1.
Hydrothermal vent
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A hydrothermal vent is a fissure in a planets surface from which geothermally heated water issues. Hydrothermal vents are found near volcanically active places, areas where tectonic plates are moving apart, ocean basins. Hydrothermal vents exist because the earth is both active and has large amounts of water on its surface and within its crust. Common land types include hot springs, fumaroles and geysers, under the sea, hydrothermal vents may form features called black smokers. Chemosynthetic bacteria and archaea form the base of the chain, supporting diverse organisms, including giant tube worms, clams, limpets. Active hydrothermal vents are believed to exist on Jupiters moon Europa, and Saturns moon Enceladus, Hydrothermal vents in the deep ocean typically form along the mid-ocean ridges, such as the East Pacific Rise and the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. These are locations where two plates are diverging and new crust is being formed. The proportion of each varies from location to location, in contrast to the approximately 2 °C ambient water temperature at these depths, water emerges from these vents at temperatures ranging from 60 to as high as 464 °C. Due to the hydrostatic pressure at these depths, water may exist in either its liquid form or as a supercritical fluid at such temperatures. The critical point of water is 375 °C at a pressure of 218 atmospheres, however, introducing salinity into the fluid raises the critical point to higher temperatures and pressures. The critical point of seawater is 407 °C and 298.5 bars, accordingly, if a hydrothermal fluid with a salinity of 3.2 wt. % NaCl vents above 407 °C and 298.5 bars, furthermore, the salinity of vent fluids have been shown to vary widely due to phase separation in the crust. The critical point for lower salinity fluids is at lower temperature and pressure conditions than that for seawater, for example, a vent fluid with a 2.24 wt. % NaCl salinity has the point at 400 °C and 280.5 bars. Thus, water emerging from the hottest parts of some hydrothermal vents can be a supercritical fluid, examples of supercritical venting are found at several sites. Sister Peak vents low salinity phase-separated, vapor-type fluids, sustained venting was not found to be supercritical but a brief injection of 464 °C was well above supercritical conditions. A nearby site, Turtle Pits, was found to vent low salinity fluid at 407 °C, which is above the critical point of the fluid at that salinity. A vent site in the Cayman Trough named Beebe, which is the worlds deepest known hydrothermal site at ~5000 m below sea level, has shown sustained supercritical venting at 401 °C and 2.3 wt% NaCl
2.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
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Established in 1930 in Woods Hole, Massachusetts, it is the largest independent oceanographic research institution in the U. S. with staff and students numbering about 1,000. Its shore-based facilities are located in the village of Woods Hole, Massachusetts, United States and a mile, the bulk of the Institutions funding comes from grants and contracts from the National Science Foundation and other government agencies, augmented by foundations and private donations. WHOI scientists, engineers, and students collaborate to develop theories, test ideas, build seagoing instruments, ships operated by WHOI carry research scientists throughout the world’s oceans. A new ship, Neil Armstrong was delivered to the Navy on September 23,2015, the RV Neil Armstrong will also replace the R/V Knorr, which had previously been used by WHOI since 1970 and was transferred to the Mexican Navy in March 2016. WHOI offers graduate and post-graduate studies in marine science, there are several fellowship and trainee-ship programs, and graduate degrees are awarded through a joint program with the Massachusetts Institute of Technology or by the Institution itself. WHOI also offers outreach programs and informal public education through its Exhibit Center and summer tours. The Institution has a program and a membership program, WHOI Associate. In 1927, a National Academy of Sciences committee concluded that it was time to consider the share of the United States of America in a program of oceanographic research. WHOI grew substantially to support significant defense-related research during World War II, and later began a growth in staff, research fleet. Over the years, WHOI scientists have made discoveries about the ocean that have contributed to improving US commerce, health, national security. In 1977 the institute appointed the influential oceanographer John Steele as director, in February 2008, Dr. Susan K. Avery became the new president and director of the institution, avery, an atmospheric physicist, is the ninth director in WHOIs 77-year history, and the first woman to hold the position. The B H Ketchum award, established in 1983, is presented for innovative research and is named in honor of oceanographer Bostwick H. Buck Ketchum. The first recipient was Edward D. Goldberg in 1984, the Henry Bryant Bigelow Medal in Oceanography was established in 1960 in honor of the first Director, biologist Henry Bryant Bigelow. 1974 Henry M. Stommel 1970 Frederick J. Vine – In recognition of his “imaginative, all are owned by the Institution itself
3.
