1.
Hydrothermal vent
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A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planets surface from which geothermally heated water issues. Hydrothermal vents are found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart, ocean basins. Hydrothermal vents exist because the earth is both active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Common land types include hot springs, fumaroles and geysers, under the sea, hydrothermal vents may form features called black smokers. Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea form the base of the chain, supporting diverse organisms, including giant tube worms, clams, limpets. Active hydrothermal vents are believed to exist on Jupiters moon Europa, and Saturns moon Enceladus, Hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean typically form along the mid-ocean ridges, such as the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. These are locations where two plates are diverging and new crust is being formed. The proportion of each varies from location to location, in contrast to the approximately 2 °C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 to as high as 464 °C. Due to the hydrostatic pressure at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a supercritical fluid at such temperatures. The critical point of water is 375 °C at a pressure of 218 atmospheres, however, introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures. The critical point of seawater is 407 °C and 298.5 bars, accordingly, if a hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt. % NaCl vents above 407 °C and 298.5 bars, furthermore, the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust. The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, for example, a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the point at 400 °C and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a supercritical fluid, examples of supercritical venting are found at several sites. Sister Peak vents low salinity phase-separated, vapor-type fluids, sustained venting was not found to be supercritical but a brief injection of 464 °C was well above supercritical conditions. A nearby site, Turtle Pits, was found to vent low salinity fluid at 407 °C, which is above the critical point of the fluid at that salinity. A vent site in the Cayman Trough named Beebe, which is the worlds deepest known hydrothermal site at ~5000 m below sea level, has shown sustained supercritical venting at 401 °C and 2.3 wt% NaCl
2.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
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Established in 1930 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, it is the largest independent oceanographic research institution in the U. S. with staff and students numbering about 1,000. Its shore-based facilities are located in the village of Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States and a mile, the bulk of the Institutions funding comes from grants and contracts from the National Science Foundation and other government agencies, augmented by foundations and private donations. WHOI scientists, engineers, and students collaborate to develop theories, test ideas, build seagoing instruments, ships operated by WHOI carry research scientists throughout the world’s oceans. A new ship, Neil Armstrong was delivered to the Navy on September 23,2015, the RV Neil Armstrong will also replace the R/V Knorr, which had previously been used by WHOI since 1970 and was transferred to the Mexican Navy in March 2016. WHOI offers graduate and post-graduate studies in marine science, there are several fellowship and trainee-ship programs, and graduate degrees are awarded through a joint program with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology or by the Institution itself. WHOI also offers outreach programs and informal public education through its Exhibit Center and summer tours. The Institution has a program and a membership program, WHOI Associate. In 1927, a National Academy of Sciences committee concluded that it was time to consider the share of the United States of America in a program of oceanographic research. WHOI grew substantially to support significant defense-related research during World War II, and later began a growth in staff, research fleet. Over the years, WHOI scientists have made discoveries about the ocean that have contributed to improving US commerce, health, national security. In 1977 the institute appointed the influential oceanographer John Steele as director, in February 2008, Dr. Susan K. Avery became the new president and director of the institution, avery, an atmospheric physicist, is the ninth director in WHOIs 77-year history, and the first woman to hold the position. The B H Ketchum award, established in 1983, is presented for innovative research and is named in honor of oceanographer Bostwick H. Buck Ketchum. The first recipient was Edward D. Goldberg in 1984, the Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography was established in 1960 in honor of the first Director, biologist Henry Bryant Bigelow. 1974 Henry M. Stommel 1970 Frederick J. Vine – In recognition of his “imaginative, all are owned by the Institution itself
3.
