1.
Micrograph
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A micrograph or photomicrograph is a photograph or digital image taken through a microscope or similar device to show a magnified image of an item. This is opposed to an image, which is at a scale that is visible to the naked eye. Micrography is the practice or art of using microscopes to make photographs, a micrograph contains extensive details that form the features of a microstructure. The neuropathologist Solomon C. Fuller designed and created the first photomicrograph in 1900, micrographs are widely used in all fields of microscopy. A light micrograph or photomicrograph is a micrograph prepared using an optical microscope, at a basic level, photomicroscopy may be performed simply by hooking up a regular camera to a microscope, thereby enabling the user to take photographs at reasonably high magnification. Roman Vishniac was a pioneer in the field of photomicroscopy, specializing in the photography of living creatures in full motion and he also made major developments in light-interruption photography and color photomicroscopy. An electron micrograph is a micrograph prepared using an electron microscope, however, the term electron micrograph is not used in electron microscopy. Digital micrography is a digital picture obtained either directly with a microscope or by scanning of a photomicrograph, digital micrographs are now commonly obtained using a USB microscope attached directly to a home computer or laptop. Today, an add-on three-in-one macro lens which has capability to take wide-angle, fish-eye and macro with 7x, 14x, micrographs usually have micron bars, or magnification ratios, or both. Magnification is a ratio between size of object on a picture and its real size, unfortunately, magnification is somewhat a misleading parameter. It depends on a size of a printed picture. Editors of journals and magazines routinely resize a figure to fit the page, a scale bar, or micron bar, is a bar of known length displayed on a picture. The bar can be used for measurements on a picture, when a picture is resized a bar is also resized. If a picture has a bar, the magnification can be easily calculated, ideally, all pictures destined for publication/presentation should be supplied with a scale bar, the magnification ratio is optional. All but one of the micrographs presented on this page do not have a bar, supplied magnification ratios are likely incorrect. The microscope has been used for scientific discovery. It has also linked to the arts since its invention in the 17th century. At first scientists used the microscope to view and draw objects not visible with the unaided eye, early adopters of the microscope, such as Robert Hooke and Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, were excellent illustrators
2.
Serous carcinoma
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In pathology, serous carcinoma is an epithelial malignancy that arises from the lining of a cavity that produces a serum-like fluid. Serous lined cavities include the peritoneum, pericardium and pleural space, cytologic features of serous carcinoma are, Marked intragroup nuclear pleomorphism. Uterine serous carcinoma, also known as uterine papillary serous carcinoma, fallopian tube serous carcinoma, a type of uterine tube cancer. Cervical serous carcinoma, a type of cervical cancer. Primary peritoneal serous carcinoma, a rare cancer that arise from the peritoneum. There has been the suggestion that the above diagnoses really represent one entity, serous tumour Cytopathology Ovarian serous cystadenoma Mesothelioma
3.
Ancient Greek
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Ancient Greek includes the forms of Greek used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around the 9th century BC to the 6th century AD. It is often divided into the Archaic period, Classical period. It is antedated in the second millennium BC by Mycenaean Greek, the language of the Hellenistic phase is known as Koine. Koine is regarded as a historical stage of its own, although in its earliest form it closely resembled Attic Greek. Prior to the Koine period, Greek of the classic and earlier periods included several regional dialects, Ancient Greek was the language of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a subject of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical phases of the language, Ancient Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, some dialects are found in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested only in inscriptions. There are also several historical forms, homeric Greek is a literary form of Archaic Greek used in the epic poems, the Iliad and Odyssey, and in later poems by other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Attic, the origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous evidence. Several theories exist about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed between the divergence of early Greek-like speech from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical period and they have the same general outline, but differ in some of the detail. The invasion would not be Dorian unless the invaders had some relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later Attic-Ionic regions, the Greeks of this period believed there were three major divisions of all Greek people—Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians, each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Often non-west is called East Greek, Arcadocypriot apparently descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age. Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect, thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree. Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-state and its surrounding territory, Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric, Southern Peloponnesus Doric, and Northern Peloponnesus Doric. The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek and this dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian language, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has also passed down its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek, by about the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosized into Medieval Greek
4.
