1.
Kigali
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Kigali, with a population of more than 1 million, is the capital and largest city of Rwanda. It is situated near the centre of the nation. The city has been the economic, cultural, and transport hub of Rwanda since it became capital at independence in 1962, the main residence and offices of the President of Rwanda are located in the city, as are the government ministries. The city is coterminous with the province of Kigali City, which was enlarged in January 2006, kigalis city limits covers the whole province, it is consolidated. The citys urban area covers about 70% of the municipal boundaries, Kigali was founded in 1907 by Dr. Richard Kandt under German colonial rule, but did not become the capital until Rwandan independence in 1962. The traditional capital was the seat of the mwami in Nyanza, while the seat of power was in Butare. Butare was initially the leading contender to be the capital of the new independent nation, since then the city has grown very quickly and is now the major political, economic and cultural centre of Rwanda. Beginning on April 6,1994, Kigali was the scene of the Rwandan Genocide – the slaughter of one million Tutsi by Hutu militias. There was fierce fighting between the army and Tutsi-dominated Rwandan Patriotic Front, although damaged, the citys structure has recovered. The city is built in country, sprawling across about four ridges. The city centre is located on one of these ridges, with the government area on another. The tops of the ridges have an elevation of 1,600 metres or 5,250 feet. The bigger houses and office buildings tend to be on the tops of the ridges, the city is ringed most of the way round by higher hills, with some suburban sprawl rising up these. The highest of these is Mt. Kigali, with an elevation of 1,850 metres or 6,070 feet above sea level, Kigali possesses a tropical savanna climate with a pronounced dry season, the Köppen Climate Classification subtype being Aw. Kigali houses several memorials, museums, and centers dedicated to the Rwandan Genocide, other museums include the Kandt House Museum of Natural History. Urugwiro is the residence of the President of Rwanda. It constitutes a village within the Kacyiru district of Kigali. The city has international class hotels, some played a role in history and this hotel became a refugee centre during the genocide, as famously depicted in the film Hotel Rwanda
2.
Rwanda
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Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a sovereign state in central and east Africa and one of the smallest countries on the African mainland. Located a few south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi. Rwanda is in the African Great Lakes region and is elevated, its geography is dominated by mountains in the west and savanna to the east. The climate is temperate to subtropical, with two seasons and two dry seasons each year. The population is young and predominantly rural, with a density among the highest in Africa, Rwandans are drawn from just one cultural and linguistic group, the Banyarwanda, although within this group there are three subgroups, the Hutu, Tutsi and Twa. The Twa are a pygmy people descended from Rwandas earliest inhabitants. Christianity is the largest religion in the country, the language is Kinyarwanda, spoken by most Rwandans, with English. Rwanda has a system of government. The president is Paul Kagame of the Rwandan Patriotic Front, who took office in 2000, Rwanda today has low corruption compared with neighbouring countries, although human rights organisations report suppression of opposition groups, intimidation and restrictions on freedom of speech. The country has been governed by an administrative hierarchy since pre-colonial times. Rwanda is one of two countries with a female majority in the national parliament. Hunter gatherers settled the territory in the stone and iron ages, the population coalesced first into clans and then into kingdoms. The Kingdom of Rwanda dominated from the century, with the Tutsi kings conquering others militarily, centralising power. Germany colonised Rwanda in 1884 as part of German East Africa, followed by Belgium, both European nations ruled through the kings and perpetuated a pro-Tutsi policy. The Hutu population revolted in 1959 and they massacred numerous Tutsi and ultimately established an independent, Hutu-dominated state in 1962. The Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front launched a war in 1990. Social tensions erupted in the 1994 genocide, in which Hutu extremists killed an estimated 500,000 to 1.3 million Tutsi, the RPF ended the genocide with a military victory. Rwandas economy suffered heavily during the 1994 Rwandan Genocide, but has since strengthened, the economy is based mostly on subsistence agriculture
3.
Burundi
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It is also considered part of Central Africa. The southwestern border is adjacent to Lake Tanganyika, the Twa, Hutu and Tutsi peoples have lived in Burundi for at least 500 years. For more than 200 of those years, Burundi was an independent kingdom, until the beginning of the twentieth century, after the First World War and Germanys defeat, it ceded the territory to Belgium. Both Germans and Belgians ruled Burundi and Rwanda as a European colony known as Ruanda-Urundi, despite common misconceptions, Burundi and Rwanda had never been under common rule until the time of European colonisation. The European intervention exacerbated social differences between the Tutsi and Hutu, and contributed to political unrest in the region. Bouts of ethnic cleansing and ultimately two civil wars and genocides during the 1970s and again in the 1990s left the country undeveloped, Burundis political system is that of a presidential representative democratic republic based upon a multi-party state. The President of Burundi is the head of state and head of government, there are currently 21 registered parties in Burundi. On 13 March 1992, Tutsi coup leader Pierre Buyoya established a constitution, six years later, on 6 June 1998, the constitution was changed, broadening National Assemblys seats and making provisions for two vice-presidents. Because of the Arusha Accord, Burundi enacted a government in 2000. In October 2016, Burundi informed the UN of its intention to withdraw from the International Criminal Court, Burundi remains an overwhelmingly rural society, with just 13% of the population living in urban areas in 2013. The population density of around 315 people per kilometre is the second highest in Sub-Saharan Africa. Roughly 85% of the population are of Hutu ethnic origin, 15% are Tutsi, the official languages of Burundi are French and Kirundi, although Swahili can be found spoken along the Tanzanian border. One of the smallest countries in Africa, Burundi has an equatorial climate, Burundi is a part of the Albertine Rift, the western extension of the East African Rift. The country lies on a plateau in the centre of Africa. The highest peak, Mount Heha at 2,685 m, lies to the southeast of the capital, there are two national parks, Kibira National Park to the northwest, Ruvubu National Park to the northeast. Both were established in 1982 to conserve wildlife populations, Burundis lands are mostly agricultural or pasture. Settlement by rural populations has led to deforestation, soil erosion, deforestation of the entire country is almost completely due to overpopulation, with a mere 600 km2 remaining and an ongoing loss of about 9% per annum. In addition to poverty, Burundians often have to deal with corruption, weak infrastructure, poor access to health and education services, Burundi is densely populated and has had substantial emigration as young people seek opportunities elsewhere
4.