Litton Industries
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Named after inventor Charles Litton, Sr. Litton Industries was a large defense contractor in the United States, bought by the Northrop Grumman Corporation in 2001. Litton started in 1953 as a company building navigation, communications. They diversified and became a bigger business, with major shipyards. In the early 1990s, Litton Industries split into separate military, the US$2 billion commercial business, which included Littons oilfield services, business and automated assembly line operations, was named Western Atlas, Inc. The early li logo was designed by Robert Miles Runyan, but was modified in 1986 by designer Gregory Thomas after a comprehensive study. For much of the early 1980s and 90s, li SWEDA and li COLE were commonly found on product goods but it was modified to bring emphasis to the parent company, in 1998, Litton Industries bought TASC, Inc. In 2000, TASC sold three stand-alone commercial operations, Adesso Software, WSI Corporation and Emerge, in 2001, Northrop Grumman bought Litton Industries. Official website Northrop Grumman LITTON Industries Alumni - LITTON Industries Alumni group on LinkedIn
4.
Deep-submergence vehicle
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A deep-submergence vehicle is a deep-diving manned submarine that is self-propelled. The term DSV is generally one used by the United States Navy, dSRVs are equipped with docking chambers to allow personnel ingress and egress via a manhole. Because of these difficulties, the use of integrated crew escape capsules, detachable conning towers, dSRVs that remain in use are primarily relegated to clandestine missions and undersea military equipment maintenance. The rapid development of safe, cost-saving ROV technology has rendered some DSVs obsolete. In a DSV/DSRV, the compartment and the ballast tank functionality is incorporated into a single structure to afford more habitable space. Most DSV/DSRV vehicles are powered by traditional electric battery propulsion and have limited endurance. Plans have been made to equip DSVs with LOX Stirling engines but none have been realized so far due to cost, all DSVs are dependent upon a surface support ship or a mother submarine, that can piggyback or tow them to the scene of operations. Some DSRV vessels are air transportable in very large cargo planes to speed up deployment in case of emergency rescue missions. FNRS-2 – the predecessor to Trieste FNRS-3 – contemporary of Trieste I DSV-0 Trieste – the X-1 Trieste bathyscaphe has reached Challenger Deep, dSV-1 X-2 Trieste II – an updated bathyscathe design, participated in clandestine missions, it was retired in 1984. Alvin has a maximum depth capability of 4,500 metres and operates from R/V Atlantis, the NSF has committed to the construction of a replacement sub with enhanced capabilities and 6, 500-metre depth capability to replace Alvin, which will be retired upon its completion. DSV-2 Alvin – a deep diving sub, has a 4, 500-metre depth capability, aluminaut – a DSV made completely of aluminum by the Reynolds Metals Aluminum Company, for the US Navy, once held the submarine deep diving record. Deepsea Challenger – a DSV made by the Acheron Project Pty Ltd, has reached Challenger Deep, Priz – a DSRV class of five ships built by the USSR and Russia. The titanium-hulled Priz class are capable of diving to 1,000 metres and these mini-submarines can ferry up to 20 people for very brief periods of time or operate submerged for two to three days with a regular crew of three to four specialists. In early 2005, the Russian AS-28 Priz vessel was trapped undersea, mir – a strictly civilian class of two DSVs which were manufactured in Finland for the USSR. These bathyscaphe-derived vessels can carry three people down to depths of 6,000 metres, konsul – a new class of Russian military DSVs, currently undergoing final acceptance trials before the official commissioning into the Navy. Nautile – a DSV owned by Ifremer, the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea, the titanium-hulled Nautile is capable of diving to 6,000 metres. DSV Shinkai – JAMSTEC operates a DSV-series called Shinkai, the latest DSV is Shinkai 6500 which can submerge to 6,500 metres with three crew members. JAMSTEC was operating a ROV called Kaiko, which was able to submerge to 11,000 metres, a total of 10 were built and are representative of late 1960s deep-ocean submersible design
5.
