1.
Air filter
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A particulate air filter is a device composed of fibrous materials which removes solid particulates such as dust, pollen, mould, and bacteria from the air. Filters containing an absorbent or catalyst such as charcoal may also remove odors, air filters are used in applications where air quality is important, notably in building ventilation systems and in engines. Some buildings, as well as aircraft and other human-made environments use foam, pleated paper, another method, air ionisers, use fibers or elements with a static electric charge, which attract dust particles. The air intakes of internal combustion engines and air compressors tend to use paper, foam. Oil bath filters have fallen out of favor, the cabin air filter is typically a pleated-paper filter that is placed in the outside-air intake for the vehicles passenger compartment. Some of these filters are rectangular and similar in shape to the air filter. Others are uniquely shaped to fit the space of particular vehicles outside-air intakes. The first automaker to include a disposable filter to clean the system was the Nash Motors Weather Eye. Being a relatively recent addition to equipment, this filter is often overlooked. Clogged or dirty cabin air filters can significantly reduce airflow from the cabin vents, the poor performance of these filters is obscured by manufacturers by not using the MERV rating system. Some people mistakenly believe that some of these are HEPA filters, the combustion air filter prevents abrasive particulate matter from entering the engines cylinders, where it would cause mechanical wear and oil contamination. Most fuel injected vehicles use a paper filter element in the form of a flat panel. This filter is placed inside a plastic box connected to the throttle body with ductwork. Older vehicles that use carburetors or throttle body fuel injection typically use an air filter, usually a few inches high. The overall unit is called the air cleaner, pleated paper filter elements are the nearly exclusive choice for automobile engine air cleaners, because they are efficient, easy to service, and cost-effective. The paper term is misleading, as the filter media are considerably different from papers used for writing or packaging. There is a persistent belief amongst tuners, fomented by advertising for aftermarket non-paper replacement filters, construction equipment engines also use this. Oil-wetted polyurethane foam elements are used in some aftermarket replacement automobile air filters, foam filters are still commonly used on air compressors for air tools up to 5Hp
2.
Vortex
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In fluid dynamics, a vortex is a region in a fluid in which the flow rotates around an axis line, which may be straight or curved. The plural of vortex is either vortices or vortexes, vortices form in stirred fluids, and may be observed in phenomena such as smoke rings, whirlpools in the wake of boat, or the winds surrounding a tornado or dust devil. Vortices are a component of turbulent flow. The distribution of velocity, vorticity, as well as the concept of circulation are used to characterize vortices, in most vortices, the fluid flow velocity is greatest next to its axis and decreases in inverse proportion to the distance from the axis. Once formed, vortices can move, stretch, twist, a moving vortex carries with it some angular and linear momentum, energy, and mass. A key concept in the dynamics of vortices is the vorticity, conceptually, the vorticity could be observed by placing a tiny rough ball at the point in question, free to move with the fluid, and observing how it rotates about its center. The direction of the vorticity vector is defined to be the direction of the axis of rotation of this imaginary ball while its length is twice the angular velocity. The local rotation measured by the vorticity ω → must not be confused with the velocity vector of that portion of the fluid with respect to the external environment or to any fixed axis. In a vortex, in particular, ω → may be opposite to the angular velocity vector of the fluid relative to the vortexs axis. In theory, the u of the particles in a vortex may vary with the distance r from the axis in many ways. Ω → =, r → =, u → = Ω → × r → =, ω → = ∇ × u → = =2 Ω →. In this case the vorticity ω → is zero at any point not on that axis, Ω → =, r → =, u → = Ω → × r → =, ω → = ∇ × u → =0. In the absence of forces, a vortex usually evolves fairly quickly toward the irrotational flow pattern. Irrotational vortices are also called free vortices, for an irrotational vortex, the circulation is zero along any closed contour that does not enclose the vortex axis, and has a fixed value, Γ, for any contour that does enclose the axis once. The tangential component of the velocity is then u θ = Γ2 π r. The angular momentum per unit mass relative to the axis is therefore constant. However, the ideal irrotational vortex flow is not physically realizable, indeed, in real vortices there is always a core region surrounding the axis where the particle velocity stops increasing and then decreases to zero as r goes to zero. Within that region, the flow is no longer irrotational, the vorticity ω → becomes non-zero, the Rankine vortex is a model that assumes a rigid-body rotational flow where r is less than a fixed distance r0, and irrotational flow outside that core regions
3.