Municipality
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It is to be distinguished from the county, which may encompass rural territory and/or numerous small communities such as towns, villages and hamlets. The term municipality may also mean the governing or ruling body of a given municipality, a municipality is a general-purpose administrative subdivision, as opposed to a special-purpose district. The term is derived from French municipalité and Latin municipalis, a municipality can be any political jurisdiction from a sovereign state, such as the Principality of Monaco, or a small village, such as West Hampton Dunes, New York. The power of municipalities range from virtual autonomy to complete subordination to the state, municipalities may have the right to tax individuals and corporations with income tax, property tax, and corporate income tax, but may also receive substantial funding from the state. Similar terms include Spanish ayuntamiento, also called municipalidad, Polish gmina, Dutch/Flemish Gemeente, in Australia, the term local government area is used in place of the generic municipality. Here, the LGA Structure covers only incorporated areas of Australia, incorporated areas are legally designated parts of states and territories over which incorporated local governing bodies have responsibility. In Canada, municipalities are local governments established through provincial and territorial legislation, the Province of Ontario has different tiers of municipalities, including lower, upper, and single tiers. Types of upper tier municipalities in Ontario include counties and regional municipalities, nova Scotia also has regional municipalities, which include cities, counties, districts, or towns as municipal units. In India, a Nagar Palika or Municipality is a local body that administers a city of population 100,000 or more. Under the Panchayati Raj system, it directly with the state government. Generally, smaller cities and bigger towns have a Nagar Palika. Nagar Palikas are also a form of local self-government entrusted with duties and responsibilities. Such a corporation in Great Britain consists of a head as a mayor or provost, since local government reorganisation, the unit in England, Northern Ireland and Wales is known as a district, and in Scotland as a council area. A district may be awarded borough or city status, or can retain its district title, in Jersey, a municipality refers to the honorary officials elected to run each of the 12 parishes into which it is subdivided. This is the highest level of government in this jurisdiction. In the United States, municipality is usually understood as a city, town, village, or other local government unit, in the Peoples Republic of China, a direct-controlled municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing. In Taiwan, a municipality is a city with equal status to a province, Kaohsiung, New Taipei, Taichung, Tainan, Taipei. In Portuguese language usage, there are two words to distinguish the territory and the administrative organ, when referring to the territory, the word concelho is used, when referring to the organ of State, the word município is used
5.
Belgium
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Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a sovereign state in Western Europe bordered by France, the Netherlands, Germany, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. It is a small, densely populated country which covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres and has a population of about 11 million people. Additionally, there is a group of German-speakers who live in the East Cantons located around the High Fens area. Historically, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were known as the Low Countries, the region was called Belgica in Latin, after the Roman province of Gallia Belgica. From the end of the Middle Ages until the 17th century, today, Belgium is a federal constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of governance. It is divided into three regions and three communities, that exist next to each other and its two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region is a bilingual enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia, Belgiums linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in its political history and complex system of governance, made up of six different governments. Upon its independence, declared in 1830, Belgium participated in the Industrial Revolution and, during the course of the 20th century, possessed a number of colonies in Africa. This continuing antagonism has led to several far-reaching reforms, resulting in a transition from a unitary to a federal arrangement during the period from 1970 to 1993. Belgium is also a member of the Eurozone, NATO, OECD and WTO. Its capital, Brussels, hosts several of the EUs official seats as well as the headquarters of major international organizations such as NATO. Belgium is also a part of the Schengen Area, Belgium is a developed country, with an advanced high-income economy and is categorized as very high in the Human Development Index. A gradual immigration by Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings, a gradual shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to evolve into the Carolingian Empire. Many of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries, the Eighty Years War divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. The latter were ruled successively by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs and this was the theatre of most Franco-Spanish and Franco-Austrian wars during the 17th and 18th centuries. The reunification of the Low Countries as the United Kingdom of the Netherlands occurred at the dissolution of the First French Empire in 1815, although the franchise was initially restricted, universal suffrage for men was introduced after the general strike of 1893 and for women in 1949. The main political parties of the 19th century were the Catholic Party, French was originally the single official language adopted by the nobility and the bourgeoisie
6.
United Nations trust territories
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United Nations trust territories were the successors of the remaining League of Nations mandates, and came into being when the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946. All of the trust territories were administered through the United Nations Trusteeship Council, the one territory not turned over was South-West Africa, which South Africa insisted remained under the League of Nations Mandate. It eventually gained independence in 1990 as Namibia, the main objection was that the trust territory guidelines required that the lands be prepared for independence and majority rule. The concept is distinct from a temporarily and directly governed by the United Nations. All these territories previously were League of Nations mandates, the Trust Territory of the Cameroons under French administration, Achieved independence as the Republic of Cameroon in 1960. The Trust Territory of the Cameroons under British administration, Somewhat smaller than the French Cameroons, following a plebiscite, Northern Cameroons became part of Nigeria in May 1961 and Southern Cameroons joined the Republic of Cameroon in October 1961. In 1975, the two entities were legally unified and granted independence as Papua New Guinea, the western half of the island, formerly Dutch and now part of Indonesia, was never part of either territory. The Trust Territory of Ruanda-Urundi, Separately gained independence in 1962 as Rwanda, the Trust Territory of Tanganyika, Granted independence in 1961. Federated with the former British protectorate Zanzibar in 1964 to form Tanzania, the Trust Territory of Togoland under French administration, Became independent as Togo in 1960. The Trust Territory of Western Samoa, Granted independence in 1962 and these territories were also former League of Nations mandates. The Trust Territory of Nauru, Granted independence in 1968, with the exception of the Northern Mariana Islands, which is an American commonwealth, these are all associated states of the United States. The Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian administration, Italy was appointed U. N. trustee of the former Italian Somaliland in 1950, in 1960, the Trust Territory merged with the former British Somaliland protectorate to form the Somali Republic. Korea, In wartime talks, Franklin D. Roosevelt proposed that Korea be placed under an American – Soviet trust administration. The plan was eclipsed after Roosevelts death on 12 April 1945, although it was expressed in the December Moscow Conference, Mandatory Palestine, United States government under Harry Truman proposed a UN trusteeship status for the Mandatory Palestine in 1948
7.
