1.
Picture archiving and communication system
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A picture archiving and communication system is a medical imaging technology which provides economical storage and convenient access to images from multiple modalities. Electronic images and reports are transmitted digitally via PACS, this eliminates the need to file, retrieve. The universal format for PACS image storage and transfer is DICOM, non-image data, such as scanned documents, may be incorporated using consumer industry standard formats like PDF, once encapsulated in DICOM. Combined with available and emerging web technology, PACS has the ability to deliver timely and efficient access to images, interpretations, PACS breaks down the physical and time barriers associated with traditional film-based image retrieval, distribution, and display. Additional types of formats are always being added. Clinical areas beyond radiology, cardiology, oncology, gastroenterology, PACS has four main uses, Hard copy replacement, PACS replaces hard-copy based means of managing medical images, such as film archives. With the decreasing price of storage, PACSs provide a growing cost. Digital copies are referred to as Soft-copy, remote access, It expands on the possibilities of conventional systems by providing capabilities of off-site viewing and reporting. It enables practitioners in different physical locations to access the same information simultaneously for teleradiology, Radiology Workflow Management, PACS is used by radiology personnel to manage the workflow of patient exams. PACS is offered by all the major medical imaging equipment manufacturers, medical IT companies. Basic PACS software can be free on the Internet. The architecture is the implementation of required functionality, or what one sees from the outside. There are different views, depending on the user, a radiologist typically sees a viewing station, a technologist a QA workstation, while a PACS administrator might spend most of their time in the climate-controlled computer room. The composite view is different for the various vendors. Typically a PACS consists of a multitude of devices, the first step in typical PACS systems is the modality. Modalities are typically computed tomography, ultrasound, nuclear medicine, positron emission tomography, depending on the facilitys workflow most modalities send to a quality assurance workstation or sometimes called a PACS gateway. The QA workstation is a checkpoint to make sure patient demographics are correct as well as other important attributes of a study, if the study information is correct the images are passed to the archive for storage. The central storage device stores images and in some reports, measurements
2.
Hospital
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A hospital is a health care institution providing patient treatment with specialized medical and nursing staff and medical equipment. The best-known type of hospital is the hospital, which typically has an emergency department to treat urgent health problems ranging from fire. A district hospital typically is the health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care. Specialised hospitals can help reduce health care costs compared to general hospitals, a teaching hospital combines assistance to people with teaching to medical students and nurses. The medical facility smaller than a hospital is called a clinic. Hospitals have a range of departments and specialist units such as cardiology, some hospitals have outpatient departments and some have chronic treatment units. Common support units include a pharmacy, pathology, and radiology, Hospitals are usually funded by the public sector, by health organisations, by health insurance companies, or by charities, including direct charitable donations. Historically, hospitals were founded and funded by religious orders, or by charitable individuals. During the Middle Ages, hospitals served different functions from modern institutions, Middle Ages hospitals were almshouses for the poor, hostels for pilgrims, or hospital schools. The word hospital comes from the Latin hospes, signifying a stranger or foreigner, another noun derived from this, hospitium came to signify hospitality, that is the relation between guest and shelterer, hospitality, friendliness, and hospitable reception. By metonymy the Latin word then came to mean a guest-chamber, guests lodging, hospes is thus the root for the English words host hospitality, hospice, hostel and hotel. The German word Spital shares similar roots, the grammar of the word differs slightly depending on the dialect. Some patients go to a hospital just for diagnosis, treatment, or therapy and then leave without staying overnight, while others are admitted and stay overnight or for several days or weeks or months. Hospitals usually are distinguished from other types of facilities by their ability to admit and care for inpatients whilst the others. Larger cities may have several hospitals of varying sizes and facilities, some hospitals, especially in the United States and Canada, have their own ambulance service. A district hospital typically is the health care facility in its region, with large numbers of beds for intensive care. In California, district hospital refers specifically to a class of healthcare facility created shortly after World War II to address a shortage of beds in many local communities. Twenty-eight of Californias rural hospitals and 20 of its critical-access hospitals are District hospitals, Californias District hospitals are formed by local municipalities, have Boards that are individually elected by their local communities, and exist to serve local needs
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Communications protocol
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These are the rules or standard that defines the syntax, semantics and synchronization of communication and possible error recovery methods. Protocols may be implemented by hardware, software, or a combination of both, Communicating systems use well-defined formats for exchanging various messages. Each message has a meaning intended to elicit a response from a range of possible responses pre-determined for that particular situation. The specified behavior is independent of how it is to be implemented. Communications protocols have to be agreed upon by the parties involved, to reach agreement, a protocol may be developed into a technical standard. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication, a group of protocols designed to work together are known as a protocol suite, when implemented in software they are a protocol stack. Most recent protocols are assigned by the IETF for Internet communication, the ITU-T handles telecommunications protocols and formats for the PSTN. As the PSTN and Internet converge, the two sets of standards are also being driven towards convergence, the nature of a communication, the actual data exchanged and any state-dependent behaviors, is defined by these specifications. In digital computing systems, the rules can be expressed by algorithms, expressing the algorithms in a portable programming language makes the protocol software operating-system independent. Operating systems usually contain a set of cooperating processes that manipulate shared data to communicate each other. This communication is governed by protocols, which can be embedded in the process code itself. In contrast, because there is no memory, communicating systems have to communicate with each other using a shared transmission medium. Transmission is not necessarily reliable, and individual systems may use different hardware or operating systems, to implement a networking protocol, the protocol software modules are interfaced with a framework implemented on the machines operating system. This framework implements the functionality of the operating system. The best known frameworks are the TCP/IP model and the OSI model and this gave rise to the concept of layered protocols which nowadays forms the basis of protocol design. Systems typically do not use a protocol to handle a transmission. Instead they use a set of cooperating protocols, sometimes called a family or protocol suite. Some of the best known protocol suites are TCP/IP, IPX/SPX, X.25, AX.25, the protocols can be arranged based on functionality in groups, for instance there is a group of transport protocols
4.