Gravity
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Gravity, or gravitation, is a natural phenomenon by which all things with mass are brought toward one another, including planets, stars and galaxies. Since energy and mass are equivalent, all forms of energy, including light, on Earth, gravity gives weight to physical objects and causes the ocean tides. Gravity has a range, although its effects become increasingly weaker on farther objects. The most extreme example of this curvature of spacetime is a hole, from which nothing can escape once past its event horizon. More gravity results in time dilation, where time lapses more slowly at a lower gravitational potential. Gravity is the weakest of the four fundamental interactions of nature, the gravitational attraction is approximately 1038 times weaker than the strong force,1036 times weaker than the electromagnetic force and 1029 times weaker than the weak force. As a consequence, gravity has an influence on the behavior of subatomic particles. On the other hand, gravity is the dominant interaction at the macroscopic scale, for this reason, in part, pursuit of a theory of everything, the merging of the general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics into quantum gravity, has become an area of research. While the modern European thinkers are credited with development of gravitational theory, some of the earliest descriptions came from early mathematician-astronomers, such as Aryabhata, who had identified the force of gravity to explain why objects do not fall out when the Earth rotates. Later, the works of Brahmagupta referred to the presence of force, described it as an attractive force. Modern work on gravitational theory began with the work of Galileo Galilei in the late 16th and this was a major departure from Aristotles belief that heavier objects have a higher gravitational acceleration. Galileo postulated air resistance as the reason that objects with less mass may fall slower in an atmosphere, galileos work set the stage for the formulation of Newtons theory of gravity. In 1687, English mathematician Sir Isaac Newton published Principia, which hypothesizes the inverse-square law of universal gravitation. Newtons theory enjoyed its greatest success when it was used to predict the existence of Neptune based on motions of Uranus that could not be accounted for by the actions of the other planets. Calculations by both John Couch Adams and Urbain Le Verrier predicted the position of the planet. A discrepancy in Mercurys orbit pointed out flaws in Newtons theory, the issue was resolved in 1915 by Albert Einsteins new theory of general relativity, which accounted for the small discrepancy in Mercurys orbit. The simplest way to test the equivalence principle is to drop two objects of different masses or compositions in a vacuum and see whether they hit the ground at the same time. Such experiments demonstrate that all objects fall at the rate when other forces are negligible
4.