Bujumbura
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Bujumbura, formerly Usumbura, is the capital, largest city, and main port of Burundi. It ships most of the chief export, coffee, as well as cotton. It is on the shore of Lake Tanganyika, the second deepest lake in the world after Lake Baikal. The city center is a town with a large market, the national stadium, a large mosque. Museums in the city include the Burundi Museum of Life and the Burundi Geological Museum, ferries sail from Bujumbura to Kigoma in Tanzania. The city is home to the Bujumbura International Airport and the University of Burundi, Bujumbura grew from a small village after it became a military post in German East Africa in 1889. After World War I it was made the center of the Belgian League of Nations mandate of Ruanda-Urundi. The name was changed from Usumbura to Bujumbura when Burundi became independent in 1962, since independence, Bujumbura has been the scene of frequent fighting between the countrys two main ethnic groups, with Hutu militias opposing the Tutsi-dominated Burundi army. Bujumbura today stands as a city but remains to develop with its country. According to the BBC, Bujumbura residents are known for their tradition of Saturday morning runs started during Burundis long years of ethnic conflict. Because the surrounding hills were home to armed militants before 2005, Bujumbura residents would try to vent their fear and frustration and claustrophobia, by running, in March 2014, President Pierre Nkurunziza banned jogging, due to fears it was being used as a cover for subversion. That same month, twenty-one opposition supporters were sentenced to life in prison for using jogging as a way to organize a demonstration that turned violent. As of June 2014 in Bujumbura, the authorities have since restricted jogging clubs to certain areas, all sports must now take place in nine parks in Bujumbura and other designated football pitches. Bujumbura is governed by a community council and community administrator and it is further divided into 13 communes, or neighborhoods, each with its own council and boss. Bujumbura features a tropical climate with distinct wet and dry seasons. Its wet season is from October through April, while the dry season covers the five months. Despite being located close to the equator, Bujumbura is not nearly as warm as one might expect, average temperatures are constant throughout the course of the year with the high temperature at around 29 °C and the low temperature at around 19 °C. Bujumburas central market is in the City Centre, along Rwagasore Avenue, consequently, vendors moved their business to the central market, many settling outside the market due to lack of space
8.
Hutu
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The Hutu /ˈhuːtuː/, also known as the Abahutu, are a Bantu ethnic group native to African Great Lakes region of Africa, primarily area now under Burundi and Rwanda. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi, and the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, where they form one of the principal population divisions alongside the Tutsi, the Hutu is the largest of the four main population divisions in Burundi and Rwanda. The Twa pygmies, the smallest of the two principal populations, also share language and culture with the Hutu and Tutsi. However, they are distinguished by a shorter stature. The Hutu are believed to have first emigrated to the Great Lake region from West Africa in the great Bantu expansion, various theories have emerged to explain the purported physical differences between them and their fellow Bantu-speaking neighbors, the Tutsi. These pastoralists were then reckoned to have established aristocracies over the sedentary Hutu, through intermarriage with the local Bantus, the herders were gradually assimilated culturally, linguistically and racially. The latter view has received support among proponents of Rwandan national unity, mahmood Mamdani states that the Belgian colonial power designated people as Tutsi or Hutu on the basis of cattle ownership, physical measurements and church records. There is a debate as to whether the Hutu and Tutsi are really separate groups or not. Modern-day genetic studies of the Y-chromosome suggest that the Hutu, like the Tutsi, are largely of Bantu extraction, paternal genetic influences associated with the Horn of Africa and North Africa are few, and are ascribed to much earlier inhabitants who were assimilated. However, the Hutu have considerably fewer Nilo-Saharan paternal lineages than the Tutsi, in general, the Hutu appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Bantu populations, particularly the Tutsi. With a spectrum of variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions, the social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi. Tishkoff et al. found their mixed Hutu and Tutsi samples from Rwanda to be predominately of Bantu origin, Hutus speak Rwanda-Rundi as their native tongue, which is a member of the Bantu subgroup of the Niger–Congo language family. Rwanda-Rundi is subdivided into the Kinyarwanda and Kirundi dialects, which have been standardized as official languages of Rwanda and it is also spoken as a mother tongue by the Tutsi and Twa. Additionally, many Hutu speak French, the official language of Rwanda and Burundi. The Belgian-sponsored Tutsi monarchy survived until 1959, when Kigeli V was exiled from the colony, in Burundi, Tutsis, who are the minority, maintained control of the government and military. In Rwanda, the power was transferred from the minority Tutsi to the majority Hutu. In Rwanda, this led to the Social revolution and Hutu violence against Tutsis, later, exiled Tutsis from Burundi invaded Rwanda, prompting Rwanda to close its border with Burundi
9.
Agriculture
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Agriculture is the cultivation and breeding of animals, plants and fungi for food, fiber, biofuel, medicinal plants and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. Agriculture was the key development in the rise of human civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science, the history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. Industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture farming has become the dominant agricultural methodology, genetically modified organisms are an increasing component of agriculture, although they are banned in several countries. Agricultural food production and water management are increasingly becoming global issues that are fostering debate on a number of fronts, the major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials. Specific foods include cereals, vegetables, fruits, oils, meats, fibers include cotton, wool, hemp, silk and flax. Raw materials include lumber and bamboo, other useful materials are also produced by plants, such as resins, dyes, drugs, perfumes, biofuels and ornamental products such as cut flowers and nursery plants. The word agriculture is a late Middle English adaptation of Latin agricultūra, from ager, field, Agriculture usually refers to human activities, although it is also observed in certain species of ant, termite and ambrosia beetle. To practice agriculture means to use resources to produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops. This definition includes arable farming or agronomy, and horticulture, all terms for the growing of plants, even then, it is acknowledged that there is a large amount of knowledge transfer and overlap between silviculture and agriculture. In traditional farming, the two are often combined even on small landholdings, leading to the term agroforestry, Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe, and included a diverse range of taxa. At least 11 separate regions of the Old and New World were involved as independent centers of origin, wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago. Pigs were domesticated in Mesopotamia around 15,000 years ago, rice was domesticated in China between 13,500 and 8,200 years ago, followed by mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. From around 11,500 years ago, the eight Neolithic founder crops, emmer and einkorn wheat, hulled barley, peas, lentils, bitter vetch, chick peas and flax were cultivated in the Levant. Cattle were domesticated from the aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey. In the Andes of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans, coca, llamas, alpacas, sugarcane and some root vegetables were domesticated in New Guinea around 9,000 years ago. Sorghum was domesticated in the Sahel region of Africa by 7,000 years ago, cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago, and was independently domesticated in Eurasia at an unknown time
10.