Internet protocol suite
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The Internet protocol suite is the conceptual model and set of communications protocols used on the Internet and similar computer networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the protocols in the suite are the Transmission Control Protocol. It is occasionally known as the Department of Defense model, because the development of the model was funded by DARPA. The Internet protocol suite provides end-to-end data communication specifying how data should be packetized, addressed, transmitted, routed and received and this functionality is organized into four abstraction layers which are used to sort all related protocols according to the scope of networking involved. Technical standards specifying the Internet protocol suite and many of its constituent protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force, the Internet protocol suite model is a simpler model developed prior to the OSI model. The Internet protocol suite resulted from research and development conducted by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in the late 1960s, after initiating the pioneering ARPANET in 1969, DARPA started work on a number of other data transmission technologies. In 1972, Robert E. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmermann and Louis Pouzin, designer of the CYCLADES network, the protocol was implemented as the Transmission Control Program, first published in 1974. Initially, the TCP managed both datagram transmissions and routing, but as the protocol grew, other researchers recommended a division of functionality into protocol layers, postel stated, “we are screwing up in our design of Internet protocols by violating the principle of layering”. Encapsulation of different mechanisms was intended to create an environment where the layers could access only what was needed from the lower layers. A monolithic design would be inflexible and lead to scalability issues, the Transmission Control Program was split into two distinct protocols, the Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol. The new suite replaced all protocols used previously and this design is known as the end-to-end principle. Using this design, it possible to connect almost any network to the ARPANET, irrespective of the local characteristics. One popular expression is that TCP/IP, the product of Cerf and Kahns work. A computer called a router is provided with an interface to each network and it forwards packets back and forth between them. Originally a router was called gateway, but the term was changed to avoid confusion with other types of gateways, from 1973 to 1974, Cerfs networking research group at Stanford worked out details of the idea, resulting in the first TCP specification. A significant technical influence was the early networking work at Xerox PARC, DARPA then contracted with BBN Technologies, Stanford University, and the University College London to develop operational versions of the protocol on different hardware platforms. Four versions were developed, TCP v1, TCP v2, TCP v3 and IP v3, the last protocol is still in use today. In 1975, a two-network TCP/IP communications test was performed between Stanford and University College London, in November,1977, a three-network TCP/IP test was conducted between sites in the US, the UK, and Norway
5.
International Organization for Standardization
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The International Organization for Standardization is an international standard-setting body composed of representatives from various national standards organizations. Founded on 23 February 1947, the organization promotes worldwide proprietary and it is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and as of March 2017 works in 162 countries. It was one of the first organizations granted general consultative status with the United Nations Economic, ISO, the International Organization for Standardization, is an independent, non-governmental organization, the members of which are the standards organizations of the 162 member countries. It is the worlds largest developer of international standards and facilitates world trade by providing common standards between nations. Nearly twenty thousand standards have been set covering everything from manufactured products and technology to food safety, use of the standards aids in the creation of products and services that are safe, reliable and of good quality. The standards help businesses increase productivity while minimizing errors and waste, by enabling products from different markets to be directly compared, they facilitate companies in entering new markets and assist in the development of global trade on a fair basis. The standards also serve to safeguard consumers and the end-users of products and services, the three official languages of the ISO are English, French, and Russian. The name of the organization in French is Organisation internationale de normalisation, according to the ISO, as its name in different languages would have different abbreviations, the organization adopted ISO as its abbreviated name in reference to the Greek word isos. However, during the meetings of the new organization, this Greek word was not invoked. Both the name ISO and the logo are registered trademarks, the organization today known as ISO began in 1926 as the International Federation of the National Standardizing Associations. ISO is an organization whose members are recognized authorities on standards. Members meet annually at a General Assembly to discuss ISOs strategic objectives, the organization is coordinated by a Central Secretariat based in Geneva. A Council with a membership of 20 member bodies provides guidance and governance. The Technical Management Board is responsible for over 250 technical committees, ISO has formed joint committees with the International Electrotechnical Commission to develop standards and terminology in the areas of electrical and electronic related technologies. Information technology ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1 was created in 1987 to evelop, maintain, ISO has three membership categories, Member bodies are national bodies considered the most representative standards body in each country. These are the members of ISO that have voting rights. Correspondent members are countries that do not have their own standards organization and these members are informed about ISOs work, but do not participate in standards promulgation. Subscriber members are countries with small economies and they pay reduced membership fees, but can follow the development of standards
6.
Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise
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Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise is a non-profit organization based in the US state of Illinois. It sponsors an initiative by the industry to improve the way computer systems share information. IHE was established in 1998 by a consortium of radiologists and information technology experts, IHE created and operates a process through which interoperability of health care IT systems can be improved. The group gathers case requirements, identifies available standards, and develops technical guidelines which manufacturers can implement, IHE also stages connectathons and interoperability showcases in which vendors assemble to demonstrate the interoperability of their products. IHE is sponsored by the Healthcare Information and Management Systems Society, the Radiological Society of North America, the eye care domain is sponsored by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. IHE integration profiles describe an information need or workflow scenario. A group of systems implement the same integration profile address the need/scenario in a mutually compatible way. For example, the Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine standards specify many different formats for image data, a given set of images that might comply with some optional parts of the standards might still not be accepted by an application in use by a particular radiologist. Profiles reduce the chances of these incompatibilities, the Logical Observation Identifiers Names and Codes standard codes for use in databases are often used in IHE profiles. A model for cross-enterprise document sharing called XDS allows hospitals to share electronic records that use the Health Level 7 standards, the United States Department of Veterans Affairs revised its plans in 1999 to adopt IHE recommendations. IHE integration statements are prepared and published by a vendor to list the IHE profiles supported by a release of a specific product. IHE technical frameworks are detailed documents which specify the integration profiles and associated actors, for example, one specification is for a common way of binding identification numbers to patients. IHE connectathons are annual events where equipment vendors bring products with IHE profiles, the events are held in Europe, USA, Korea, Japan and Australia. The term connectathon was coined in the 1980s by Sun Microsystems for similar vendor-neutral interoperability testing of the Network File System protocols, the first NFS Connectathon was held in 1985. In 2008, an agreement was announced for cooperation with the Continua Health Alliance, in 2012, a guide was published on access to health data from mobile devices. Although in 2004 an estimate was that complete interoperability could be completed in ten years, by 2013 results were still mixed
7.
Transmission Control Protocol
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The Transmission Control Protocol is one of the main protocols of the Internet protocol suite. It originated in the initial implementation in which it complemented the Internet Protocol. Therefore, the suite is commonly referred to as TCP/IP. TCP provides reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of a stream of octets between applications running on hosts communicating by an IP network, major Internet applications such as the World Wide Web, email, remote administration, and file transfer rely on TCP. Applications that do not require reliable data stream service may use the User Datagram Protocol, during May 1974, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers published a paper titled A Protocol for Packet Network Intercommunication. The papers authors, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, described a protocol for sharing resources using packet-switching among the nodes. A central control component of this model was the Transmission Control Program that incorporated both connection-oriented links and datagram services between hosts, the model became known informally as TCP/IP, although formally it was henceforth termed the Internet Protocol Suite. The Transmission Control Protocol provides a service at an intermediate level between an application program and the Internet Protocol. It provides host-to-host connectivity at the Transport Layer of the Internet model, an application does not need to know the particular mechanisms for sending data via a link to another host, such as the required packet fragmentation on the transmission medium. At the transport layer, the protocol handles all handshaking and transmission details, at the lower levels of the protocol stack, due to network congestion, traffic load balancing, or other unpredictable network behaviour, IP packets may be lost, duplicated, or delivered out of order. TCP detects these problems, requests re-transmission of lost data, rearranges out-of-order data, If the data still remains undelivered, the source is notified of this failure. Once the TCP receiver has reassembled the sequence of octets originally transmitted, thus, TCP abstracts the applications communication from the underlying networking details. TCP is optimized for accurate delivery rather than timely delivery and can incur relatively long delays while waiting for messages or re-transmissions of lost messages. Therefore, it is not particularly suitable for applications such as Voice over IP. For such applications, protocols like the Real-time Transport Protocol operating over the User Datagram Protocol are usually recommended instead, TCP is a reliable stream delivery service which guarantees that all bytes received will be identical with bytes sent and in the correct order. Since packet transfer by many networks is not reliable, a known as positive acknowledgement with re-transmission is used to guarantee reliability. This fundamental technique requires the receiver to respond with an acknowledgement message as it receives the data, the sender keeps a record of each packet it sends and maintains a timer from when the packet was sent. The sender re-transmits a packet if the timer expires before receiving the message acknowledgement, the timer is needed in case a packet gets lost or corrupted
8.
Hypertext Transfer Protocol
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The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed, collaborative, and hypermedia information systems. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web, Hypertext is structured text that uses logical links between nodes containing text. HTTP is the protocol to exchange or transfer hypertext, development of HTTP was initiated by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN in 1989. Standards development of HTTP was coordinated by the Internet Engineering Task Force and the World Wide Web Consortium, culminating in the publication of a series of Requests for Comments. The first definition of HTTP/1.1, the version of HTTP in common use, occurred in RFC2068 in 1997, although this was obsoleted by RFC2616 in 1999 and then again by RFC7230 and family in 2014. A later version, the successor HTTP/2, was standardized in 2015, HTTP functions as a request–response protocol in the client–server computing model. A web browser, for example, may be the client, the client submits an HTTP request message to the server. The server, which provides resources such as HTML files and other content, or performs other functions on behalf of the client, the response contains completion status information about the request and may also contain requested content in its message body. A web browser is an example of a user agent, other types of user agent include the indexing software used by search providers, voice browsers, mobile apps, and other software that accesses, consumes, or displays web content. HTTP is designed to permit intermediate network elements to improve or enable communications between clients and servers, high-traffic websites often benefit from web cache servers that deliver content on behalf of upstream servers to improve response time. Web browsers cache previously accessed web resources and reuse them when possible to network traffic. HTTP proxy servers at private network boundaries can facilitate communication for clients without a globally routable address, HTTP is an application layer protocol designed within the framework of the Internet protocol suite. Its definition presumes an underlying and reliable transport layer protocol, however HTTP can be adapted to use unreliable protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol, for example in HTTPU and Simple Service Discovery Protocol. HTTP resources are identified and located on the network by Uniform Resource Locators, using the Uniform Resource Identifiers schemes http, uRIs and hyperlinks in HTML documents form inter-linked hypertext documents. HTTP/1.1 is a revision of the original HTTP, in HTTP/1.0 a separate connection to the same server is made for every resource request. HTTP/1.1 can reuse a connection multiple times to download images, scripts, stylesheets, HTTP/1.1 communications therefore experience less latency as the establishment of TCP connections presents considerable overhead. Tim Berners-Lee and his team at CERN are credited with inventing the original HTTP along with HTML and the technology for a web server. Berners-Lee first proposed the WorldWideWeb project in 1989—now known as the World Wide Web, the first version of the protocol had only one method, namely GET, which would request a page from a server
9.