Sawmill
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A sawmill or lumber mill is a facility where logs are cut into lumber. Prior to the invention of the sawmill, boards were rived and planed, the earliest known mechanical mill is the Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone mill at Hierapolis, Asia Minor dating back to the 3rd century AD. Other water-powered mills followed and by the 11th century they were widespread in Spain and North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, the circular motion of the wheel was converted to a reciprocating motion at the saw blade. Generally, only the saw was powered, and the logs had to be loaded and moved by hand, an early improvement was the development of a movable carriage, also water powered, to move the log steadily through the saw blade. Scrap lumber from the mill provided a source of fuel for firing the boiler, the arrival of railroads meant that logs could be transported to mills rather than mills being built besides navigable waterways. Besides the sawn timber, use is made of all the by-products including sawdust, bark, wood chips, a sawmills basic operation is much like those of hundreds of years ago, a log enters on one end and dimensional lumber exits on the other end. After trees are selected for harvest, the step in logging is felling the trees. Branches are cut off the trunk, logs are taken by logging truck, rail or a log drive to the sawmill. Logs are scaled either on the way to the mill or upon arrival at the mill, debarking removes bark from the logs. Decking is the process for sorting the logs by species, size, a sawyer uses a head saw to break the log into cants and flitches. Trimming squares the ends at typical lumber lengths, drying removes naturally occurring moisture from the lumber. This can be done with kilns or air-dried, planing smooths the surface of the lumber leaving a uniform width and thickness. Shipping transports the lumber to market. The Hierapolis sawmill, a Roman water-powered stone saw mill at Hierapolis and it is also the earliest known machine to incorporate a crank and connecting rod mechanism. Water-powered stone sawmills working with cranks and connecting rods, but without gear train, are attested for the 6th century AD at the Eastern Roman cities Gerasa. The earliest literary reference to a working sawmill comes from a Roman poet, at one point in the poem he describes the shrieking sound of a watermill cutting marble. Marble sawmills also seem to be indicated by the Christian saint Gregory of Nyssa from Anatolia around 370/390 AD, sawmills became widespread in medieval Europe again, as one was sketched by Villard de Honnecourt in c. They are claimed to have introduced to Madeira following its discovery in c.1420
5.
Oil refinery
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Oil refineries are typically large, sprawling industrial complexes with extensive piping running throughout, carrying streams of fluids between large chemical processing units. In many ways, oil refineries use much of the technology of, the crude oil feedstock has typically been processed by an oil production plant. There is usually an oil depot at or near an oil refinery for the storage of incoming crude oil feedstock as well as bulk liquid products, an oil refinery is considered an essential part of the downstream side of the petroleum industry. The lighter elements, however, form explosive vapors in the tanks and are therefore hazardous. Petroleum fossil fuels are burned in internal combustion engines to power for ships, automobiles, aircraft engines, lawn mowers, dirt bikes. Different boiling points allow the hydrocarbons to be separated by distillation, Oil can be used in a variety of ways because it contains hydrocarbons of varying molecular masses, forms and lengths such as paraffins, aromatics, naphthenes, alkenes, dienes, and alkynes. Once separated and purified of any contaminants and impurities, the fuel or lubricant can be sold without further processing, smaller molecules such as isobutane and propylene or butylenes can be recombined to meet specific octane requirements by processes such as alkylation, or more commonly, dimerization. The octane grade of gasoline can also be improved by catalytic reforming, the final step in gasoline production is the blending of fuels with different octane ratings, vapor pressures, and other properties to meet product specifications. Another method for reprocessing and upgrading these intermediate products uses a process to separate usable oil from the waste asphaltene material. Oil refineries are large plants, processing about a hundred thousand to several hundred thousand barrels of crude oil a day. Because of the capacity, many of the units operate continuously, as opposed to processing in batches. The high capacity also makes process optimization and advanced process control very desirable, petroleum products are usually grouped into four categories, light distillates, middle distillates, heavy distillates and residuum. This classification is based on the way crude oil is distilled and separated into fractions as in the above drawing and these are not usually transported but instead are blended or processed further on-site. Chemical plants are often adjacent to oil refineries or a number of further chemical processes are integrated into it. For example, light hydrocarbons are steam-cracked in a plant. Using the Claus process, hydrogen sulfide is afterwards transformed to elementary sulfur to be sold to the chemical industry, the rather large heat energy freed by this process is directly used in the other parts of the refinery. Often an electrical plant is combined into the whole refinery process to take up the excess heat. Desalter unit washes out salt from the oil before it enters the atmospheric distillation unit
6.