National University of Rwanda
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The National University of Rwanda was the largest university in Rwanda. It was located at 2°36′58″S 29°44′34″E in the city of Butare and was established in 1963 by the government in cooperation with the Congregation of the Dominicans from the Province of Quebec and its founder and first rector was Father Georges-Henri Lévesque. In 2013, along with all higher education institutions in Rwanda. When it was established, the NUR had three divisions,51 students and 16 lecturers, the university suffered badly during the genocide and had to close in 1994, reopening in April 1995. At that time English was introduced as a medium of instruction alongside French, as of 2005 it focused on Science and Technology and Humanities, with French and English as the medium of instruction. When it started in 1963 NUR was composed of three units, the Faculty of Medicine, the Faculty of Social Sciences and the Teacher Training College. At that time, it had 51 students and 16 lecturers, by 2005, the university had 8221 students and 425 lecturers. It also aimed at implementing multidisciplinary pedagogical research and this became an autonomous body in 1980. October 1973, The University of Instelling Antwerpen contributed in the opening of the Faculty of Law,1974, A centre for study and experimentation of energy in Rwanda was created within the Faculty of Sciences. June 13,1979, The Faculty of Agronomy, which was a department in the Faculty of Science, was created, october 1,1981, NUR and the NIE were merged. Since then, the National University of Rwanda had two campuses, one at Ruhengeri and another at Butare, a few years later, the Faculty of Law shifted to Mburabuturo. November 1988, Celebration of the 25th anniversary of NUR and they were victims of their ideology or ethnic identity. The University suffered a loss, laboratory equipment, the computer equipment. NUR was closed because of the war in the country, those who were not killed had to hide themselves. January 1995, The campus of Ruhengeri and the Kigali Faculty of Law shifted, the main change was that all the faculties and schools were regrouped in Butare Campus for security reasons first and then for administrative reasons. The beginning was not easy but the government decided upon the running of NUR at all costs. A Campus that was built for 1,600 students now had to more than 4,500. NUR took off slowly but surely despite the wounds of war, English became a new language of teaching
11.
Butare
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Butare is a city in the Southern Province of Rwanda and capital of Huye district. It was the capital of the former Butare Province, Rwanda and it was the formal colonial capital of Rwanda. Butare used to have the National University of Rwanda which is now part of university of rwanda and it also held the prestigious Nyakibanda Seminary, the Rwandan National Institute of Scientific Research, the Ruhande Arboretum and a cathedral. It is also home to the Stade Huye, due to the large number of university students and student-centered activities in the city, Butare is often regarded as a university city. The city of Butare has long regarded as the intellectual capital of the country. The Belgian colonial rulers named the city Astrida, in honor of Queen Astrid of Belgium, the first Catholic mission in 1900 in the country was only a few kilometers from the town center, at Save Hill. The National Museum of Rwanda was built in the early 1990s and is a source of information on the cultural history of the country. It is often referred to in tourist brochures as the finest museum in East Africa, from 2006, some sources refer to the city as Huye, after the surrounding district, but most Rwandans continue to use the name Butare. The Groupe Scolaire in Butare is the largest secondary school in Rwanda, the city is served by Butare Airport, a small civilian airport, administered by the Rwanda Civil Aviation Authority
12.
Socialism
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Social ownership may refer to forms of public, collective, or cooperative ownership, to citizen ownership of equity, or to any combination of these. Although there are varieties of socialism and there is no single definition encapsulating all of them. Socialist economic systems can be divided into both non-market and market forms, non-market socialism aims to circumvent the inefficiencies and crises traditionally associated with capital accumulation and the profit system. Profits generated by these firms would be controlled directly by the workforce of each firm or accrue to society at large in the form of a social dividend, the feasibility and exact methods of resource allocation and calculation for a socialist system are the subjects of the socialist calculation debate. Core dichotomies associated with these concerns include reformism versus revolutionary socialism, the term is frequently used to draw contrast to the political system of the Soviet Union, which critics argue operated in an authoritarian fashion. By the 1920s, social democracy and communism became the two dominant political tendencies within the international socialist movement, by this time, Socialism emerged as the most influential secular movement of the twentieth century, worldwide. Socialist parties and ideas remain a force with varying degrees of power and influence in all continents. Today, some socialists have also adopted the causes of social movements. The origin of the term socialism may be traced back and attributed to a number of originators, in addition to significant historical shifts in the usage, for Andrew Vincent, The word ‘socialism’ finds its root in the Latin sociare, which means to combine or to share. The related, more technical term in Roman and then medieval law was societas and this latter word could mean companionship and fellowship as well as the more legalistic idea of a consensual contract between freemen. The term socialism was created by Henri de Saint-Simon, one of the founders of what would later be labelled utopian socialism. Simon coined socialism as a contrast to the doctrine of individualism. They presented socialism as an alternative to liberal individualism based on the ownership of resources. The term socialism is attributed to Pierre Leroux, and to Marie Roch Louis Reybaud in France, the term communism also fell out of use during this period, despite earlier distinctions between socialism and communism from the 1840s. An early distinction between socialism and communism was that the former aimed to only socialise production while the latter aimed to socialise both production and consumption. However, by 1888 Marxists employed the term socialism in place of communism, linguistically, the contemporary connotation of the words socialism and communism accorded with the adherents and opponents cultural attitude towards religion. In Christian Europe, of the two, communism was believed to be the atheist way of life, in Protestant England, the word communism was too culturally and aurally close to the Roman Catholic communion rite, hence English atheists denoted themselves socialists. Friedrich Engels argued that in 1848, at the time when the Communist Manifesto was published, socialism was respectable on the continent and this latter branch of socialism produced the communist work of Étienne Cabet in France and Wilhelm Weitling in Germany
13.
