising from senior director of operations to team president in 2002 and he is honored at Coors Field alongside Helton and Robinson with his initials. As of 2010, Rockies flagship radio station is KOA 850AM, Jerry Schemmel and Jack Corrigan are the radio announcers which both serve as backup TV announcers whenever Drew Goodman is not on the broadcast. The Rockies Radio Network is composed of 38 affiliate stations in eight states, as of 2013, Spanish broadcasts of the Rockies are heard on KNRV1150 AM. As of 2013, all games will be produced and televised by Root Sports Rocky Mountain, all 150 games produced by Root Sports Rocky Mountain will be broadcast in HD
Colorado Rockies
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Team logo
44.
San Francisco Giants
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The San Francisco Giants are an American professional baseball franchise based in San Francisco, California. Founded in 1883 as the New York Gothams, and renamed three years later to the New York Giants, the team moved to San Francisco in 1958. The Giants compete in Major League Baseball as a club of the National League West division. As one of the longest-established and most successful baseball teams. The team was the first major team based in New York City. They have won 23 NL pennants and have played in 20 World Series competitions – both NL records, the Giants eight World Series championships rank second in the National League and are tied for fourth overall. The Giants have played in the World Series 20 times –14 times in New York, six in San Francisco –, the Giants franchise has the most Hall of Fame players in all of professional baseball. The Giants rivalry with the Dodgers is one of the longest-standing, the teams began their rivalry as the New York Giants and Brooklyn Dodgers, respectively, before both franchises moved west for the 1958 season. The Giants have won six pennants and three World Series championships since arriving in San Francisco and those three championships have come in 2010,2012, and most recently in 2014, having defeated the Kansas City Royals four games to three during the 2014 World Series. The Giants began as the baseball club founded by millionaire tobacconist John B. Day and veteran amateur baseball player Jim Mutrie, the Gothams, as the Giants were originally known, entered the National League in 1883, while their other club, the Metropolitans played in the American Association. Nearly half of the original Gotham players were members of the disbanded Troy Trojans, Louis Browns in a pre-modern-era World Series. They repeated as champions the year with a pennant and Championship victory over the Brooklyn Bridegrooms. It is said that one particularly satisfying victory over the Philadelphia Phillies, Mutrie. From then on, the club was known as the Giants, the Giants original home stadium, the Polo Grounds, dates from this early era. It was originally located north of Central Park adjacent to 5th and 6th Avenues and 110th and 112th Streets, the Giants were a powerhouse in the late 1880s, winning their first two National League Pennants and World Championships in 1888 and 1889. But nearly all of the Giants stars jumped to the upstart Players League, whose New York franchise was named the Giants. The new team built a stadium next door to the Polo Grounds
San Francisco Giants
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The
1987 Giants, pictured above at Candlestick, led the club to its first postseason appearance since 1971.
San Francisco Giants
San Francisco Giants
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Will Clark preparing to bat for the Giants at
Candlestick Park in 1992. That year, the Giants came close to relocation, with an
empty stadium ready to be filled in Tampa.
San Francisco Giants
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Candlestick Park
45.
World Series
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The World Series is the annual championship series of Major League Baseball in North America, contested since 1903 between the American League champion team and the National League champion team. The winner of the World Series championship is determined through a playoff. As the series is played in October, during the season in North America. As of 2016, the World Series has been contested 112 times, with the AL winning 64, the 2016 World Series took place between the Cleveland Indians and the Chicago Cubs. Seven games were played, with the Cubs victorious after game seven, the final score was 8–7, the game went into extra innings after a tied score of 6–6. This was the third World Series won by the Cubs, as well as their first title since 1908, in the National League, the St. As of 2016, no team has won consecutive World Series championships since the New York Yankees in 1998,1999, all championships were awarded to the team with the best record at the end of the season, without a postseason series being played. From 1884 to 1890, the National League and the American Association faced each other in a series of games at the end of the season to determine an overall champion. These series were disorganized in comparison to the modern World Series, the number of games played ranged from as few as three in 1884, to a high of fifteen in 1887. Both the 1885 and 1890 Series ended in ties, each team having won three games with one tie game, the series was promoted and referred to as The Championship of the United States, Worlds Championship Series, or Worlds Series for short. In his book Krakatoa, The Day the World Exploded, August 27,1883, Simon Winchester mentions in passing that the World Series was named for the New York World newspaper, but this view is disputed. Until about 1960, some sources treated the 19th-century Series on a basis with the post-19th-century series. After about 1930, however, many authorities list the start of the World Series in 1903, following the collapse of the American Association after the 1891 season, the National League was again the only major league. The league championship was awarded in 1892 by a playoff between half-season champions and this scheme was abandoned after one season. Beginning in 1893—and continuing until divisional play was introduced in 1969—the pennant was awarded to the club in the standings at the end of the season. For four seasons, 1894–1897, the league played the runners-up in the post season championship series called the Temple Cup. A second attempt at this format was the Chronicle-Telegraph Cup series, in 1901, the American League was formed as a second major league. No championship series were played in 1901 or 1902 as the National and these series were arranged by the participating clubs, as the 1880s Worlds Series matches had been
World Series
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The
Commissioner's Trophy is awarded to the team that wins the World Series.