Nondestructive testing
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The terms nondestructive examination, nondestructive inspection, and nondestructive evaluation are also commonly used to describe this technology. Because NDT does not permanently alter the article being inspected, it is a valuable technique that can save both money and time in product evaluation, troubleshooting, and research. Common NDT methods include ultrasonic, magnetic-particle, liquid penetrant, radiographic, remote visual inspection, eddy-current testing, innovations in the field of nondestructive testing have had a profound impact on medical imaging, including on echocardiography, medical ultrasonography, and digital radiography. NDT methods may rely upon use of radiation, sound. The inside of a sample can be examined with penetrating radiation, such as X-rays, sound waves are utilized in the case of ultrasonic testing. Contrast between a defect and the bulk of the sample may be enhanced for visual examination by the eye by using liquids to penetrate fatigue cracks. One method involves using dyes, fluorescent or non-fluorescent, in fluids for non-magnetic materials, another commonly used NDT method used on ferrous materials involves the application of fine iron particles that are applied to a part while it is in an externally magnetized state. The particles will be attracted to leakage fields within the test object, Magnetic particle testing can reveal surface & some sub-surface defects within the part. Thermoelectric effect uses thermal properties of an alloy to quickly and easily characterize many alloys, the chemical test, or chemical spot test method, utilizes application of sensitive chemicals that can indicate the presence of individual alloying elements. Electrochemical methods, such as electrochemical fatigue crack sensors, utilize the tendency of metal structural material to oxidize readily in order to detect progressive damage, analyzing and documenting a non-destructive failure mode can also be accomplished using a high-speed camera recording continuously until the failure is detected. Detecting the failure can be accomplished using a detector or stress gauge which produces a signal to trigger the high-speed camera. These high-speed cameras have advanced recording modes to capture some non-destructive failures, after the failure the high-speed camera will stop recording. The capture images can be played back in slow motion showing precisely what happen before, during and after the non-destructive event, NDT is used in a variety of settings that covers a wide range of industrial activity, with new NDT methods and applications, being continuously developed. In manufacturing, welds are used to join two or more metal parts. Because these connections may encounter loads and fatigue during product lifetime, the typical welding defects could cause a structure to break or a pipeline to rupture. Welding techniques may also be monitored with acoustic emission techniques before production to design the best set of parameters to use to properly join two materials. In the case of stress or safety critical welds, weld monitoring will be employed to confirm the specified welding parameters are being adhered to those stated in the welding procedure. This verifies the weld as correct to procedure prior to nondestructive evaluation, structure can be complex systems that undergo different loads during their lifetime, e. g. Lithium-ion batteries
10.
Airport security
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Airport security refers to the techniques and methods used in protecting passengers, staff and planes which use the airports from accidental/malicious harm, crime and other threats. Large numbers of pass through airports every day. This presents potential targets for terrorism and other forms of crime because of the number of people located in one place, Airport security attempts to prevent any threats or potentially dangerous situations from arising or entering the country. If airport security does succeed then the chances of any situation, illegal items or threats entering into an aircraft. While some countries may have an agency that protects all of their airports, the primary personnel will vary and can include, A police force hired and dedicated to the airport e. g. Travelers are screened by metal detectors, explosive detection machines used include X-ray machines and explosives trace-detection portal machines. Explosive detection machines can also be used for both carry-on and checked baggage and these detect volatile compounds given off from explosives using gas chromatography. A recent development is the use of backscatter X-rays to detect hidden weapons. These devices, which use Compton scattering, require that the stand close to a flat panel. Alternately, the passengers step fully shoed onto a device which scans in under 1.2 seconds for objects as small as a razor blade. In some countries, specially trained individuals may engage passengers in a conversation to detect rather than solely relying on equipment to find threats. A single backscatter scan exposes the target to between 0.05 and 0.1 microsievert of radiation, in comparison, the exposure from a standard chest x-ray is almost 100 times higher. Generally people are screened through airport security into areas where the gates to the aircraft are located. These areas are often called secure, sterile and airside, Airport food outlets have started using plastic glasses and utensils as opposed to glasses made out of glass and utensils made out of metal to reduce the usefulness of such items as weapons. In the United States non-passengers were once allowed on the concourses to meet arriving friends or relatives at their gates, non-passengers must obtain a gate pass to enter the secure area of the airport. The most common reasons that a non-passenger may obtain a pass is to assist children. In the United States, at least 24 hours notice is required for those planning to attend a business meeting inside the secure area of the airport. Other countries, such as Canada or Australia do not restrict non-travellers from accessing the airside area, sensitive areas in airports, including airport ramps and operational spaces, are restricted from the general public
11.