Political prisoner
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A political prisoner is someone imprisoned because they have opposed or criticized the government responsible for their imprisonment. The term is used by persons or groups challenging the legitimacy of the detention of a prisoner, supporters of the term define a political prisoner as someone who is imprisoned for his or her participation in political activity. If a political offense was not the reason for the prisoners detention. Some understand the political prisoner narrowly, equating it with the term prisoner of conscience. Amnesty International campaigns for the release of prisoners of conscience, which include political prisoners as well as those imprisoned for their religious or philosophical beliefs. To reduce controversy, and as a matter of principle, the organizations policy applies only to prisoners who have not committed or advocated violence, thus, there are political prisoners who do not fit the narrower criteria for POCs. The organisation defines the differences as follows, AI uses the political prisoner broadly. It does not use it, as others do, to imply that all such prisoners have a special status or should be released. It uses the only to define a category of prisoners for whom AI demands a fair. Governments often say they have no political prisoners, only prisoners held under the criminal law. AI however describes cases like the examples given above as political, for instance, French anarchist groups typically call the former members of Action Directe held in France political prisoners. While the French government deemed Action Directe illegal, the group fashioned itself as a guerilla movement. In this sense, political prisoner can be used to describe any politically active prisoner who is held in custody for a violent action which supporters deem ethically justified, some libertarians also include all convicted for treason and some convicted of espionage in the category of political prisoners. Currently, there is much controversy and debate around how to define this term. Political prisoners can also be imprisoned with no legal veneer by extrajudicial processes, some political prisoners need not be imprisoned at all. Supporters of Gedhun Choekyi Nyima in the 11th Panchen Lama controversy have called him a political prisoner and he is held under secluded house arrest. This is common in situations which may otherwise be decried nationally and internationally as a human rights violation or suppression of a political dissident, particularly in this latter situation, whether an individual is regarded as a political prisoner may depend upon subjective political perspective or interpretation of the evidence. In the Soviet Union, dubious psychiatric diagnoses were sometimes used to political prisoners in the so-called psikhushkas
14.
Colonel
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Colonel is a senior military officer rank below the general officer ranks. However, in small military forces, such as those of Iceland or the Vatican. It is also used in police forces and paramilitary organizations. Historically, in the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a colonel was typically in charge of a regiment in an army, the rank of colonel is typically above the rank of lieutenant colonel. The rank above colonel is typically called brigadier, brigade general or brigadier general, equivalent naval ranks may be called captain or ship-of-the-line captain. In the Commonwealth air force rank system, the equivalent rank is group captain, the word colonel derives from the same root as the word column and means of a column, and, by implication, commander of a column. The word colonel is therefore linked to the column in a similar way that brigadier is linked to brigade. By the end of the medieval period, a group of companies was referred to as a column of an army. Since the word is believed to derive from sixteenth-century Italian, it was presumably first used by Italian city states in that century. The first use of colonel as a rank in an army was in the French National Legions created by King Francis I by his decree of 1534. Building on the reforms of Louis XIIs decree of 1509. Each colonel commanded a legion with a strength of six thousand men. With the shift from primarily mercenary to primarily national armies in the course of the seventeenth century, the Spanish equivalent rank of coronel was used by the Spanish tercios in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba, nicknamed the Great Captain, divided his armies in coronelías or colonelcies, however, the Spanish word probably derives from a different origin, in that it appears to designate an officer of the crown, rather than an officer of the column. This makes the Spanish word coronel probably cognate with the English word coroner and this regiment, or governance, was to some extent embodied in a contract and set of written rules, also referred to as the colonels regiment or standing regulation. By extension, the group of companies subject to a colonels regiment came to be referred to as his regiment as well, the position, however, was primarily contractual and it became progressively more of a functionless sinecure. By the late 19th century, colonel was a military rank though still held typically by an officer in command of a regiment or equivalent unit. As European military influence expanded throughout the world, the rank of colonel became adopted by every nation
15.
Burundian presidential election, 1993
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Presidential elections were held in Burundi on 1 June 1993 following the approval of a new constitution in a referendum the previous year. They were the first multi-party elections for the presidency, the previous elections in 1984 having been held at a time when the country was a one-party state. This election was a watershed for Burundi, representing the end of a military backed Tutsi state, three candidates entered the contest, with Melchior Ndadaye of the Front for Democracy in Burundi defeating incumbent President Pierre Buyoya with 66% of the vote. Pierre Buyoya, the incumbent president who seized power in a 1987 military coup, a Tutsi from Bururi Province, he was the candidate for the ruling Union for National Progress. He ran on a platform of unity and was supported by two predominantly Tutsi parties, the Rally for Democracy and Economic and Social Development and the Social Democratic Party. Melchior Ndadaye, the leader and candidate of the Front for Democracy in Burundi, Ndadayes candidacy was supported by three other mainly Hutu parties - the Rally for the People of Burundi, the Peoples Party, and the Liberal Party. Pierre-Claver Sendegeya, a Hutu and candidate of the monarchist Peoples Reconciliation Party, Melchior Ndadayes election victory put FRODEBU in prime position for a comfortable win in legislative elections held on 29 June 1993. Ndadaye was sworn in as the first Hutu president of Burundi on 10 July 1993 and his rule would be short, however, as he was assassinated on 21 October 1993 during a military coup by elements of the predominantly Tutsi army. Thereafter, the country plunged into a civil war that claimed hundreds of thousands of lives
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Tutsi