Tonne
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The SI symbol for the tonne is t, adopted at the same time as the unit itself in 1879. Its use is also official, for the metric ton, within the United States, having been adopted by the US National Institute of Standards and it is a symbol, not an abbreviation, and should not be followed by a period. Informal and non-approved symbols or abbreviations include T, mT, MT, in French and all English-speaking countries that are predominantly metric, tonne is the correct spelling. Before metrication in the UK the unit used for most purposes was the Imperial ton of 2,240 pounds avoirdupois, equivalent to 1,016 kg, differing by just 1. 6% from the tonne. Ton and tonne are both derived from a Germanic word in use in the North Sea area since the Middle Ages to designate a large cask. A full tun, standing about a high, could easily weigh a tonne. An English tun of wine weighs roughly a tonne,954 kg if full of water, in the United States, the unit was originally referred to using the French words millier or tonneau, but these terms are now obsolete. The Imperial and US customary units comparable to the tonne are both spelled ton in English, though they differ in mass, one tonne is equivalent to, Metric/SI,1 megagram. Equal to 1000000 grams or 1000 kilograms, megagram, Mg, is the official SI unit. Mg is distinct from mg, milligram, pounds, Exactly 1000/0. 453 592 37 lb, or approximately 2204.622622 lb. US/Short tons, Exactly 1/0. 907 184 74 short tons, or approximately 1.102311311 ST. One short ton is exactly 0.90718474 t, imperial/Long tons, Exactly 1/1. 016 046 9088 long tons, or approximately 0.9842065276 LT. One long ton is exactly 1.0160469088 t, for multiples of the tonne, it is more usual to speak of thousands or millions of tonnes. Kilotonne, megatonne, and gigatonne are more used for the energy of nuclear explosions and other events. When used in context, there is little need to distinguish between metric and other tons, and the unit is spelt either as ton or tonne with the relevant prefix attached. *The equivalent units columns use the short scale large-number naming system used in most English-language countries. †Values in the equivalent short and long tons columns are rounded to five significant figures, ǂThough non-standard, the symbol kt is also sometimes used for knot, a unit of speed for sea-going vessels, and should not be confused with kilotonne. A metric ton unit can mean 10 kilograms within metal trading and it traditionally referred to a metric ton of ore containing 1% of metal. In the case of uranium, the acronym MTU is sometimes considered to be metric ton of uranium, in the petroleum industry the tonne of oil equivalent is a unit of energy, the amount of energy released by burning one tonne of crude oil, approximately 42 GJ
6.
Knot (unit)
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The knot is a unit of speed equal to one nautical mile per hour, approximately 1.151 mph. The ISO Standard symbol for the knot is kn, the same symbol is preferred by the IEEE, kt is also common. The knot is a unit that is accepted for use with the SI. Etymologically, the term derives from counting the number of knots in the line that unspooled from the reel of a log in a specific time. 1 international knot =1 nautical mile per hour,1.852 kilometres per hour,0.514 metres per second,1.151 miles per hour,20.254 inches per second,1852 m is the length of the internationally agreed nautical mile. The US adopted the definition in 1954, having previously used the US nautical mile. The UK adopted the international nautical mile definition in 1970, having used the UK Admiralty nautical mile. The speeds of vessels relative to the fluids in which they travel are measured in knots, for consistency, the speeds of navigational fluids are also measured in knots. Thus, speed over the ground and rate of progress towards a distant point are given in knots. Until the mid-19th century, vessel speed at sea was measured using a chip log, the chip log was cast over the stern of the moving vessel and the line allowed to pay out. Knots placed at a distance of 8 fathoms -47 feet 3 inches from each other, passed through a sailors fingers, the knot count would be reported and used in the sailing masters dead reckoning and navigation. This method gives a value for the knot of 20.25 in/s, the difference from the modern definition is less than 0. 02%. On a chart of the North Atlantic, the scale varies by a factor of two from Florida to Greenland, a single graphic scale, of the sort on many maps, would therefore be useless on such a chart. Recent British Admiralty charts have a latitude scale down the middle to make this even easier, speed is sometimes incorrectly expressed as knots per hour, which is in fact a measure of acceleration. Prior to 1969, airworthiness standards for aircraft in the United States Federal Aviation Regulations specified that distances were to be in statute miles. In 1969, these standards were amended to specify that distances were to be in nautical miles. At 11000 m, an airspeed of 300 kn may correspond to a true airspeed of 500 kn in standard conditions. Beaufort scale Hull speed, which deals with theoretical estimates of maximum speed of displacement hulls Knot count Knotted cord Metre per second Orders of magnitude Rope Kemp
7.