Pathology
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Pathology is a significant component of the causal study of disease and a major field in modern medicine and diagnosis. Similarly, a condition is one caused by disease, rather than occurring physiologically. A physician practicing pathology is called a pathologist, as a field of general inquiry and research, pathology addresses four components of disease, cause, mechanisms of development, structural alterations of cells, and the consequences of changes. Further divisions in specialty exist on the basis of the involved sample types, organs, the sense of the word pathology as a synonym of disease or pathosis is very common in health care. The persistence of this usage despite attempted proscription is discussed elsewhere, the study of pathology, including the detailed examination of the body, including dissection and inquiry into specific maladies, dates back to antiquity. Notably, many advances were made in the era of Islam, during which numerous texts of complex pathologies were developed. By the 17th century, the study of microscopy was underway and examination of tissues had led British Royal Society member Robert Hooke to coin the word cell, setting the stage for later germ theory. However, pathology as an area of specialty was not fully developed until the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This realization led to the understanding that diseases are able to replicate themselves. To determine causes of diseases, medical experts used the most common and widely accepted assumptions or symptoms of their times, by the late 1920s to early 1930s pathology was deemed a medical specialty. The modern practice of pathology is divided into a number of subdisciplines within the discrete but deeply interconnected aims of biological research, anatomical pathology is itself divided into subfields, the main divisions being surgical pathology, cytopathology, and forensic pathology. Sometimes, pathologists practice both anatomical and clinical pathology, a known as general pathology. Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases on the cellular level, however, cytology samples may be prepared in other ways, including cytocentrifugation. Dermatopathology is a subspecialty of pathology that focuses on the skin. It is unique, in there are two paths a physician can take to obtain the specialization. The completion of this allows one to take a subspecialty board examination. Dermatologists are able to recognize most skin diseases based on their appearances, anatomic distributions, sometimes, however, those criteria do not lead to a conclusive diagnosis, and a skin biopsy is taken to be examined under the microscope using usual histological tests. One of the greatest challenges of dermatopathology is its scope, more than 1500 different disorders of the skin exist, including cutaneous eruptions and neoplasms
5.
Georgios Papanikolaou
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Georgios Nikolaou Papanikolaou was a Greek pioneer in cytopathology and early cancer detection, and inventor of the Pap smear. Papanikolaou studied at the University of Athens, where he received his degree in 1904. Six years later he received his PhD from the University of Munich, Germany, after he had spent time at the universities of Jena. In 1913 he emigrated to the U. S. in order to work in the department of Pathology of New York Hospital and the Department of Anatomy at the Cornell Medical College Cornell University. In 1961 he moved to Miami, Florida, to develop the Papanicolaou Cancer Research Institute at the University of Miami, Papanicolaou was the recipient of the Albert Lasker Award for Clinical Medical Research in 1950. Papanikolaous portrait appeared on the obverse of the Greek 10, 000-drachma banknote of 1995–2001, in 1978 his work was honored by the U. S. Postal Service with a 13-cent stamp for early cancer detection. This fact was recounted by Papanikolaou and that year he had undertaken a study of vaginal fluid in women, in hopes of observing cellular changes over the course of a menstrual cycle. In female guinea pigs, Papanicolaou had already noticed cell transformation and it happened that one of Papanicolaous human subjects was suffering from uterine cancer. Upon examination of a made from a smear of the patients vaginal fluid. The first observation of cancer cells in the smear of the cervix, he later wrote. The Romanian physician Aurel Babeş made similar discoveries in the diagnosis of cervical cancer. He discovered that if a loop was used to collect cells from a womans cervix. This was the first screening test to diagnose cervical and uterine cancer, Babeş presented his findings to the Romanian Society of Gynaecology in Bucharest on 23 January 1927. His method of diagnosis was published in a French medical journal, Presse Médicale, on 11 April 1928. Moreover, the two techniques are different in their design, therefore, although Babes publication preceded Papanicolaou, the design of the Pap test belongs to Papanicolaou since he had already tried it in 1925 in Womens Hospital. Recent papers have proven that Babess method was different from Papanicolaous, at a 1928 medical conference in Battle Creek, Michigan, Papanicolaou introduced his low-cost, easily performed screening test for early detection of cancerous and precancerous cells. However, this potential medical breakthrough was initially met with skepticism and this was followed 2 years later by an illustrated monograph based on a study of over 3,000 cases. In 1954 he published another work, the Atlas of Exfoliative Cytology
6.