Submersible
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A submersible is a small vehicle designed to operate underwater. In common usage by the public, however, the word submarine may be used to describe a craft that is by the technical definition actually a submersible. There are many types of submersibles, including both crewed and uncrewed craft, otherwise known as remotely operated vehicles or ROVs, submersibles have many uses worldwide, such as oceanography, underwater archaeology, ocean exploration, adventure, equipment maintenance and recovery, and underwater videography. The first underwater vessel was designed and built by American patriot David Bushnell in 1775 as a means to attach explosive charges to ships during the American Revolutionary War. The device, dubbed Bushnells Turtle, was a vessel of wood. It had tanks that were filled with water to make it dive, the operator used two hand-cranked propellers to move vertically or laterally under the water. The vehicle had small glass windows on top and naturally luminescent wood affixed to its instruments so that they could be read in the dark, Bushnells Turtle was first set into action on September 7,1776 at New York Harbor to attack the British flagship HMS Eagle. Sergeant Ezra Lee operated the vehicle at that time, Lee successfully brought the Turtle against the underside of Eagles hull but failed to attach the charge because of the strong water currents. Submersibles typically have shorter range, and operate underwater, as most have little function at the surface. Some submersibles operate on a tether or umbilical, remaining connected to a tender, submersibles have been able to dive to over 10 km below the surface. Submersibles may be small, hold only a small crew. A submersible often has very dexterous mobility, provided by propeller screws or pump-jets, there are three basic technologies used in the design of submersibles. Single atmosphere submersibles have a hull and the occupants are at standard atmospheric pressure. This requires the hull to be capable of withstanding the pressure from the water outside that is many times greater than the internal pressure. Another technology called ambient pressure maintains the same both inside and outside the vessel. This reduces the pressure that the hull has to withstand, a third technology is the Wet Sub, which refers to a vehicle that may or may not be enclosed, but in either case water floods the interior so SCUBA equipment is used to facilitate breathing. In both single atmosphere and ambient pressure subs, there is no need to use SCUBA equipment, some submersibles have been able to dive to great depths. The Bathyscaphe Trieste was the first to reach the deepest part of the ocean, nearly 11 km below the surface, at the bottom of the Mariana Trench in 1960
4.
General Mills
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General Mills, Inc. is an American multinational manufacturer and marketer of branded consumer foods sold through retail stores. It is headquartered in Golden Valley, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis and its brand portfolio includes more than 89 other leading U. S. brands and numerous category leaders around the world. The company can trace its history to the Minneapolis Milling Company, cadwallader C. Washburn acquired the company shortly after its founding and hired his brother William D. Washburn to assist in the companys development. In 1866 the Washburns got into the business themselves, building the Washburn B Mill at the falls, at the time, the building was considered to be so large and output so vast that it could not possibly sustain itself. However, the company succeeded, and in 1874 he built the even bigger Washburn A Mill, in 1877 the mill entered a partnership with John Crosby to form the Washburn-Crosby Company, producing Winter Wheat Flour. That same year Washburn sent William Hood Dunwoody to England to open the market for spring wheat, Dunwoody was successful and became a silent partner. In 1878 the A mill was destroyed in a flour dust explosion along with five nearby buildings, the ensuing fire led to the death of 18 workers. Construction of a new mill began immediately, not only was the new mill safer but it also was able to produce a higher quality flour after the old grinding stones were replaced with automatic steel rollers, the first ever used. In 1880 Washburn-Crosby flour brands won gold, silver and bronze medals at the Millers International Exhibition in Cincinnati, in 1924 the company stepped in to take over a failing Twin Cities radio station, WLAG, renaming it WCCO. General Mills itself was created in June 1928 when Washburn-Crosby President James Ford Bell directed his company to merge with 26 other mills, in 1928, General Mills acquired the Wichita Mill and Elevator Company of the industrialist Frank Kell of Wichita Falls, Texas. With the sale, Kell acquired cash plus stock in the corporation, the coupons and the catalog were discontinued by the company in 2006. A similar program, Box Tops for Education, in which coupon icons clipped off various General Mills products can be redeemed by schools for cash, General Mills became the sponsor of the popular radio show The Lone Ranger in 1941. The show was brought to television, and, after 20 years. Beginning in 1959, General Mills sponsored the Rocky and His Friends television series, until 1968, Rocky and Bullwinkle were featured in a variety of advertisements for General Mills. General Mills was also a sponsor of the Saturday-morning cartoons from the Total TeleVision productions studio, the company also was a sponsor of the ABC western series The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, starring Hugh OBrian. In 1946 General Mills established their Aeronautical Research Division with chief engineer Otto C and this division developed high altitude balloons in conjunction with the United States Navy Office of Naval Research, such as the Skyhook balloon. The General Mills Electronics division developed the DSV Alvin submersible, which is notable for being used in investigating the wreck of the Titanic among other deep-sea exploration missions, the first venture General Mills took into the toy industry was in 1965. The company bought Rainbow Crafts, which was the manufacturer of Play-Doh, General Mills purchase of the company was substantial because it brought production costs down and tripled the revenue
5.
Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
6.
Thermonuclear weapon
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A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a bomb or an H-bomb because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen. The first full scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952, similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, and France. The radiation implosion mechanism is an engine that exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stages hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is maintained by a massive heat barrier called the pusher. If made of uranium, as is almost always the case, it can capture neutrons produced by the reaction and undergo fission itself. In many Teller–Ulam weapons, fission of the pusher dominates the explosion, detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation, in a small number of prior cases, the U. S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his new book, Building the H Bomb, the state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section consists of an implosion-type fission bomb. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called radiation implosion, at which point it is heated, surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primarys energy inside temporarily. The outside of this case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb components configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified, generally, a research program with the capacity to create a thermonuclear bomb has already mastered the ability to engineer boosted fission. The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel, around the column is first a pusher-tamper, a heavy layer of uranium-238 or lead that serves to help compress the fusion fuel. Inside this is the fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug, a hollow column of fissile material that, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission. The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary, separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage
7.
Swordfish
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Swordfish, also known as broadbills in some countries, are large, highly migratory, predatory fish characterized by a long, flat bill. They are a sport fish of the billfish category, though elusive. Swordfish are elongated, round-bodied, and lose all teeth and scales by adulthood and these fish are found widely in tropical and temperate parts of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and can typically be found from near the surface to a depth of 550 m. They commonly reach 3 m in length, and the maximum reported is 4.55 m in length and 650 kg in weight and they are the sole member of their family, Xiphiidae. The swordfish is named after its bill, which resembles a sword and this makes it superficially similar to other billfish such as marlin, but upon examination, their physiology is quite different and they are members of different families. They commonly reach 3 m in length, and the maximum reported is 4.55 m in length and 650 kg in weight, the International Game Fish Associations all-tackle angling record for a swordfish was a 1,182 lb specimen taken off Chile in 1953. Females are larger than males, and Pacific swordfish reach a greater size than northwest Atlantic and they reach maturity at 4–5 years of age and the maximum age is believed to be at least 9 years. The oldest swordfish found in a recent study were a 16-year-old female, swordfish ages are derived, with difficulty, from annual rings on fin rays rather than otoliths, since their otoliths are small in size. Swordfish are ectothermic animals, however, along some species of sharks, they have special organs next to their eyes to heat their eyes. Temperatures of 10 to 15 °C above the water temperature have been measured. The heating of the eyes greatly improves their vision, and consequently improves their ability to catch prey, of the 25, 000+ fish species, only 22 are known to have a mechanism to conserve heat. These include the swordfish, marlin, tuna, and some sharks, contrary to popular belief, the sword is not used to spear, but instead may be used to slash at its prey to injure the prey animal, to make for an easier catch. Mainly, the swordfish relies on its speed and agility in the water to catch its prey. It is undoubtedly among the fastest fish, but the basis for the frequently quoted speed of 97 km/h is unreliable, swordfish prefer water temperatures between 18 and 22 °C, but have the widest tolerance among billfish, and can be found from 5 to 27 °C. This highly migratory species typically moves towards colder regions to feed during the summer, swordfish feed daily, most often at night, when they rise to surface and near-surface waters in search of smaller fish. During the day, they occur to depths of 550 m and have exceptionally been recorded as deep as 2,878 m. Adults feed on a range of pelagic fish, such as mackerel, barracudinas, silver hake, rockfish, herring, and lanternfishes, but they also take demersal fish, squid. Large prey are typically slashed with the sword, while small are swallowed whole and they swim alone or in very loose aggregations, separated by as much as 10 m from a neighboring swordfish
8.