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The Tutsi, or Abatutsi, are a population inhabiting the African Great Lakes region. Historically, they were referred to as the Watutsi, Watusi. They speak Rwanda-Rundi, a group of Bantu languages, the Tutsi are the second largest population division among the three largest groups in Rwanda and Burundi, the other two being the Hutu and the Twa. Small numbers of Hema, Kiga and Furiiru people also live near the Tutsi in Rwanda. The Northern Tutsi who reside in Rwanda are called Ruguru, while southern Tutsi that live in Burundi are known as Hima, the definitions of Hutu and Tutsi people may have changed through time and location. Social structures were not stable throughout Rwanda, even during colonial times under the Belgian rule, the Tutsi aristocracy or elite was distinguished from Tutsi commoners, and wealthy Hutu were often indistinguishable from upper-class Tutsi. When the European colonists conducted censuses, they wanted to identify the people throughout Rwanda-Burundi according to a classification scheme. They defined Tutsi as anyone owning more than ten cows or with the feature of a longer nose, or longer neck. The Europeans believed that some Tutsis had facial characteristics that were atypical of other Bantus. By contrast, the Europeans considered the majority Hutu to be characteristic Bantu people of Central African origin, the Tutsi have lived in the areas where they are for 400–500 years, leading to considerable intermarriage with the Hutu, a Bantu people in the area. To note the names Hutu and Bantu are not the same as they imply different things, modern-day genetic studies of the Y-chromosome generally indicate that the Tutsi, like the Hutu, are largely of Bantu extraction. Paternal genetic influences associated with the Horn of Africa and North Africa are few, however, the Tutsi have considerably more Nilo-Saharan paternal lineages than the Hutu. Trombetta et al. found 22. 2% of E1b1b in a sample of Tutsis from Burundi. The subclade was of the M293 variety, which suggests that the ancestors of Tutsis in this area may have assimilated some South Cushitic pastoralists, in general, the Tutsi appear to share a close genetic kinship with neighboring Bantu populations, particularly the Hutus. With a spectrum of variation in the peoples, Belgian authorities legally mandated ethnic affiliation in the 1920s. Formal and discrete social divisions were consequently imposed upon ambiguous biological distinctions, the social categories are thus real, but there is little if any detectable genetic differentiation between Hutu and Tutsi. Tishkoff et al. found their mixed Hutu and Tutsi samples from Rwanda to be predominately of Bantu origin, prior to the arrival of colonists, Rwanda had been ruled by a Tutsi-dominated monarchy after mid-1600. Beginning in about 1880, Roman Catholic missionaries arrived in the Great Lakes region, later, when German forces occupied the area during World War I, the conflict and efforts for Catholic conversion became more pronounced
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Union for National Progress
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The Union for National Progress is a nationalist political party in Burundi, receiving most of its support from members of the Tutsi ethnic group. It is celebrated for its role in gaining Burundian independence, uPRONAs most famous Prime Minister and Burundi National Hero is Prince Louis Rwagasore. From that time until 1965, the party also had some Hutu support, the party was taken over by President Michel Micombero in a vicious coup détat and became a pillar of the military dictatorship that ruled the country from 1966 to 1993. In 1993, UPRONA placed second in contested elections to Melchior Ndadayes FRODEBU, since 1993, in the case of failure to be elected, UPRONA has always made sure to secure the position of Vice President or Prime Minister and some of the top positions in the government. UPRONA President Pierre Buyoya handed over power to Hutu leader Domitien Ndayizeye of the Front for Democracy in Burundi on 30 April 2003, at the legislative elections in 2005, the party won 7. 2% and 15 out of 118 seats
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Burundian Civil War
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The Burundian Civil War was an armed conflict lasting from 1993 to 2006. The civil war was the result of long standing ethnic divisions between the Hutu and the Tutsi ethnic groups in Burundi, the estimated death toll stands at 300,000 killed. Prior to colonialism, Burundi was led by a Tutsi monarchy like its neighbor Rwanda, the Belgians and the Germans found it convenient to rule through the existing power structure in which the Tutsi were already dominant over the Hutu. Those individuals who owned more than ten cows were normally described as Tutsi, after the independence of the Belgian Congo and colonies across Africa from 1960, Belgian administrators in Ruanda-Urundi began to prepare the territory for independence. Following independence in 1962, a federation with Rwanda was rejected, unlike Rwanda, Burundi chose to retain its monarchy. Burundi’s first multi-party national elections were held on 27 June 1993, under the Micombero regime, the minority Tutsi generally dominated governance. The military regime responded with large-scale reprisals targeting Hutus, the total number of casualties was never established, but estimates for the Tutsi genocide and the reprisals on the Hutus together are said to exceed 100,000. As many refugees and asylum-seekers left the country for Tanzania and Rwanda, the last of the coups was in 1987 and installed Tutsi officer Pierre Buyoya. Buyoya attempted to institute a number of reforms to state control over media. Instead of helping the problem, these reforms instead served to inflame ethnic tensions as hope grew amongst the Hutu population that the Tutsi monopoly was at an end. Local revolts subsequently took place by Hutu peasants against several Tutsi leaders in northern Burundi, when Buyoya sent in the army to quell the uprising, they in turn killed thousands of Hutu. On October 21,1993, Burundis first democratically elected Hutu president, as a result of the murder, violence broke out between the two groups, and an estimated 50,000 to 100,000 people died within a year. A1996 UN report into Ndadayes assassination and its aftermath, concluded that acts of genocide against the Tutsi minority were committed in Burundi in October 1993, the report also implicated senior figures in Burundis Tutsi-dominated army in the assassination. In Burundi, Tutsi civilians have been targets of mass killings and acts of genocide organized by the state and they were followed by a long civil war that killed both Hutu and Tutsi. In 1994, Ndadaye’s successor Cyprien Ntaryamira was assassinated in the plane crash with Rwandan President Juvenal Habyarimana. This act marked the beginning of the Rwandan Genocide, while in Burundi, sylvestre Ntibantunganya was installed to a 4-year presidency on April 8, but the security situation further declined. The influx of hundreds of thousands of Rwandan refugees and the activities of armed Hutu, Hutu rebels killed about 300 Tutsis on July 20,1996, and army soldiers killed at least 126 Hutu refugees on January 5,1997. In 1998, Buyoya and the opposition-led Hutu parliament reached an agreement to sign a transitional constitution, the Arusha peace talks began on 15 June 1998
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Capital (political)
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A capital city is the municipality exercising primary status in a country, state, province, or other region, usually as its seat of government. A capital is typically a city that encompasses the offices and meeting places of its respective government. In some jurisdictions, including countries, the different branches of government are located in different settlements. In some cases, a distinction is made between the capital and the seat of government, which is in another place. The word capital derives from the Latin caput, meaning head, in several English-speaking states, the terms county town, county seat, and borough seat are also used in lower subdivisions. In unitary states, subnational capitals are known as administrative centres. The capital is often, but not necessarily, the largest city of its constituent, historically, the major economic centre of a state or region often becomes the focal point of political power, and becomes a capital through conquest or federation. Examples are Ancient Babylon, Abbasid Baghdad, Ancient Athens, Rome, Constantinople, Changan, Ancient Cusco, Madrid, Paris, London, Moscow, Beijing, Tokyo, Vienna, and Berlin. Some of these cities are or were also religious centres, e. g. Constantinople, Rome, Jerusalem, Ancient Babylon, Moscow, Belgrade, Paris, and Peking. A capital city that is also the economic, cultural. The convergence of political and economic or cultural power is by no means universal, traditional capitals may be economically eclipsed by provincial rivals, e. g. Nanking by Shanghai, Quebec City by Montreal, and numerous US state capitals. The decline of a dynasty or culture could also mean the extinction of its city, as occurred at Babylon. Although many capitals are defined by constitution or legislation, many long-time capitals have no legal designation as such, for example Bern, Edinburgh, Lisbon, London, Paris, are located in or near them. In Canada, there is a capital, while the ten provinces. The states of such countries as Mexico, Brazil, and Australia all have capital cities, for example, the six state capitals of Australia are Adelaide, Brisbane, Hobart, Melbourne, Perth, and Sydney. In Australia, the capital cities is regularly used, to refer to the aforementioned state capitals plus the federal capital Canberra and Darwin. Abu Dhabi is the city of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. In unitary states which consist of multiple constituent countries, such as the United Kingdom or the Kingdom of Denmark, the national capitals of Germany and Russia, the Stadtstaat of Berlin and the Federal City of Moscow, are also constituent states of both countries in their own right