World Series
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Rooftop view of a 1903 World Series game in Boston
World Series
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Game action in the 1906 Series in Chicago (the only all-Chicago World Series to date)
World Series
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Bill Wambsganss completes his unassisted triple play in 1920
46.
Mike Krukow
–
Michael Edward Krukow is a former starting pitcher in Major League Baseball. He is currently a color commentator for the San Francisco Giants. Krukow attended San Gabriel High School in San Gabriel, California and he was drafted as a catcher by the California Angels in the 32nd round of the 1970 Major League Baseball Draft but did not sign. Krukow played college baseball for the Cal Poly Mustangs in San Luis Obispo, though his collegiate eligibility was cut short, he still holds the school record for career earned run average at 1.94 and is tied for most shutouts in a season with 5. Krukow was drafted by the Chicago Cubs in the 8th round of the 1973 draft, Krukow played Major League baseball for the Chicago Cubs, the Philadelphia Phillies and the San Francisco Giants. Krukow had a career in the major leagues. In 1982, after six years with the Cubs, he was dealt to Philadelphia for pitchers Dickie Noles and Dan Larson and outfielder Keith Moreland. The trade helped Philadelphia win the National League pennant in 1983, although known as a starter, Krukow earned his only career save on August 31,1984, pitching to just one batter, inducing a game-ending groundout, therefore preserving a 6–5 Giant victory. Krukows best season was in 1986, posting a record of 20-9 with a 3.05 ERA pitching for the San Francisco Giants, Krukow finished third in that years NL Cy Young Award voting behind Mike Scott and Fernando Valenzuela. Krukow was selected to the National League All-Star team that season and he was awarded the Willie Mac Award in both 1985 and 1986 honoring his spirit and leadership. In 1987, Krukow helped lead the Giants to their first division championship in 16 years, in his 14-season career, Krukow posted a 124-117 record with 1,478 strikeouts and a 3.90 ERA in 2190.1 innings pitched. After his playing career, Krukow became a radio and television sportscaster, Krukow began broadcasting as an occasional color analyst for KNBR radio in 1990 and became a full-time broadcaster in 1994. He is a seven-time Emmy award winner and he is known for his detailed scouting reports on umpires strike zones. He is often teased by his broadcasting colleagues throughout the leagues for having majestic hair. Part of the San Francisco Giants broadcasting team, Krukow is half of the duo dubbed Kruk and Kuip, along with partner Duane Kuiper, Krukow and Kuiper tape a game-day commentary for KNBR radio as part of the Giants pre-game radio coverage. Notably, although Krukow was a pitcher and Kuiper was a player, Krukow has five career home runs. Krukow has a few Kruktionary catchphrases, including, Grab some pine, meat, Just another, ha ha ha ha, the last of which is associated with a product endorsement. Krukow and Kuiper can be heard as the commentators in Electronic Arts video games MVP Baseball 2003,2004 and 2005 and they include Krukows familiar grab some pine, meat quote
Mike Krukow
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Mike Krukow at the 2012
San Francisco Giants World Series victory parade
Mike Krukow
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Krukow being interviewed by
Milo Hamilton in 1981
47.
Pitcher
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In the numbering system used to record defensive plays, the pitcher is assigned the number 1. The pitcher is often considered the most important defensive player, there are many different types of pitchers, such as the starting pitcher, relief pitcher, middle reliever, lefty specialist, setup man, and closer. The National League in Major League Baseball and the Japanese Central League are among the leagues that have not adopted the designated hitter position. In most cases, the objective of the pitcher is to deliver the pitch to the catcher without allowing the batter to hit the ball with the bat. A successful pitch is delivered in such a way that the batter either allows the pitch to pass through the zone, swings the bat at the ball and misses it. If the batter elects not to swing at the pitch, it is called a strike if any part of the passes through the strike zone. A check swing is when the batter begins to swing, If the batter successfully checks the swing and the pitch is out of the strike zone, it is called a ball. There are two legal pitching positions, the windup and the set position or stretch, either position may be used at any time, typically, the windup is used when the bases are empty, while the set position is used when at least one runner is on base. Each position has certain procedures that must be followed, a balk can be called on a pitcher from either position. A power pitcher is one who relies on the velocity of his pitches to succeed, generally, power pitchers record a high percentage of strikeouts. A control pitcher succeeds by throwing accurate pitches and thus records few walks, nearly all action during a game is centered on the pitcher for the defensive team. A pitchers particular style, time taken between pitches, and skill heavily influence the dynamics of the game and can determine the victor. Meanwhile, a batter stands in the box at one side of the plate. The type and sequence of pitches chosen depend upon the situation in a game. The relationship between pitcher and catcher is so important that some teams select the starting catcher for a game based on the starting pitcher. Together, the pitcher and catcher are known as the battery, although the object and mechanics of pitching remain the same, pitchers may be classified according to their roles and effectiveness. The starting pitcher begins the game, and he may be followed by relief pitchers, such as the long reliever, the left-handed specialist, the middle reliever. In Major League Baseball, every team uses Baseball Rubbing Mud to rub game balls in before their pitchers use them in games, a skilled pitcher often throws a variety of different pitches to prevent the batter from hitting the ball well
Pitcher
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Brandon Claussen, pitching for the
Cincinnati Reds, delivers the ball to home plate
Pitcher
Pitcher
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A pitcher releases the baseball from the pitcher's mound
Pitcher
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Delivery of the baseball from the pitcher to catcher
48.