Cement
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A cement is a binder, a substance used in construction that sets, hardens and adheres to other materials, binding them together. Cement is seldom used solely, but is used to bind sand, Cement is used with fine aggregate to produce mortar for masonry, or with sand and gravel aggregates to produce concrete. Non-hydraulic cement will not set in wet conditions or underwater, rather, it sets as it dries and it is resistant to attack by chemicals after setting. Hydraulic cements set and become adhesive due to a reaction between the dry ingredients and water. The chemical reaction results in mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite durable in water and this allows setting in wet condition or underwater and further protects the hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical process for hydraulic cement found by ancient Romans used volcanic ash with added lime, the word cement can be traced back to the Roman term opus caementicium, used to describe masonry resembling modern concrete that was made from crushed rock with burnt lime as binder. The volcanic ash and pulverized brick supplements that were added to the burnt lime, to obtain a hydraulic binder, were referred to as cementum, cimentum, cäment. In modern times, organic polymers are used as cements in concrete. Non-hydraulic cement, such as slaked lime, hardens by carbonation in the presence of carbon dioxide which is present in the air. The carbonation reaction requires the dry cement to be exposed to air and this whole process is called the lime cycle. Conversely, hydraulic cement hardens by hydration when water is added, Hydraulic cements are made of a mixture of silicates and oxides, the four main components being, Belite, Alite, Tricalcium aluminate, Brownmillerite. The chemistry of the above listed reactions is not completely clear and is still the object of research, Cement, chemically speaking, is a product that includes lime as the primary curing ingredient, but is far from the first material used for cementation. The Babylonians and Assyrians used bitumen to bind together burnt brick or alabaster slabs, in Egypt stone blocks were cemented together with a mortar made of sand and roughly burnt gypsum, which often contained calcium carbonate. Lime was used on Crete and by the ancient Greeks, there is evidence that the Minoans of Crete used crushed potshards as an artificial pozzolan for hydraulic cement. A kind of powder which from natural causes produces astonishing results and it is found in the neighborhood of Baiae and in the country belonging to the towns round about Mt. Vesuvius. This substance when mixed with lime and rubble not only lends strength to buildings of other kinds, the Greeks used volcanic tuff from the island of Thera as their pozzolan and the Romans used crushed volcanic ash with lime. This mixture was able to set under water increasing its resistance, the material was called pozzolana from the town of Pozzuoli, west of Naples where volcanic ash was extracted. In the absence of ash, the Romans used powdered brick or pottery as a substitute
7.
Cement kiln
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Over a billion tonnes of cement are made per year, and cement kilns are the heart of this production process, their capacity usually defines the capacity of the cement plant. As the main energy-consuming and greenhouse-gas–emitting stage of cement manufacture, improvement of efficiency has been the central concern of cement manufacturing technology. In the second stage, the rawmix is fed into the kiln, successive chemical reactions take place as the temperature of the rawmix rises,70 to 110 °C - Free water is evaporated. 400 to 600 °C - clay-like minerals are decomposed into their constituent oxides, principally SiO2, dolomite decomposes to calcium carbonate, MgO and CO2. 650 to 900 °C - calcium carbonate reacts with SiO2 to form belite,900 to 1050 °C - the remaining calcium carbonate decomposes to calcium oxide and CO2. 1300 to 1450 °C - partial melting takes place, and belite reacts with calcium oxide to form alite, alite is the characteristic constituent of Portland cement. Typically, a temperature of 1400–1450 °C is required to complete the reaction. The partial melting causes the material to aggregate into lumps or nodules, the hot clinker next falls into a cooler which recovers most of its heat, and cools the clinker to around 100 °C, at which temperature it can be conveniently conveyed to storage. The cement kiln system is designed to accomplish these processes, Portland cement clinker was first made in a modified form of the traditional static lime kiln. The basic, egg-cup shaped lime kiln was provided with a conical or beehive shaped extension to increase draught, for nearly half a century, this design, and minor modifications, remained the only method of manufacture. The kiln was restricted in size by the strength of the chunks of rawmix, if the charge in the kiln collapsed under its own weight, for this reason, beehive kilns never made more than 30 tonnes of clinker per batch. A batch took one week to turn around, a day to fill the kiln, thus, a kiln would produce about 1500 tonnes per year. Around 1885, experiments began on design of continuous kilns, one design was the shaft kiln, similar in design to a blast furnace. Rawmix in the form of lumps and fuel were added at the top. Air was blown through under pressure from the base to combust the fuel, several thousand such kilns were constructed in China. A typical shaft kiln produces 100-200 tonnes per day, from 1885, trials began on the development of the rotary kiln, which today accounts for more than 95% of world production. The rotary kiln consists of a made from steel plate. The tube slopes slightly and slowly rotates on its axis at between 30 and 250 revolutions per hour, rawmix is fed in at the upper end, and the rotation of the kiln causes it gradually to move downhill to the other end of the kiln
8.