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Rwandan genocide
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The Rwandan genocide, also known as the genocide against the Tutsi, was a genocidal mass slaughter of Tutsi in Rwanda by members of the Hutu majority government. An estimated more than 800,000 Rwandans were killed during the 100-day period from April 7 to mid-July 1994, additionally, 30% of the Pygmy Batwa were killed. The genocide and widespread slaughter of Rwandans ended when the Tutsi-backed, an estimated 2,000,000 Rwandans, mostly Hutus, were displaced and became refugees. The genocide was planned by members of the political elite. Perpetrators came from the ranks of the Rwandan army, the Gendarmerie, government-backed militias including the Interahamwe, waves of Hutu violence against the RPF and Tutsi followed Rwandan independence in 1962. This agreement was not acceptable to a number of conservative Hutu, including members of the Akazu, many Hutus reacted to this prospect with extreme opposition. In the lead-up to the genocide the number of machetes imported into Rwanda increased, on April 6,1994, an airplane carrying Habyarimana and Burundian President Cyprien Ntaryamira was shot down on its descent into Kigali. At the time, the plane was in the airspace above Habyarimanas house, one person survived but died soon after en route to the hospital. The assassination of Habyarimana ended the peace accords, genocidal killings began the following day. Soldiers, police, and militia quickly executed key Tutsi and moderate Hutu military, checkpoints and barricades were erected to screen all holders of the national ID card of Rwanda in order to systematically identify and kill Tutsi. Other observers criticized the government of France for alleged support of the Hutu government after the genocide had begun, the genocide had a lasting and profound impact on Rwanda and its neighboring countries. The pervasive use of rape as a weapon of war caused a spike in HIV infection, including babies born of rape to newly infected mothers, many households were headed by orphaned children or widows. The destruction of infrastructure and the depopulation of the country crippled the economy, challenging the nascent government to achieve rapid economic growth. Declaring a need to avert further genocide, the RPF-led government led military incursions into Zaire, including the First, Armed struggles between the Rwandan government and their opponents in DRC have continued to play out through proxy militias in the Goma region, including the M23 rebellion. Large Rwandan Hutu and Tutsi populations continue to live as refugees throughout the region, today, Rwanda has two public holidays mourning the genocide. The national mourning period begins with Kwibuka, the commemoration, on April 7. The week following April 7 is a week of mourning. The genocide served as an impetus for creating the International Criminal Court to eliminate the need for ad hoc tribunals to prosecute genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes
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French language
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French is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages, French has evolved from Gallo-Romance, the spoken Latin in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues doïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to Frances past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, a French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French. French is a language in 29 countries, most of which are members of la francophonie. As of 2015, 40% of the population is in Europe, 35% in sub-Saharan Africa, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas. French is the fourth-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union, 1/5 of Europeans who do not have French as a mother tongue speak French as a second language. As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 17th and 18th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa, most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast. In 2015, French was estimated to have 77 to 110 million native speakers, approximately 274 million people are able to speak the language. The Organisation internationale de la Francophonie estimates 700 million by 2050, in 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese. Under the Constitution of France, French has been the language of the Republic since 1992. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland called Romandie, of which Geneva is the largest city. French is the language of about 23% of the Swiss population. French is also a language of Luxembourg, Monaco, and Aosta Valley, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. A plurality of the worlds French-speaking population lives in Africa and this number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050, French is the fastest growing language on the continent. French is mostly a language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast and in Libreville. There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages, sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth
22.
Michel Micombero
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General Michel Micombero was a Burundian politician and soldier who ruled the country as its first President and de facto dictator for the decade between 1966 and 1976. Micombero was a member of the Tutsi ethnic group, as President, Micombero ruled Burundi as a military dictator. He led a one-party state which centralised the countrys institutions and adapted political ideologies from other countries in the region. Dissent was repressed and, in 1972, an attempt to challenge Micomberos power led to a genocide against the Hutu population in which around 100,000 people and his regime finally collapsed in 1976 when he was ousted in a coup détat by Jean-Baptiste Bagaza. He went into exile in Somalia and died in 1983, Micombero was born in Rutovu, Bururi Province in Belgian-ruled Ruanda-Urundi in 1940. His parents were peasants from the Hema people, part of the Tutsi ethnic group, Micombero studied at Catholic mission schools in Burundi and, in 1960, joined the Burundian military which was being formed ahead of planned independence in 1962. As part of his training, he was sent to study at the Royal Military Academy in Brussels, at the time of the independence of the Kingdom of Burundi in July 1962, he held the rank of captain. In early post-independence Burundi, the Tutsi-dominated monarchy of Mwambutsa IV attempted to balance the interests of Tutsi with those of the Hutu majority, in 1963, Micombero joined the ruling Union for National Progress party which, though dominated by Tutsi, also tried to attract Hutu members. In June, Micombero was named State Secretary for Defense, making him head of the military at the age of 23, in October 1965, a group of ethnic Hutus attempted to overthrow the Burundian monarchy. Their attempt, though unsuccessful, led to Mwambutsa IV fleeing into exile, Micombero led the repression against the coups perpetrators. In July 1966, a second coup détat brought the son, Ntare V, to power. However, when Ntare was on a visit to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo in November 1966, a third coup détat abolished the monarchy. As a colonel, Micombero took power as the countrys first President in December 1966, as President of Burundi, Micombero ruled through UPRONA as a one-party state. His ideology of democratic centralism brought all the institutions and media under the regimes control. His regime combined ideas from the socialist ideology of Tanzania with others from Joseph-Désiré Mobutus regime in the Congo, as a Cold War leader, he was able to play off both Communist and Western powers against one another. He became increasingly paranoid after suffering an injury in a accident in 1967. He was believed to be an alcoholic, various plots against the regime were discovered and unrest remained. Micomberos support became increasingly localised to Tutsi in the northern and central regions of Burundi, in April 1972, a major rebellion broke out among the Hutu in the south at the encouragement of the Tanzanian regime