Presenter
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A presenter host or hostess is a person or organization responsible for the running of a public event. A museum or university, for example, may be the presenter or host of an exhibit, in films, a presenter is a usually a well-known executive producer credited with introducing a film or filmmaker to a larger audience. For example, Presented by Cecil B, in the broadcast media, a presenter is the person who hosts, narrates, or otherwise takes the main role in narrating or hosting a radio program or a television program. The phrases television presenter or radio presenter are never used in American English, a person who hosts other kinds of public entertainments may also be called a master of ceremonies. A television presenter is a person who introduces or hosts television programmes, including documentaries, live events. Some presenters may double as an actor, model, singer, comedian, others may be subject matter experts, such as scientists or politicians, serving as presenters for a programme about their field of expertise. Some are celebrities who have made their name in one area, the term is also used in other countries, such as Ireland and Sri Lanka. In the United States, such a person is called a host. The term does not apply to reading the news however and this role is known in American English as an anchor, and in British and Commonwealth English as a newsreader. A quiz show host is also described as a presenter. Broadly speaking, a presenter is the same as a television presenter. Big name presenters in the UK include Terry Wogan and Ken Bruce, Tony Blackburn, Simon Mayo, Steve Wright, Scottie McClue, Mark Radcliffe, Chris Evans, Clint Boon and Greg James. A sports commentator is a type of journalist on radio and/or television who specializes in reporting or commentating on sporting events, sports casting is often done live. A weather presenter is a type of journalist on television who specializes in presenting weather forecasts, in the UK, this includes separate presenters for national and regional/local weather forecasts
Presenter
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Journalism
49.
Legend
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Legend, for its active and passive participants, includes no happenings that are outside the realm of possibility, but may include miracles. Legends may be transformed over time, in order to keep fresh and vital. Many legends operate within the realm of uncertainty, never being believed by the participants. The Brothers Grimm defined legend as folktale historically grounded, a modern folklorists professional definition of legend was proposed by Timothy R. Legend is a loanword from Old French that entered English usage circa 1340. The Old French noun legende derives from the Medieval Latin legenda, in its early English-language usage, the word indicated a narrative of an event. The word legendary was originally a noun meaning a collection or corpus of legends and this word changed to legendry, and legendary became the adjectival form. By 1613, English-speaking Protestants began to use the word when they wished to imply that an event was fictitious, thus, legend gained its modern connotations of undocumented and spurious, which distinguish it from the meaning of chronicle. In 1866, Jacob Grimm described the tale as poetic. Questions of categorising legends, in hopes of compiling a series of categories on the line of the Aarne–Thompson folktale index. Compared to the highly structured folktale, legend is comparatively amorphous, in Einleitung in der Geschichtswissenschaft, Ernst Bernheim asserted that a legend is simply a longstanding rumour. Gordon Allport credited the staying-power of some rumours to the persistent cultural state-of-mind that they embody and capsulise, in the narrow Christian sense, legenda were hagiographical accounts, often collected in a legendary. Hippolyte Delehaye distinguished legend from myth, The legend, on the hand, has, of necessity. It refers imaginary events to some real personage, or it localizes romantic stories in some definite spot, stories that exceed the boundaries of realism are called fables. For example, the talking animal formula of Aesop identifies his brief stories as fables, the parable of the Prodigal Son would be a legend if it were told as having actually happened to a specific son of a historical father. If it included a donkey that gave sage advice to the Prodigal Son it would be a fable, Legend may be transmitted orally, passed on person-to-person, or, in the original sense, through written text. Jacob de Voragines Legenda Aurea or The Golden Legend comprises a series of vitae or instructive biographical narratives and they are presented as lives of the saints, but the profusion of miraculous happenings and above all their uncritical context are characteristics of hagiography. The Legenda was intended to inspire extemporized homilies and sermons appropriate to the saint of the day, the vanishing hitchhiker is the best-known urban legend in America, traceable as far back as 1870, but it is found around the world including in Korea and Russia. In the legend, a girl in a white dress picked up alongside of the road by a passerby
Legend
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A depiction of the legendary
Rütlischwur.
Legend
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Holger Danske, a legendary character.
Legend
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In the painting of
Lady Godiva by
Jules Joseph Lefebvre, the authentic historical person is fully submerged in the legend, presented in an anachronistic high mediaeval setting.
Legend
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The mediaeval legend of
Genevieve of Brabant connected her to
Treves.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Cursing". Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "
