1.
Liturgy of the Hours
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It consists primarily of psalms supplemented by hymns, readings and other prayers and antiphons. Together with the Mass, it constitutes the public prayer life of the Church. The Liturgy of the Hours also forms the basis of prayer within Christian monasticism, celebration of the Liturgy of the Hours is an obligation undertaken by priests and deacons intending to become priests, while deacons intending to remain deacons are obliged to recite only a part. The constitutions of religious institutes generally oblige their members to celebrate at least parts, the Liturgy of the Hours, along with the Eucharist, has formed part of the Churchs public worship from the earliest times. Christians of both Eastern and Western traditions celebrate the Liturgy of the Hours under various names, in Greek the corresponding services are found in the Ὡρολόγιον, meaning Book of Hours. Within Anglicanism, the Liturgy of the Hours is contained within the book of Daily Prayer of Common Worship and the Book of Common Prayer, as well as in the Anglican Breviary. Within Lutheranism, it is contained within the books used by the various Lutheran church bodies, such as the Lutheran Church Missouri Synod. The primary worship resources in these churches include Lutheran Worship, the Lutheran Book of Worship, other names for the Liturgy of the Hours within the Latin liturgical rites include Diurnal and Nocturnal Office, Ecclesiastical Office, Cursus ecclesiasticus, or simply cursus. The early Christians continued the Jewish practice of reciting prayers at certain hours of the day or night, the Apostles observed the Jewish custom of praying at the third, sixth and ninth hour and at midnight. Other elements were added later in the course of the centuries, by the end of the 5th century, the Liturgy of the Hours was composed of seven offices. An eighth office, Prime, was added by Benedict of Nursia in the 6th century, however, it is found in Saint John Cassians Institutes and Conferences, which describe the monastic practices of the Desert Fathers of Egypt. After the Second Vatican Council, Pope Paul VI promulgated a new Roman Breviary, the structure of the offices, the distribution of psalms, and the prayers themselves were modified. In short, the burden was lessened,2, V. Deus, in adiutorium meum intende. R. Domine, ad adiuvandum me festina, followed by the doxology, the verse is omitted if the hour begins with the Invitatory. The Invitatory is the introduction to the first hour said on the current day, the opening is followed by a hymn. The hymn is followed by psalmody, the psalmody is followed by a scripture reading. The reading is called a chapter if it is short, or a lesson if it is long, the reading is followed by a versicle. The hour is closed by an oration followed by a concluding versicle, other components are included depending on the exact type of hour being celebrated
2.
Stonehenge Cursus
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The Stonehenge Cursus is a large Neolithic cursus monument on Salisbury plain, near to Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England. It is roughly 3 kilometres long and between 100 metres and 150 metres wide, excavations in 2007 dated the construction of the earthwork to between 3630 and 3375 BCE, several hundred years before the earliest phase of Stonehenge in 3000 BC. The cursus, along with adjacent barrows and the nearby Lesser Cursus are part of the National Trusts Stonehenge Landscape property, Cursus comes from the Latin for racecourse. Early antiquarians who first discovered cursus believed them to be Roman racing tracks, radiocarbon dating of a red deer antler pick discovered at the bottom of the western terminal ditch suggests that the Stonehenge Cursus was first constructed between 3630 and 3375 BCE. It is just under 3 km long, and is roughly 100m wide, because of a slight difference in the alignment of its north and south ditches, it widens to a point nearly 150m near its western end. It is roughly aligned east-west and is oriented toward the sunrise on the spring, there is a Bronze Age round barrow inside the western end of the enclosure, and a large Neolithic long barrow was constructed at its east terminal. The Stonehenge Riverside Project excavated the remains of the barrow in 2008 to determine if the barrow predated. The ditches of the cursus are not uniform and vary in width and depth, the eastern ditch is fairly shallow, as is the southern ditch – being only 0. 75m deep and 1. 8m wide at the top. At the western terminal, the ditch is 2m deep and 2. 75m wide, like most cursus, its function is unclear, although it is believed to be ceremonial. The length of the cursus, running roughly east west, crosses a dry valley known as Stonehenge Bottom. This may have been a winterbourne during the Neolithic era, if so, this would give it similar characteristics to other cursus, such as the Dorset Cursus, and it may be related to a ceremonial function. It has also suggested that the Stonehenge Cursus acts as a boundary between areas of settlement and ceremonial activity. The cursus is also aligned on the equinox sunrise which rises over the long barrow. Two artificial pits have been found near the east and west ends of the curses and it has been found that lines of sunrise and sunset at midsummer through these pits are aligned with Stonehenge. William Stukeley was the first antiquarian to identify and record the Stonehenge Cursus, in 1947 John FS Stone excavated a small area of the southern ditch toward the west end of the cursus. He discovered a small chipping of bluestone and a pick in a specially dug recess that dated from approximately 2500 BCE. In 2007, the Stonehenge Riverside Project dug three trenches at the end of the cursus, discovering the antler pick at the western terminus ditch. A trench in the northern ditch uncovered a sherd of pottery dated to the 4th millennium BCE
3.