JPEG
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JPEG is a commonly used method of lossy compression for digital images, particularly for those images produced by digital photography. The degree of compression can be adjusted, allowing a selectable tradeoff between size and image quality. JPEG typically achieves 10,1 compression with little loss in image quality. JPEG compression is used in a number of file formats. These format variations are not distinguished, and are simply called JPEG. The term JPEG is an initialism/acronym for the Joint Photographic Experts Group, the MIME media type for JPEG is image/jpeg, except in older Internet Explorer versions, which provides a MIME type of image/pjpeg when uploading JPEG images. JPEG files usually have an extension of. jpg or. jpeg. JPEG/JFIF supports a maximum size of 65, 535×65,535 pixels. JPEG stands for Joint Photographic Experts Group, the name of the committee created the JPEG standard. The Joint stood for ISO TC97 WG8 and CCITT SGVIII, in 1987 ISO TC97 became ISO/IEC JTC1 and in 1992 CCITT became ITU-T. Currently on the JTC1 side JPEG is one of two sub-groups of ISO/IEC Joint Technical Committee 1, Subcommittee 29, Working Group 1 – titled as Coding of still pictures, on the ITU-T side ITU-T SG16 is the respective body. The original JPEG group was organized in 1986, issuing the first JPEG standard in 1992, which was approved in September 1992 as ITU-T Recommendation T.81 and in 1994 as ISO/IEC 10918-1. The JPEG standard specifies the codec, which defines how an image is compressed into a stream of bytes and decompressed back into an image, the Exif and JFIF standards define the commonly used file formats for interchange of JPEG-compressed images. JPEG standards are formally named as Information technology – Digital compression, ISO/IEC10918 consists of the following parts, Ecma International TR/98 specifies the JPEG File Interchange Format, the first edition was published in June 2009. The JPEG compression algorithm is at its best on photographs and paintings of scenes with smooth variations of tone. For web usage, where the amount of used for an image is important. JPEG/Exif is also the most common format saved by digital cameras, on the other hand, JPEG may not be as well suited for line drawings and other textual or iconic graphics, where the sharp contrasts between adjacent pixels can cause noticeable artifacts. Such images may be saved in a lossless graphics format such as TIFF, GIF, PNG
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Exif
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It is not used in JPEG2000, PNG, or GIF. This standard consists of the Exif image file specification and the Exif audio file specification, the Japan Electronic Industries Development Association produced the initial definition of Exif. Version 2.1 of the specification is dated 12 June 1998, JEITA established Exif version 2.2, dated 20 February 2002 and released in April 2002. Version 2.21 is dated 11 July 2003, but was released in September 2003 following the release of DCF2.0, the latest, version 2.3, released on 26 April 2010 and revised in May 2013, was jointly formulated by JEITA and CIPA. Exif is supported by almost all camera manufacturers, the metadata tags defined in the Exif standard cover a broad spectrum, Date and time information. Digital cameras will record the current date and time and save this in the metadata, a thumbnail for previewing the picture on the cameras LCD screen, in file managers, or in photo manipulation software. The Exif tag structure is borrowed from TIFF files, on several image specific properties, there is a large overlap between the tags defined in the TIFF, Exif, TIFF/EP, and DCF standards. For descriptive metadata, there is an overlap between Exif, IPTC Information Interchange Model and XMP info, which also can be embedded in a JPEG file, the Metadata Working Group has guidelines on mapping tags between these standards. When Exif is employed for JPEG files, the Exif data are stored in one of JPEGs defined utility Application Segments, the APP1, when Exif is employed in TIFF files, the TIFF Private Tag 0x8769 defines a sub-Image File Directory that holds the Exif specified TIFF Tags. Formats specified in Exif standard are defined as structures that are based on Exif-JPEG. When these formats are used as Exif/DCF files together with the DCF specification, their scope shall cover devices, recording media, the Exif format has standard tags for location information. As of 2014 many cameras and most mobile phones have a built-in GPS receiver that stores the information in the Exif header when a picture is taken. Some other cameras have a separate GPS receiver that fits into the connector or hot shoe. The process of adding information to a photograph is known as geotagging. Photo-sharing communities like Panoramio, locr or Flickr equally allow their users to upload geocoded pictures or to add geolocation information online, Exif data are embedded within the image file itself. While many recent image manipulation programs recognize and preserve Exif data when writing to a modified image, many image gallery programs also recognise Exif data and optionally display it alongside the images. The Exif format has a number of drawbacks, mostly relating to its use of file structures. For this reason most image editors damage or remove the Exif metadata to some extent upon saving, the standard defines a MakerNote tag, which allows camera manufacturers to place any custom format metadata in the file
13.
Lossless JPEG
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Lossless JPEG is a 1993 addition to JPEG standard by the Joint Photographic Experts Group to enable lossless compression. However, it might be used as a term to refer to all lossless compression schemes developed by the Joint Photographic Expert group. They include JPEG2000 and JPEG-LS, Lossless JPEG was developed as a late addition to JPEG in 1993, using a completely different technique from the lossy JPEG standard. It uses a scheme based on the three nearest neighbors, and entropy coding is used on the prediction error. The standard Independent JPEG Group libraries cannot encode or decode it, Lossless JPEG has some popularity in medical imaging, and is used in DNG and some digital cameras to compress raw images, but otherwise was never widely adopted. Lossless JPEG is actually a mode of operation of JPEG and this mode exists because the discrete cosine transform based form cannot guarantee that encoder input would exactly match decoder output. Unlike the lossy mode which is based on the DCT, the coding process employs a simple predictive coding model called differential pulse code modulation. This is a model in which predictions of the values are estimated from the neighboring samples that are already coded in the image. Most predictors take the average of the samples immediately above and to the left of the target sample, DPCM encodes the differences between the predicted samples instead of encoding each sample independently. The differences from one sample to the next are usually close to zero, a typical DPCM encoder is displayed in Fig.1. The block in the acts as a storage of the current sample which will later be a previous sample. The main steps of lossless operation mode are depicted in Fig.2. In the process, the predictor combines up to three neighboring samples at A, B, and C shown in Fig.3 in order to produce a prediction of the value at the position labeled by X. The three neighboring samples must be already encoded samples, any one of the predictors shown in the table below can be used to estimate the sample located at X. Any one of the eight listed in the table can be used. Note that selections 1,2, and 3 are one-dimensional predictors and selections 4,5,6, the first selection value in the table, zero, is only used for differential coding in the hierarchical mode of operation. Once all the samples are predicted, the differences between the samples can be obtained and entropy-coded in a lossless fashion using Huffman coding or arithmetic coding, typically, compressions using lossless operation mode can achieve around 2,1 compression ratio for color images. JPEG-LS is a compression standard for continuous-tone images
14.