Vacuum cleaner
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The dirt is collected by either a dustbag or a cyclone for later disposal. Specialized shop vacuums can be used to suck up both dust and liquids, although vacuum cleaner and the short form vacuum are neutral names, in some countries hoover is used instead as a genericized trademark, and as a verb. The name comes from the Hoover Company, one of the first, the device is also sometimes called a sweeper although the same term also refers to a carpet sweeper, a similar invention. The vacuum cleaner evolved from the carpet sweeper via manual vacuum cleaners, the first manual models, using bellows, were developed in the 1860s, and the first motorized designs appeared at the turn of the 20th century, with the first decade being the boom decade. In 1860 a carpet sweeper was invented by Daniel Hess of West Union, Iowa that gathered dust with a rotating brush, another early model was the Whirlwind, invented in Chicago in 1868 by Ives W. McGaffey. The bulky device worked with a belt driven fan cranked by hand that made it awkward to operate, a similar model was constructed by Melville R. Bissell of Grand Rapids, Michigan in 1876. The company later added portable vacuum cleaners to its line of cleaning tools, the end of the 19th century saw the introduction of powered cleaners, although early types used some variation of blowing air to clean instead of suction. One appeared in 1898 when John S. Thurman of St. Louis, thurmans system, powered by an internal combustion engine, traveled to the customers residence on a horse-drawn wagon as part of a door to door cleaning service. Corrine Dufour of Savannah, Georgia received two patents in 1899 and 1900 for another blown air system that seems to have featured the first use of an electric motor. In 1901 powered vacuum cleaners using suction were invented independently by British engineer Hubert Cecil Booth, Booth also may have coined the word vacuum cleaner. Kenneys was a stationary 4,000 lb. steam engine powered system with pipes and hoses reaching into all parts of the building. The first vacuum-cleaning device to be portable and marketed at the market was built in 1905 by Walter Griffiths. In 1906 James B. Kirby developed his first of many vacuums called the Domestic Cyclone It used water for dirt separation. In 1907 department store janitor James Murray Spangler of Canton, Ohio invented the first portable vacuum cleaner. Crucially, in addition to suction from a fan that blew the dirt and dust into a soap box and one of his wifes pillow cases. Their first vacuum was the 1908 Model O, which sold for $60, subsequent innovations included the beater bar in 1919, disposal filter bags in the 1920s, and an upright vacuum cleaner in 1926. In Continental Europe, the Fisker and Nielsen company in Denmark was the first to sell vacuum cleaners in 1910, the design weighed just 17.5 kg and could be operated by a single person. The Swedish company Electrolux launched the innovative Model V in 1921 that was designed to lie on the floor on two thin metal runners and this innovation, conceived by Electrolux founder Axel Wenner-Gren, became a standard feature on generations of future vacuum cleaners
9.