Dorset Cursus
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The Dorset Cursus is a Neolithic cursus monument that spans across 10 km of the chalk downland of Cranborne Chase in east Dorset, United Kingdom. Very little remains above ground of the Dorset Cursus, which stretched for 10 km through the undulating chalkland of Cranborne Chase in east Dorset. It is by far the largest example of class of ancient monument. Most of the current knowledge about the course of this ancient earthwork comes from aerial photography, however, there are a few locations where the banks, much reduced in size, are still visible, the best-preserved earthworks are those of the southwestern terminal on Thickthorn Down. The Cursus consisted of a pair of parallel banks running about 82 m apart, one bank is regular, whilst the other meanders, suggesting that the former was laid out first and the latter was dug using the former as a reference. The remains of these banks are visible within Salisbury Plantation on Oakley Down. A250 m length of the south-east bank remains on the slope of Bottlebush Down. It is believed that the cursus was built in two separate phases, first the 5.6 km southwesterly section from Thickthorn Down to Bottlebush Down, sometimes referred to as the Gussage Cursus. This was later extended another 4.3 km northeast, from Bottlebush Down to the terminal on Martin Down, the quasi-linear course of the Cursus means that it ignores topographical features of the landscape. It is by no means flat, and there is no overall downhill direction. The later Pentridge Cursus has one steep valley crossing and beyond that it stops traversing the contours and follows them instead, in the absence of any evidence for a more mundane purpose, it is assumed that the Cursus served a religious or ceremonial function. There is considerable speculation about the links between the landscape and the course of the Cursus. It has been suggested that any processions along the Cursus would take place from the Martin Down terminal in a direction for maximum visual impact along the route. Later Bronze Age sites such as the cemeteries on Oakley. This is in contrast to the Roman engineers who built the Ackling Dyke road across middle of the cursus on Wyke Down, the earthen long barrow in Britain, an introduction to the study of the funerary practice and culture of the Neolithic people of the third millennium BC. The Modern Antiquarian, A Pre-Millennial Odyssey Through Megalithic Britain, a Landscape Revealed,10000 years on a chalkland farm. A phenomenology of landscape, Places, Paths and Monuments
4.
Neolithic
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It ended when metal tools became widespread. The Neolithic is a progression of behavioral and cultural characteristics and changes, including the use of wild and domestic crops, the beginning of the Neolithic culture is considered to be in the Levant about 10, 200–8800 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered the use of wild cereals, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufian period was between 12,000 and 10,200 BC, and the so-called proto-Neolithic is now included in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic between 10,200 and 8800 BC. By 10, 200–8800 BC, farming communities arose in the Levant and spread to Asia Minor, North Africa, Mesopotamia is the site of the earliest developments of the Neolithic Revolution from around 10,000 BC. Early Neolithic farming was limited to a range of plants, both wild and domesticated, which included einkorn wheat, millet and spelt, and the keeping of dogs, sheep. By about 6900–6400 BC, it included domesticated cattle and pigs, the establishment of permanently or seasonally inhabited settlements, not all of these cultural elements characteristic of the Neolithic appeared everywhere in the same order, the earliest farming societies in the Near East did not use pottery. Early Japanese societies and other East Asian cultures used pottery before developing agriculture, unlike the Paleolithic, when more than one human species existed, only one human species reached the Neolithic. The term Neolithic derives from the Greek νέος néos, new and λίθος líthos, stone, the term was invented by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system. In the Middle East, cultures identified as Neolithic began appearing in the 10th millennium BC, early development occurred in the Levant and from there spread eastwards and westwards. Neolithic cultures are attested in southeastern Anatolia and northern Mesopotamia by around 8000 BC. The total excavated area is more than 1,200 square yards, the Neolithic 1 period began roughly 10,000 years ago in the Levant. A temple area in southeastern Turkey at Göbekli Tepe dated around 9500 BC may be regarded as the beginning of the period. This site was developed by nomadic tribes, evidenced by the lack of permanent housing in the vicinity. At least seven stone circles, covering 25 acres, contain limestone pillars carved with animals, insects, Stone tools were used by perhaps as many as hundreds of people to create the pillars, which might have supported roofs. Other early PPNA sites dating to around 9500–9000 BC have been found in Jericho, Israel, Gilgal in the Jordan Valley, the start of Neolithic 1 overlaps the Tahunian and Heavy Neolithic periods to some degree. The major advance of Neolithic 1 was true farming, in the proto-Neolithic Natufian cultures, wild cereals were harvested, and perhaps early seed selection and re-seeding occurred. The grain was ground into flour, emmer wheat was domesticated, and animals were herded and domesticated
5.
Ditch
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A ditch is a small to moderate depression created to channel water. A ditch can be used for drainage, to water from low-lying areas, alongside roadways or fields. A trench is a narrow ditch. Ditches are commonly seen around farmland, especially in areas that have required drainage, such as The Fens in eastern England and much of the Netherlands. Roadside ditches may provide a hazard to motorists and cyclists, whose vehicles may crash into them and get damaged, flipped over or stuck, especially in weather conditions. In Anglo-Saxon, the word dïc already existed and was pronounced deek in northern England, the origins of the word lie in digging a trench and forming the upcast soil into a bank alongside it. This practice has meant that the name dïc was given to either the excavation or the bank, thus Offas Dyke is a combined structure and Car Dyke is a trench, though it once had raised banks as well. In the midlands and north of England, a dike is what a ditch is in the south, a property boundary marker or small drainage channel. Where it carries a stream, it may be called a dike as in Rippingale Running Dike. The Weir Dike is a dike in Bourne North Fen, near Twenty. Drainage ditches play major roles in agriculture throughout the world, improper drainage systems accelerate water contamination, excessively desiccate soils during seasonal drought, and become a financial burden to maintain. Industrial earth-moving equipment facilitates maintenance of straight drainage trenches, but entrenchment results in increasing environmental, sustainable channel design can result in ditches that are largely self-maintaining due to natural geomorphological equilibrium. Slowed net siltation and erosion result in net reduction in sediment transport, flooding can be a major cause of recurring crop loss—particularly in heavy soils—and can severely disrupt urban economies as well. However, excess drainage results in recurring drought induced crop yield losses, controlled subsurface drainage from sensitive areas to vegetated drainage ditches makes possible a better balance between water drainage and water retention needs. The initial investment allows a community to draw down local water tables when, particularly in Colorado, the term ditch is also applied to open aqueducts that traverse hillsides as part of transbasin diversion projects. Examples include the Grand Ditch over La Poudre Pass, the Berthoud Pass Ditch, black Beach, The Mucklands of Canastota, New York
6.