JPEG 2000
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JPEG2000 is an image compression standard and coding system. The standardized filename extension is. jp2 for ISO/IEC 15444-1 conforming files and. jpx for the extended part-2 specifications, the registered MIME types are defined in RFC3745. For ISO/IEC 15444-1 it is image/jp2, JPEG2000 code streams are regions of interest that offer several mechanisms to support spatial random access or region of interest access at varying degrees of granularity. It is possible to store different parts of the picture using different quality. As of 2017, there are very few digital cameras that shoot photos in the JPEG2000 format, while there is a modest increase in compression performance of JPEG2000 compared to JPEG, the main advantage offered by JPEG2000 is the significant flexibility of the codestream. By ordering the codestream in various ways, applications can achieve significant performance increases, however, as a consequence of this flexibility, JPEG2000 requires encoders/decoders that are complex and computationally demanding. JPEG2000 has been published as an ISO standard, ISO/IEC15444, as of 2013, JPEG2000 is not widely supported in web browsers, and hence is not generally used on the Internet. At high bit rates, artifacts become nearly imperceptible, JPEG2000 has a small machine-measured fidelity advantage over JPEG, at lower bit rates, JPEG2000 has a significant advantage over certain modes of JPEG, artifacts are less visible and there is almost no blocking. The compression gains over JPEG are attributed to the use of DWT, JPEG2000 decomposes the image into a multiple resolution representation in the course of its compression process. This pyramid representation can be put to use for other image presentation purposes beyond compression and these features are more commonly known as progressive decoding and signal-to-noise ratio scalability. JPEG2000 provides efficient code-stream organizations which are progressive by pixel accuracy and this way, after a smaller part of the whole file has been received, the viewer can see a lower quality version of the final picture. The quality then improves progressively through downloading more data bits from the source, like the Lossless JPEG standard, the JPEG2000 standard provides both lossless and lossy compression in a single compression architecture. Lossless compression is provided by the use of a reversible wavelet transform in JPEG2000. Like JPEG1992, JPEG2000 is robust to bit errors introduced by noisy communication channels, the JP2 and JPX file formats allow for handling of color-space information, metadata, and for interactivity in networked applications as developed in the JPEG Part 9 JPIP protocol. JPEG2000 supports any bit depth, such as 16- and 32-bit floating point pixel images, full support for transparency and alpha planes. JPEG 2000s improvement in performance relative to the original JPEG standard is actually rather modest. Very low and very high rates are supported in JPEG2000. The ability of the design to handle a large range of effective bit rates is one of the strengths of JPEG2000
15.
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
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Following ICANNs transition to a global multistakeholder governance model, the IANA functions were transferred to Public Technical Identifiers, an affiliate of ICANN. In addition, five regional Internet registries delegate number resources to their customers, local Internet registries, Internet service providers, a local Internet registry is an organization that assigns parts of its allocation from a regional Internet registry to other customers. Most local Internet registries are also Internet service providers, IANA is broadly responsible for the allocation of globally unique names and numbers that are used in Internet protocols that are published as Request for Comments documents. These documents describe methods, behaviors, research, or innovations applicable to the working of the Internet, IANA maintains a close liaison with the Internet Engineering Task Force and RFC Editorial team in fulfilling this function. IANA is responsible for assignment of Internet numbers which are numerical identifier assigned to an Internet resource or used in the protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. Examples include IP addresses and autonomous system numbers, IANA delegates allocations of IP address blocks to regional Internet registries. Each RIR allocates addresses for a different area of the world, collectively the RIRs have created the Number Resource Organization formed as a body to represent their collective interests and ensure that policy statements are coordinated globally. The RIRs divide their allocated address pools into smaller blocks and delegate them to Internet service providers, since the exhaustion of the Internet Protocol Version 4 address space, no further IPv4 address space is allocated by IANA. IANA administers the data in the root nameservers, which form the top of the hierarchical Domain name system tree and this task involves liaising with top-level domain operators, the root nameserver operators, and ICANNs policy making apparatus. IANA administers many parameters of IETF protocols, examples include the names of uniform resource identifier schemes and character encodings recommended for use on the Internet. This task is performed under the oversight of the Internet Architecture Board, on March 26,1972, Vint Cerf and Jon Postel at UCLA called for establishing a socket number catalog in RFC322. Network administrators were asked to submit a note or place a call, describing the function. This catalog was published as RFC433 in December 1972. In it Postel first proposed a registry of assignments of port numbers to network services, calling himself the czar of socket numbers. The first reference to the name IANA in the RFC series is in RFC1083, published in December,1988 by Postel at USC-ISI, there was widespread dissatisfaction with this concentration of power in one company, and people looked to IANA for a solution. Postel wrote up a draft on IANA and the creation of new top level domains and he was trying to institutionalize IANA. In retrospect, this would have been valuable, since he died about two years later. Jon Postel managed the IANA function from its inception on the ARPANET until his death in October 1998, by his almost 30 years of selfless service, Postel created his de facto authority to manage key parts of the Internet infrastructure
16.