Central vacuum cleaner
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A central vacuum cleaner is a type of vacuum cleaner appliance, installed into a building as a semi-permanent fixture. The power unit is a permanent fixture, typically installed in a basement, garage, or storage room, inlets are installed in walls throughout the building that attach to power hoses and other central vacuum accessories to remove dust, particles, and small debris from interior rooms. Most power hoses typically have a switch located on the handle. The first introduction of a similar to a central vacuum cleaner was in the late 19th century. Because of the machine’s cost and weak dust-removal capabilities, only a few of these units were sold in the United States. In 1869 Ives McGaffey patented the first portable vacuum cleaner, or “sweeping machine”, the portable vacuum cleaner is the parent product to the modern central vacuum system. By the early 1960s, the invention of polyvinyl chloride thinwall vacuum tubing made the vacuum system more affordable in the United States. Previously, more-expensive metal tubing was used exclusively, and it may still be used for part or all of an installation, in the 1990s, central vacuum systems gained popularity among real estate agents and home remodelers for the value they added to homes at resale. Allergists also played an important role in the popularity of central vacuum systems in the 1990s. With central vacuum systems that exhaust completely out of the home, no dust or allergens can be recirculated through the interior air, as is the case with a traditional vacuum. A2001 study at University of California at Davis showed improvements in multiple aspects of health in 25 individuals with a history of type I hypersensitivity to house dust. To use a vacuum, the vacuum hose is taken from storage. The other end of the hose is inserted into a wall-mounted vacuum inlet, in some designs, opening the door switches on the vacuum motor, in other designs, insertion of the metallic hose-end fitting bridges two electrical contacts, signaling the motor to turn on. Other alternative designs feature a remote on/off switch located at the end of the vacuum hose. Vacuuming is performed in the manner as with a portable machine. Sometimes, the higher power of central vacuum may require reduction. Excess vacuum is bled off by opening a bleed port or slot to let some intake air bypass the cleaning tool. The bleed port is located at the tool end of the vacuum hose
10.
James Dyson
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Sir James Dyson OM CBE FRS FREng is a British inventor, industrial designer and founder of the Dyson company. He is best known as the inventor of the Dual Cyclone bagless vacuum cleaner, according to the Sunday Times Rich List 2016, his net worth is £5 billion, up from £3 billion in 2013. Dyson was born in Cromer, Norfolk, one of three children, Dyson attended Greshams School, a boarding school in Holt, Norfolk, from 1956 to 1965, when his father died of cancer. He excelled at long running, I was quite good at it, not because I was physically good. He spent one year at the Byam Shaw School of Art, Dyson helped design the Sea Truck in 1970 while studying at the Royal College of Art. His first original invention, the Ballbarrow, was a version of a wheelbarrow using a ball instead of a wheel. This was featured on the BBCs Tomorrows World television programme, Dyson stuck with the idea of a ball, which his brother had thought of, inventing the Trolleyball, a trolley that launched boats. He then designed the Wheelboat, which could travel at speeds of 64 kilometres per hour on land and water. In the late 1970s, Dyson had the idea of using cyclonic separation to create a vacuum cleaner that would not lose suction as it picked up dirt. He became frustrated with his Hoover Juniors diminishing performance, the dust bag kept becoming clogged with loads of dust thus reducing suction, the cyclone idea came from a sawmill that used cyclone technology. Partly supported by his wifes salary as an art teacher, and after five years and many prototypes, Dyson launched the G-Force cleaner in 1983. However, no manufacturer or distributor would handle his product in the UK, as it would disturb the valuable market for replacement dust bags, manufactured in bright pink, the G-Force sold for the equivalent of £2,000. It won the 1991 International Design Fair Prize in Japan and he obtained his first US patent on the idea in 1986. After failing to sell his invention to the manufacturers, Dyson set up his own manufacturing company. In June 1993, he opened his research centre and factory in Malmesbury, at that time, the UK market for disposable cleaner bags was £100 million. The slogan say goodbye to the bag proved more attractive to the public than a previous emphasis on the suction efficiency that its technology delivers. Ironically, the step change in domestic vacuum cleaner design had been the introduction of the disposable bag – users being prepared to pay extra for the convenience. In early 2005, it was reported that Dyson cleaners had become the leaders in the United States by value