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Pierre Buyoya
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Major Pierre Buyoya is a Burundian politician who has ruled Burundi twice, from 1987 to 1993 and from 1996 to 2003. With 13 years combined as Head of State, Buyoya is the longest serving Burundian President, in September 1987, Buyoya led a military coup détat against the Second Republic of Burundi, led by Jean-Baptiste Bagaza, and installed himself as the first president of the Third Republic. He proclaimed an agenda of liberalization and patching relations between Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups, but presided over a ruling junta consisting primarily of Tutsi. This led to a Hutu uprising in August 1988, which caused approximately 20,000 deaths, after these killings, Buyoya appointed a commission to find a way to mediate the violence. This commission created a new constitution that Buyoya approved in 1992 and this constitution called for a nonethnic government with a president and a parliament. Democratic elections were held in June 1993 and were won by the Hutu Melchior Ndadaye who created a balanced Hutu, nevertheless, the army assassinated Ndadaye in October 1993 and Burundi returned to civil war. Nearly 150,000 people were killed as the war raged, there were numerous attempts at government, but even the coalition government under Sylvestre Ntibantunganya was unable to stop the fighting. The civil war became less intense but continued, economic sanctions were also imposed by the international community because of the nature of Buyoyas return to power, but were eased as Buyoya created an ethnically inclusive government. Buyoya selected as his vice-president Domitien Ndayizeye, a Hutu, the conditions of the governmental agreement required Buyoya to hand over power in 2003, which he did. Ndayizeye became the President of Burundi on April 30, Buyoya is a Senator for life as a former head of state. In his 2007 book From Bloodshed to Hope in Burundi, the former US Ambassador Robert Krueger accuses Pierre Buyoya of orchestrating the 1993 putsch which led to the murder of President Ndadaye. Marie-Louise Sibazuri Burundi Timeline 1858-19951996 comments on Burundi and Buyoya at the United Nations Mandela hails peace deal as genocide stalks Burundians at the Wayback Machine
24.
Pierre Nkurunziza
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Pierre Nkurunziza is a Burundian politician who has been President of Burundi since 2005. He was the Chairman of the National Council for the Defense of Democracy-Forces for the Defense of Democracy, in 2015, Nkurunziza was controversially nominated by his party for a third term in office. Supporters and opponents of Nkurunziza disagreed as to whether it was legal for him to run again, more than two months of anti-Nkurunziza protests, which were often violently repressed, left at least 100 dead. Facing resistance from Nkurunziza loyalists, the collapsed and forces loyal to Nkurunziza appeared to be back in full control by 15 May. Independent media was shut down and many fled, joining an exodus of more than 150,000 Burundians. Amidst an opposition boycott, Nkurunziza was re-elected for a term in the July 2015 presidential election. Nkurunziza was born in 1963 in Burundis capital city of Bujumbura, Nkurunziza was raised in the province of Ngozi in northern Burundi, the son of a Tutsi mother and a Hutu father. He attended primary school in Ngozi, before the civil war, Mr Nkurunziza, who had graduated in sports education, was a teacher and assistant lecturer at the University of Burundi. After rising through the ranks, Nkurunziza was appointed deputy secretary-general of the CNDD-FDD in 1998, in 2001, he was elected chairman. There was a split in the group in late 2001 and he was re-elected to the post of chairman in August 2004. During the war Nkurunziza is said to have survived a near death experience, beginning in late 2003 and after the ceasefire agreement, he was appointed Minister for Good Governance in the transitional government of President Domitien Ndayizeye. Following a series of CNDD-FDD victories in elections held during June and July 2005 and he was elected president unopposed by members of parliament on 19 August 2005 and took office on 26 August 2005. He was re-elected in 2010 with more than 91% of the votes amidst an opposition boycott, in March 2014, Nkurunziza banned jogging, due to fears it was being used as a cover for subversion. In April 2015 Nkurunziza announced that he would seek a third term in office, the opposition said that Nkurunzizas bid to extend his term was in defiance of the constitution, as it bars the president from running for a third term. However, Nkurunzizas allies said his first term did not count as he was elected by parliament, on April 26 police clashed with demonstrators protesting Nkurunziza’s announcement that he will seek a third term in office. At least six people were killed in the first two days of ongoing protests, African Union commission head Nkosazana Dlamini-Zuma said she welcomed a decision by Burundis Senate to ask the Constitutional Court to rule whether Nkurunziza could stand for re-election. More than 24,000 people fled Burundi in April, as tensions mount ahead of elections in June. On May 13,2015, Burundi Army General Godefroid Niyombareh declared a coup via radio while Nkurunziza was abroad attending a summit in Tanzania with other African leaders, Niyombareh had been dismissed from his post as head of intelligence in February 2015
25.
Integrated Authority File
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The Integrated Authority File or GND is an international authority file for the organisation of personal names, subject headings and corporate bodies from catalogues. It is used mainly for documentation in libraries and increasingly also by archives, the GND is managed by the German National Library in cooperation with various regional library networks in German-speaking Europe and other partners. The GND falls under the Creative Commons Zero license, the GND specification provides a hierarchy of high-level entities and sub-classes, useful in library classification, and an approach to unambiguous identification of single elements. It also comprises an ontology intended for knowledge representation in the semantic web, available in the RDF format
26.
Virtual International Authority File
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The Virtual International Authority File is an international authority file. It is a joint project of national libraries and operated by the Online Computer Library Center. The project was initiated by the US Library of Congress, the German National Library, the National Library of France joined the project on October 5,2007. The project transitions to a service of the OCLC on April 4,2012, the aim is to link the national authority files to a single virtual authority file. In this file, identical records from the different data sets are linked together, a VIAF record receives a standard data number, contains the primary see and see also records from the original records, and refers to the original authority records. The data are available online and are available for research and data exchange. Reciprocal updating uses the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting protocol, the file numbers are also being added to Wikipedia biographical articles and are incorporated into Wikidata. VIAFs clustering algorithm is run every month, as more data are added from participating libraries, clusters of authority records may coalesce or split, leading to some fluctuation in the VIAF identifier of certain authority records