3DSlicer
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3D Slicer is a free and open source software package for image analysis and scientific visualization. 3D Slicer is a open source software that is a flexible, modular platform for image analysis. 3D Slicer can be extended to enable development of interactive and batch processing tools for a variety of applications. 3D Slicer provides image registration, processing of DTI, an interface to devices for image guidance support. 3D Slicer has an organization that allows the addition of new functionality. 3D Slicer also supports a set of annotation features. Slicer is compiled for use on multiple computing platforms, including Windows, Linux, the license has no restrictions on use of the software in academic or commercial projects. However, no claims are made on the software being useful for any particular task and it is entirely the responsibility of the user to ensure compliance with local rules and regulations. Slicer has not been approved for clinical use in the FDA in the US or by any other regulatory body elsewhere. Slicer started as a thesis project between the Surgical Planning Laboratory at the Brigham and Womens Hospital and the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory in 1998. 3D Slicer version 2 has been downloaded several thousand times, in 2007 a completely revamped version 3 of Slicer was released. The next major refactoring of Slicer was initiated in 2009, which aims to transition the GUI of Slicer from using KWWidgets to Qt, qt-enabled Slicer version 4 has been released in 2011. Slicer software has enabled a variety of publications, all aimed at improving image analysis. This significant software project has been enabled by the participation of several large-scale NIH funded efforts, including the NA-MIC, NAC, BIRN, CIMIT, Harvard Catalyst and NCIGT communities. The funding support comes from federal funding sources, including NCRR, NIBIB, NIH Roadmap, NCI, NSF. Standard image file formats are supported, and the application integrates interface capabilities to biomedical research software, Slicer has been used in a variety of clinical research. In fact, Slicer has already played such a role in image-guided therapy, it can be considered as growing up alongside that field. In addition to producing 3D models from conventional MRI images, Slicer has also used to present information derived from fMRI, DTI
17.
CinePaint
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CinePaint is an open source computer program for painting and retouching bitmap frames of films. It is a fork of version 1.0.4 of the GNU Image Manipulation Program and it enjoyed some success as one of the earliest open source tools developed for feature motion picture visual effects and animation work. The main reason for adoption over mainline gimp was its support for high bit depths which can be required for film work. The mainline GIMP project later added high bit depths in GIMP2.9.2 and it is free software under the GNU General Public License. CinePaint supports a 16-bit color managed workflow for photographers and printers, including CIE*Lab and it supports the Cineon, DPX, and OpenEXR image file formats. HDR creation from bracketed exposures is easy, CinePaint is a professional open-source raster graphics editor, not a video editor. Per-channel color engine core, 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit, the image formats it supports include BMP, CIN, DPX, EXR, GIF, JPEG, OpenEXR, PNG, TIFF, and XCF. CinePaint is currently available for UNIX and Unix-like OSes including Mac OS X, the program is available on Linux, Mac OS X, FreeBSD and NetBSD. Its main competitors are the mainline GIMP and Adobe Photoshop, although the latter is available for Mac OS X. Glasgow, a new code architecture being used for CinePaint, is expected to make a new Windows version possible and is currently under production. The Glasgow effort is FLTK based and this effort appears to have stalled. Comparison of raster graphics editors Official website CinePaint Wiki and downloads 16-bit imaging, from digital camera to print a colour management tutorial Basic color management for X High Dynamic Range images under Linux GIMP and Film Production
18.
GIMP
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GIMP /ɡɪmp/ is a free and open-source raster graphics editor used for image retouching and editing, free-form drawing, converting between different image formats, and more specialized tasks. GIMP is released under GPLv3+ licenses and is available for Linux, macOS, GIMP was originally released as the General Image Manipulation Program. In 1995 Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis began developing GIMP as a project at the University of California. In 1996 GIMP was released as the first publicly available release, in the following year Richard Stallman visited UC Berkeley where Spencer Kimball and Peter Mattis asked if they could change General to GNU. Richard Stallman approved and the definition of the acronym GIMP was changed to be the GNU Image Manipulation Program and this reflected its new existence as being developed as Free Software as a part of the GNU Project. The number of architectures and operating systems supported has expanded significantly since its first release. The first release supported UNIX systems, such as Linux, SGI IRIX, lillqvist in 1997 and was supported in the GIMP1.1 release. Following the first release GIMP was quickly adopted and a community of contributors formed, the community began developing tutorials, artwork and shared better work-flows and techniques. A GUI toolkit called GTK was developed to facilitate the development of GIMP, GTK was replaced by its successor GTK+ after being redesigned using object-oriented programming techniques. The development of GTK+ has been attributed to Peter Mattis becoming disenchanted with the Motif toolkit GIMP originally used, GIMP is primarily developed by volunteers as a free software project associated to both the GNU and GNOME Projects. Development takes place in a public git source code repository, on mailing lists. New features are held in public separate source code branches and merged into the branch when the GIMP team is sure they wont damage existing functions. Sometimes this means that features that appear complete do not get merged or take months or years before they become available in GIMP, GIMP itself is released as source code. After a source code release installers and packages are made for different operating systems by parties who might not be in contact with the maintainers of GIMP. The version number used in GIMP is expressed in a format, with each number carrying a specific meaning. Each year GIMP applies for several positions in the Google Summer of Code, from 2006 to 2009 there have been nine GSoC projects that have been listed as successful, although not all successful projects have been merged into GIMP yet. Several of the GSoC projects were completed in 2008, but have not been merged into a stable GIMP release, actual Development Version is 2.9.4 with many deep improvements. Next stable Version in Roadmap is 2.10, the user interface of GIMP is designed by a dedicated design and usability team
19.