Trench
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A trench is a type of excavation or depression in the ground that is generally deeper than it is wide, and narrow compared with its length. In geology, trenches are created as a result of erosion by rivers or by geological movement of tectonic plates, in the civil engineering field, trenches are often created to install underground infrastructure or utilities, or later to access these installations. Trenches have also often been dug for defensive purposes. In archaeology, the method is used for searching and excavating ancient ruins or to dig into strata of sedimented material. Some trenches are created as a result of erosion by running water or by glaciers, others, such as rift valleys or more commonly oceanic trenches, are created by geological movement of tectonic plates. Some oceanic trenches include the Mariana Trench and the Aleutian Trench, the former geoform is relatively deep, linear and narrow, and is formed by plate subduction when plates converge. In the civil engineering field of construction or maintenance of infrastructure and they are used to place underground easily damaged and obstructive infrastructure or utilities. A similar use for higher bulk would be in pipeline transport and they may also be created later to search for pipes and other infrastructure that is known to be underground in the general area, but whose exact location has been lost. Finally, trenches may be created as the first step of creating a foundation wall, Trench shoring is often used in trenchworks to protect workers and stabilise embankments. An alternative to digging trenches is to create a utility tunnel, the advantages of utility tunnels are the reduction of maintenance manholes, one-time relocation, and less excavation and repair, compared with separate cable ducts for each service. When they are well mapped, they also allow access to all utilities without having to dig access trenches or resort to confused. One of the greatest advantages is public safety, for a comparison of utility tunnels vs. direct burial, see the article referred to above. In some cases, a trench is dug and deliberately preserved. This is typically done to install depressed motorways, open railway cuttings, trenches have often been dug for defensive purposes. In the pre-firearm eras, they were mainly a type of hindrance to an attacker of a fortified location, an early example of this can be seen in the Battle of the Trench, one of the early Battles of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. With the advent of firearms, trenches were used to shelter troops. The advantage of this method is that it only a small part of the site. However, this also has the disadvantage of only revealing small slices of the whole volume
7.
Aerial photography
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Aerial photography is the taking of photographs of the ground from an elevated/direct-down position. Usually the camera is not supported by a ground-based structure, mounted cameras may be triggered remotely or automatically, hand-held photographs may be taken by a photographer. Aerial photography should not be confused with air-to-air photography, where one or more aircraft are used as chase planes that chase, Aerial photography was first practiced by the French photographer and balloonist Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, known as Nadar, in 1858 over Paris, France. However, the photographs he produced no longer exist and therefore the earliest surviving aerial photograph is titled Boston, as the Eagle, taken by James Wallace Black and Samuel Archer King on October 13,1860, it depicts Boston from a height of 630m. Kite aerial photography was pioneered by British meteorologist E. D. Archibald in 1882 and he used an explosive charge on a timer to take photographs from the air. Frenchman Arthur Batut began using kites for photography in 1888, Samuel Franklin Cody developed his advanced Man-lifter War Kite and succeeded in interesting the British War Office with its capabilities. The first use of a motion picture camera mounted to an aircraft took place on April 24,1909 over Rome in the 3,28 silent film short. The use of aerial photography rapidly matured during the war, as aircraft were equipped with cameras to record enemy movements. At the start of the conflict, the usefulness of aerial photography was not fully appreciated, germany adopted the first aerial camera, a Görz, in 1913. The French began the war with several squadrons of Blériot observation aircraft equipped with cameras for reconnaissance, the French Army developed procedures for getting prints into the hands of field commanders in record time. Frederick Charles Victor Laws started aerial photography experiments in 1912 with No.1 Squadron of the Royal Flying Corps, in 1916 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy made vertical camera axis aerial photos above Italy for map-making. The camera was inserted into the floor of the aircraft and could be triggered by the pilot at intervals. In January 1918, General Allenby used five Australian pilots from No.1 Squadron AFC to photograph a 624 square miles area in Palestine as an aid to correcting and improving maps of the Turkish front and this was a pioneering use of aerial photography as an aid for cartography. Beginning 5 January, they flew with an escort to ward off enemy fighters. The first commercial aerial photography company in the UK was Aerofilms Ltd, founded by World War I veterans Francis Wills, the company soon expanded into a business with major contracts in Africa and Asia as well as in the UK. Operations began from the Stag Lane Aerodrome at Edgware, using the aircraft of the London Flying School, subsequently, the Aircraft Manufacturing Company, hired an Airco DH.9 along with pilot entrepreneur Alan Cobham. From 1921, Aerofilms carried out vertical photography for survey and mapping purposes, during the 1930s, the company pioneered the science of photogrammetry, with the Ordnance Survey amongst the companys clients. One Fairchild aerial survey aircraft in 1935 carried unit that combined two synchronized cameras, and each camera having five six inch lenses with a ten-inch lenses, each photo covered two hundred and twenty five square miles
8.