Grumman F6F Hellcat
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The Grumman F6F Hellcat is an American carrier-based fighter aircraft of World War II. Designed to replace the earlier F4F Wildcat and to counter the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero, the Hellcat competed with the faster Vought F4U Corsair for that role and prevailed, as the Corsair had significant issues with carrier landings. The Corsair instead was primarily deployed to great effect in land-based use by the U. S. Marine Corps, some military observers tagged the Hellcat as the Wildcats big brother. 12,275 were built in just over two years, Hellcats were credited with destroying a total of 5,223 enemy aircraft while in service with the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps and the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm. This was more than any other Allied naval aircraft, postwar, the Hellcat was phased out of front line service but remained in service as late as 1954 as a night fighter. Grumman had been working on a successor to the F4F Wildcat since 1938, the aircraft was originally designed to use the Wright R-2600 Twin Cyclone two-row, 14-cylinder radial engine of 1,700 hp driving a three-bladed Curtiss Electric propeller. In addition, the forward fuselage sloped down slightly to the cowling, affording the Hellcats pilot good visibility. Grumman complied by redesigning and strengthening the F6F airframe to incorporate the 2,000 hp R-2800-10, with this combination Grumman estimated the XF6F-3s performance would increase by 25% over that of the XF6F-1. The Cyclone-powered XF6F-1 first flew on 26 June 1942, followed by the first Double Wasp-equipped aircraft, the XF6F-3, the first production F6F-3, powered by an R-2800-10, flew on 3 October 1942, with the type reaching operational readiness with VF-9 on USS Essex in February 1943. The F6F series were designed to damage and get the pilot safely back to base. A bullet-resistant windshield and a total of 212 lb of armor was fitted, along with armor around the oil tank. A250 gal self-sealing fuel tank was fitted in the fuselage, Standard armament on the F6F-3 consisted of six.50 in M2/AN Browning air-cooled machine guns with 400 rounds per gun. Six 5 in HVARs could be carried, three under each wing on zero-length launchers, Hellcat night fighters claimed their first victories in November 1943. A total of 4,402 F6F-3s were built through until April 1944, in addition, the rear fuselage and tail units were strengthened, and, apart from some early production aircraft, the majority of the F6F-5s built were painted in an overall gloss sea blue finish. After the first few F6F-5s were built, the windows behind the main canopy were deleted. The F6F-5N night fighter variant was fitted with an AN/APS-6 radar in a fairing on the outer-starboard wing, a small number of standard F6F-5s were also fitted with camera equipment for reconnaissance duties as the F6F-5P. The F6F-5 was the most common F6F variant, with 7,870 being built, other prototypes in the F6F series included the XF6F-4 which first flew on 3 October 1942 as the prototype for the projected F6F-4. This version never entered production and 02981 was converted to an F6F-3 production aircraft, the turbochargers proved to be unreliable on both engines, while performance improvements were marginal
9.