Ginkgo CADx
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Ginkgo CADx is a multiplatform DICOM viewer and dicomizer. Ginkgo CADx is licensed under LGPL license, being an open source project with an Open core approach, the goal of Ginkgo CADx project is to develop an open source professional DICOM workstation. Ginkgo CADx also has a version with a private license model called Ginkgo CADx Pro. The main features of this software are, Fully functional DICOM viewer, dicomizator, Ginkgo CADx can convert from JPEG, PNG, GIF, TIFF images and PDF documents to DICOM files. Standard DICOM tools, rulers, angle, window level, cinema mode, support a large number of different DICOM modalities as CT, MR, ECG, PET, XC, SC, XA, MG. Intuitive graphical interface customizable by user profiles, easily integrable with third party systems using HL7 messages, DICOM and IHE compliant workflows. Ginkgo CADx is developed using C++ language, has a plug-in architecture, is based on common open source libraries like VTK, ITK, and wxWidgets. Ginkgo CADx project started in 2009 with the aim to create an interactive, universal, homogeneous, open-source, developed by MetaEmotion, the first public version of Ginkgo CADx was released in 2010. Ginkgo CADx team have collaborated with, Sacyl Public healthcare system of Castilla y León, packaging and compiling Ginkgo CADx for Ubuntu, Debian, Fedora and SUSE. Ginkgo CADx webpage Ginkgo CADx Forums
20.
Microsoft Windows
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Microsoft Windows is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Microsoft. It consists of families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the computing industry with the OS typically associated with IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows Phone, defunct Windows families include Windows 9x, Windows 10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct family Windows Mobile. Microsoft introduced an operating environment named Windows on November 20,1985, Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS, which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see Windows as an encroachment on their innovation in GUI development as implemented on products such as the Lisa. On PCs, Windows is still the most popular operating system, however, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system market to Android, because of the massive growth in sales of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows devices sold was less than 25% that of Android devices sold and this comparison however may not be fully relevant, as the two operating systems traditionally target different platforms. As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones, the most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of Windows runs on the Xbox One game console, Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows operating systems that target a specific sector of the computing industry. It now consists of three operating system subfamilies that are released almost at the time and share the same kernel. Windows, The operating system for personal computers, tablets. The latest version is Windows 10, the main competitor of this family is macOS by Apple Inc. for personal computers and Android for mobile devices. Windows Server, The operating system for server computers, the latest version is Windows Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has adopted a strong naming scheme, the main competitor of this family is Linux. Windows PE, A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as an operating system, used for installing Windows on bare-metal computers. The latest version is Windows PE10.0.10586.0, Windows Embedded, Initially, Microsoft developed Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system for every device that was too resource-limited to be called a full-fledged computer. The following Windows families are no longer being developed, Windows 9x, Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT. Windows Mobile, The predecessor to Windows Phone, it was a mobile operating system
21.
XnView
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XnView is an image organizer and general-purpose file manager used for viewing, converting, organizing and editing raster images, as well as general purpose file management. It comes with built-in hex inspection, batch renaming and screen capture tools and it is licensed as freeware for private, educational and non-profit uses. For other uses, it is licensed as commercial software and it is now available for Windows, Windows Mobile and Pocket PC but was previously available for Unix-like systems as well. An extended version of XnView, called XnViewMP, is available for Windows, macOS, XnView has received five cows from Tucows. In 2006 Sveriges Television recommended XnView in their High Definition Multi Format Test Set, research papers about DICOM and digital watermarking used XnView for image processing. XnView can read more than 500 image file formats, some audio and video file formats, XnView also supports ICC profiles in JPEG, PNG and TIFF files. Classic XnView can read image formats resulting in more than 32 bits per pixel, XnView can show IPTC, Exif and XMP metadata, and write IPTC metadata. XnView can search files that have the filename or data. The display of the histogram of a picture is possible, scripts can be created to convert, manipulate and rename a batch of images in one go. Creation of advanced slide shows is also possible, lossless turning, flipping and cropping of JPEG files is supported. Typical image editing tools are included, for color and size manipulation, several filters. XnView supports. 8bf Photoshop plugins such as the Harrys Filters 3.0 included in the full version, support for most raw image formats is based on dcraw. Support for vector graphics can be integrated with Ghostscript, classic XnView does not support Unicode, and SVG requires a commercial CAD plugin. These features are available in the multi-platform edition XnView MP based on Qt, classic XnView is also distributed in the PortableApps format. XnView 2.13 was the last version for Windows platforms older than Windows XP, version 2.30 released in 2015 supports the Netpbm PAM format, can read Better Portable Graphics, and offers an add-on for Imgur uploads
22.
InVesalius
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InVesalius is a free medical software used to generate virtual reconstructions of structures in the human body. After constructing three-dimensional DICOM images, the allows the generation of STL files. These files can be used for rapid prototyping, InVesalius was developed at CTI, a research institute of the Brazilian Science and Technology Center and is available at no cost at the homepage of Public Software Portal homepage. The software license is CC-GPL2 and it is available in English, Brazilian Portuguese, Italian, French, Spanish, Chinese, German, Czech, Greek and Catalan. InVesalius was developed using Python and works under Linux, Windows and it also uses graphic libraries VTK, wxPython, Numpy, Scipy and GDCM. The software’s name is a tribute to Belgian physician Andreas Vesalius, developed since 2001 for attending Brazilian Public Hospitals demands, InVesalius development was directed for promoting social inclusion of individuals with severe facial deformities. Since then, however, it has employed in various research areas of dentistry, medicine, veterinary medicine. It has been used not only in hospitals, but also in private clinics. Until 2013, the software had already used for generating more than 2500 rapid prototyping models of anatomical structures at Promed project. Official InVesalius website InVesalius source code InVesalius Translation page at Transifex InVesalius at Ohloh InVesalius at Twitter Public Software Portal Rapid Prototyping for Medicine Confex. com
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