Rudston
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Rudston is a small village and civil parish in the East Riding of Yorkshire, England. It is situated between Driffield and Bridlington approximately 6 miles to the west of Bridlington, and lies on the B1253 road, the Gypsey Race runs through the village, which lies in the Great Wold Valley. There are a number of Neolithic sites associated with the stream and it is the current Seat of the Clan Macdonald of Sleat. According to the 2011 UK census, Rudston parish had a population of 409, the place-name Rudston is first attested in the Domesday Book of 1086, and means rood or cross stone, referring to the monolith. However, the name rud derives from Old Norse ruð, meaning a clearing or pasture, so the place name could be stone in the clearing, Ruðstane. Nearby Howes of Duggleby and Bal also indicate Norse Viking place names rather than Anglo-Saxon origins, here stands the Rudston Monolith, at over 25 feet tall, it is the tallest standing stone in England, and gave the village its name, it is Grade I listed. Rudston is the centre of a grouping of four Neolithic cursus monuments, cursus A, cursus B, cursus C. At least one end of each rests on an elevated chalk ridge on the sides of the Great Wold Valley. Cursuses A and C cross the Gypsey Race, whilst the other ends of cursuses B and D probably lie under the village, Rudston Roman villa, noted for its mosaics, was first excavated in 1839. It was subsequently re-excavated in the 1930s, 1960s and 1970s, Rudston Grade I listed Anglican parish church is dedicated to All Saints. Of 14th-century origin, it was restored in 1861 by George Fowler Jones and it contains the gigantic organ, originally of four manuals, given by Sir Alexander McDonald of the Isles. Now a 3 manual instrument, it stands at the west end of the church in the original case, the author Winifred Holtby was born in Rudston and is buried in the church graveyard. Thorpe Hall to the east of the village was designated a Grade II* listed building in 1952 and is now recorded in the National Heritage List for England, Rudston in the Domesday Book The Rudston Village website Rudston Roman Villa
9.
Yorkshire
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Yorkshire, formally known as the County of York, is a historic county of Northern England and the largest in the United Kingdom. Due to its size in comparison to other English counties, functions have been undertaken over time by its subdivisions. Throughout these changes, Yorkshire has continued to be recognised as a geographical territory, Yorkshire has sometimes been nicknamed Gods Own County or Gods Own Country. Yorkshire Day, held on 1 August, is a celebration of the culture of Yorkshire. Yorkshire is now divided between different official regions, most of the county falls within Yorkshire and the Humber. The extreme northern part of the county falls within North East England, Small areas in the west of the historic county now form part of North West England, following boundary changes in 1974. Yorkshire or the County of York was so named as it is the shire of the city of York local /ˈjɔːk/ or Yorks Shire, York comes from the Viking name for the city, Jórvík. Shire is from Old English, scir meaning care or official charge, the shire suffix is locally pronounced /-ʃə/ shuh, or occasionally /-ʃiə/, a homophone of sheer. Early inhabitants of Yorkshire were Celts, who formed two tribes, the Brigantes and the Parisi. The Brigantes controlled territory which later became all of the North Riding of Yorkshire, the tribe controlled most of Northern England and more territory than any other Celtic tribe in England. That they had the Yorkshire area as their heartland is evident in that Isurium Brigantum was the town of their civitas under Roman rule. Six of the nine Brigantian poleis described by Claudius Ptolemaeus in the Geographia fall within the historic county, the Parisi, who controlled the area that would become the East Riding of Yorkshire, might have been related to the Parisii of Lutetia Parisiorum, Gaul. Their capital was at Petuaria, close to the Humber estuary, initially, this situation suited both the Romans and the Brigantes, who were known as the most militant tribe in Britain. Queen Cartimandua left her husband Venutius for his bearer, Vellocatus. Cartimandua, due to her relationship with the Romans, was able to keep control of the kingdom. At the second attempt, Venutius seized the kingdom, but the Romans, under general Petillius Cerialis, the fortified city of Eboracum was named as capital of Britannia Inferior and joint-capital of all Roman Britain. During the two years before the death of Emperor Septimius Severus, the Roman Empire was run from Eboracum by him, another emperor, Constantius Chlorus, died in Yorkshire during a visit in 306 AD. This saw his son Constantine the Great proclaimed emperor in the city, in the early 5th century, the Roman rule ceased with the withdrawal of the last active Roman troops