Histopathology
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Histopathology refers to the microscopic examination of tissue in order to study the manifestations of disease. In contrast, cytopathology examines free cells or tissue fragments, histopathological examination of tissues starts with surgery, biopsy, or autopsy. The tissue is removed from the body or plant, and then. often following expert dissection in the fresh state. placed in a fixative which stabilizes the tissues to prevent decay, the most common fixative is formalin. The tissue is then prepared for viewing under a microscope using either chemical fixation or frozen section, if a large sample is provided e. g. Larger samples are cut to correctly situate their anatomical structures in the cassette. This is then placed into a cassette for most of the rest of the process. In addition to formalin, other chemical fixatives have been used, fixation times for very small specimens are shorter, and standards exist in human diagnostic histopathology. Water is removed from the sample in successive stages by the use of increasing concentrations of alcohol. Xylene is used in the last dehydration phase instead of alcohol - this is because the wax used in the stage is soluble in xylene where it is not in alcohol allowing wax to permeate the specimen. This process is automated and done overnight. The wax infiltrated specimen is then transferred to an individual specimen embedding container, finally, molten wax is introduced around the specimen in the container and cooled to solidification so as to embed it in the wax block. This process is needed to provide a properly oriented sample sturdy enough for obtaining a thin microtome section for the slide, once the wax embedded block is finished, sections will be cut from it and usually placed to float on a waterbath surface which spreads the section out. This is usually done by hand and is a job with the lab personnel making choices about which parts of the specimen microtome wax ribbon to place on slides. A number of slides will usually be prepared from different levels throughout the block, after this the thin section mounted slide is stained and a protective cover slip is mounted on it. For common stains, a process is normally used. The second method of processing is called frozen section processing. The thin frozen sections are mounted on a slide, fixed immediately & briefly in liquid fixative. The advantages of this method is rapid processing time, less equipment requirement, the disadvantage is the poor quality of the final slide. It is used in pathology for determinations that might help in choosing the next step in surgery during that surgical session
7.
Screening (medicine)
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Screening, in medicine, is a strategy used in a population to identify the possible presence of an as-yet-undiagnosed disease in individuals without signs or symptoms. This can include individuals with pre-symptomatic or unrecognized symptomatic disease, as such, screening tests are somewhat unusual in that they are performed on persons apparently in good health. Screening interventions are designed to identify disease in a community early, thus enabling earlier intervention and management in the hope to reduce mortality and suffering from a disease. For these reasons, a test used in a program, especially for a disease with low incidence. Several types of screening exist, universal screening involves screening of all individuals in a certain category, case finding involves screening a smaller group of people based on the presence of risk factors. Screening interventions are not designed to be diagnostic, and often have significant rates of false positive and false negative results. In 1968 the World Health Organization published guidelines on the Principles and practice of screening for disease, the principles are still broadly applicable today, The condition should be an important health problem. There should be a treatment for the condition, facilities for diagnosis and treatment should be available. There should be a latent stage of the disease, There should be a test or examination for the condition. The test should be acceptable to the population, the natural history of the disease should be adequately understood. There should be a policy on whom to treat. The total cost of finding a case should be balanced in relation to medical expenditure as a whole. Case-finding should be a process, not just a once. • The objectives of screening should be defined at the outset, • There should be a defined target population. • There should be evidence of screening programme effectiveness. • The programme should integrate education, testing, clinical services, • There should be quality assurance, with mechanisms to minimize potential risks of screening. • The programme should ensure informed choice, confidentiality and respect for autonomy, • The programme should promote equity and access to screening for the entire target population. • Programme evaluation should be planned from the outset, • The overall benefits of screening should outweigh the harm