Nantucket, Massachusetts
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Nantucket /ˌnænˈtʌkᵻt/ is an island about 30 miles by ferry south from Cape Cod, in the American state of Massachusetts. Together with the islands of Tuckernuck and Muskeget, it constitutes the Town of Nantucket, and the conterminous Nantucket County. As of the 2010 census, the population was 10,172, part of the town is designated the Nantucket CDP, or census-designated place. The region of Surfside on Nantucket is the southernmost settlement in Massachusetts, the name Nantucket is adapted from similar Algonquian names for the island, perhaps meaning faraway land or island. Nantucket is a tourist destination and summer colony, due to tourists and seasonal residents, the population of the island increases to at least 50,000 during the summer months. In 2008, Forbes magazine cited Nantucket as having home values among the highest in the US, home prices per square foot are considered much higher than those in the Hamptons on Long Island. The meaning of the term is uncertain, although it may have meant in the midst of waters, wampanoag is an Eastern Algonquian language of southern New England. The Nehantucket were an Algonquin-speaking culture of the area, Nantuckets nickname, The Little Grey Lady of the Sea, refers to the island as it appears from the ocean when it is fog-bound. The earliest French settlement in the region began on the island of Marthas Vineyard. Nantucket was part of Dukes County, New York, until 1691, as Europeans began to settle Cape Cod, the island became a place of refuge for Native Americans in the region, as Nantucket was not yet settled by Europeans. The growing population welcomed seasonal groups of other Native Americans who traveled to the island to fish and later harvest whales that washed up on shore. In October 1641, William, Earl of Sterling, deeded the island to Thomas Mayhew of Watertown, anxious to add to their number and to induce tradesmen to come to the island, the total number of shares were increased to twenty-seven. By 1667, twenty-seven shares had been divided between 31 owners, and also two beaver hats, one for myself, and one for my wife. The nine original purchasers were Tristram Coffin, Peter Coffin, Thomas Macy, Christopher Hussey, Richard Swain, Thomas Barnard, Stephen Greenleaf, John Swain and these men are considered the founding fathers of Nantucket, and many islanders are related to these families. Seamen and tradesmen began to populate Nantucket, such as Richard Gardner, John Gardner, sons of Thomas Gardner. In his 1835 history of Nantucket Island, Obed Macy wrote that in the early pre-1672 colony and this event started the Nantucket whaling industry. Herman Melville commented on Nantuckets whaling dominance in Moby-Dick, Chapter 14, for the sea is his, he owns it, as Emperors own empires. The Moby-Dick characters Ahab and Starbuck are both from Nantucket, by 1850, whaling was in decline, as Nantuckets whaling industry had been surpassed by that of New Bedford
10.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
11.
Hurricane Camille
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Hurricane Camille was the third and strongest tropical cyclone and second hurricane during the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season. Camille was the second strongest U. S. landfalling hurricane in recorded history in terms of atmospheric pressure, the storm formed on 14 August and rapidly deepened. It scraped the western edge of Cuba at Category 2 intensity, Camille rapidly deepened once again over the Gulf of Mexico and made landfall with a pressure of 900 mbar, estimated sustained winds of 175 mph and a peak official storm surge of 24 feet. The hurricane flattened nearly everything along the coast of the U. S. state of Mississippi, in total, Camille killed 259 people and caused $1.42 billion in damages. To date, an understanding of the reasons for the systems power, extremely rapid intensification over open water. The origins of Hurricane Camille were from a wave off the western coast of Africa on August 5. It tracked quickly westward along the 15th parallel north, a tropical disturbance became clearly identifiable on satellite imagery on August 9, by that time, the thunderstorm activity concentrated into a circular area of convection. The next day, it moved through the Lesser Antilles, although there was no evidence of a closed circulation, on August 13, the wave passed near or over the southern coast of Jamaica as its convection spread northeastward through the Bahamas. Subsequently, it began a motion to the northwest. It is believed that a depression formed shortly thereafter, early on August 14. On the morning of August 14, the Hurricane Hunters flew to investigate for a closed circulation near the Bahamas as well as near the Cayman Islands, the crew observed a developing center in the western Caribbean, and winds had reached tropical storm status. By then, the storm had strengthened into a tropical storm with winds of 60 mph. Upon first being classified as a storm, Camille was located in an area favorable for further strengthening. It was located within an area of light wind shear. Additionally, the storm developed strong low-level inflow from the deep southern Caribbean, throughout its duration, it was a small tropical cyclone, although with a radius of gale-force winds spreading 100 miles to the north, the storms thunderstorm area quickly spread over Cuba. As the storm approached the western coast of Cuba, it began rapid deepening, reaching hurricane status and less than 12 hours later attained winds of 110 mph. Prior to landfall, its eye was tracked by radar from Havana, Camille was a small hurricane as it crossed western Cuba, and its winds decreased slightly to 105 mph over land before it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico. Initially, Hurricane Camille was forecast to turn northeastward toward the Florida panhandle, instead, it continued northwestward and rapidly intensified once again almost immediately after leaving Cuba
United States
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