Submersible
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A submersible is a small vehicle designed to operate underwater. In common usage by the public, however, the word submarine may be used to describe a craft that is by the technical definition actually a submersible. There are many types of submersibles, including both crewed and uncrewed craft, otherwise known as remotely operated vehicles or ROVs, submersibles have many uses worldwide, such as oceanography, underwater archaeology, ocean exploration, adventure, equipment maintenance and recovery, and underwater videography. The first underwater vessel was designed and built by American patriot David Bushnell in 1775 as a means to attach explosive charges to ships during the American Revolutionary War. The device, dubbed Bushnells Turtle, was a vessel of wood. It had tanks that were filled with water to make it dive, the operator used two hand-cranked propellers to move vertically or laterally under the water. The vehicle had small glass windows on top and naturally luminescent wood affixed to its instruments so that they could be read in the dark, Bushnells Turtle was first set into action on September 7,1776 at New York Harbor to attack the British flagship HMS Eagle. Sergeant Ezra Lee operated the vehicle at that time, Lee successfully brought the Turtle against the underside of Eagles hull but failed to attach the charge because of the strong water currents. Submersibles typically have shorter range, and operate underwater, as most have little function at the surface. Some submersibles operate on a tether or umbilical, remaining connected to a tender, submersibles have been able to dive to over 10 km below the surface. Submersibles may be small, hold only a small crew. A submersible often has very dexterous mobility, provided by propeller screws or pump-jets, there are three basic technologies used in the design of submersibles. Single atmosphere submersibles have a hull and the occupants are at standard atmospheric pressure. This requires the hull to be capable of withstanding the pressure from the water outside that is many times greater than the internal pressure. Another technology called ambient pressure maintains the same both inside and outside the vessel. This reduces the pressure that the hull has to withstand, a third technology is the Wet Sub, which refers to a vehicle that may or may not be enclosed, but in either case water floods the interior so SCUBA equipment is used to facilitate breathing. In both single atmosphere and ambient pressure subs, there is no need to use SCUBA equipment, some submersibles have been able to dive to great depths. The Bathyscaphe Trieste was the first to reach the deepest part of the ocean, nearly 11 km below the surface, at the bottom of the Mariana Trench in 1960
8.
United States Navy
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The United States Navy is the naval warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven uniformed services of the United States. The U. S. Navy is the largest, most capable navy in the world, the U. S. Navy has the worlds largest aircraft carrier fleet, with ten in service, two in the reserve fleet, and three new carriers under construction. The service has 323,792 personnel on duty and 108,515 in the Navy Reserve. It has 274 deployable combat vessels and more than 3,700 operational aircraft as of October 2016, the U. S. Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War and was effectively disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. It played a role in the American Civil War by blockading the Confederacy. It played the role in the World War II defeat of Imperial Japan. The 21st century U. S. Navy maintains a global presence, deploying in strength in such areas as the Western Pacific, the Mediterranean. The Navy is administratively managed by the Department of the Navy, the Department of the Navy is itself a division of the Department of Defense, which is headed by the Secretary of Defense. The Chief of Naval Operations is an admiral and the senior naval officer of the Department of the Navy. The CNO may not be the highest ranking officer in the armed forces if the Chairman or the Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The mission of the Navy is to maintain, train and equip combat-ready Naval forces capable of winning wars, deterring aggression, the United States Navy is a seaborne branch of the military of the United States. The Navys three primary areas of responsibility, The preparation of naval forces necessary for the prosecution of war. The development of aircraft, weapons, tactics, technique, organization, U. S. Navy training manuals state that the mission of the U. S. Armed Forces is to prepare and conduct prompt and sustained combat operations in support of the national interest, as part of that establishment, the U. S. Navys functions comprise sea control, power projection and nuclear deterrence, in addition to sealift duties. It follows then as certain as that night succeeds the day, that without a decisive naval force we can do nothing definitive, the Navy was rooted in the colonial seafaring tradition, which produced a large community of sailors, captains, and shipbuilders. In the early stages of the American Revolutionary War, Massachusetts had its own Massachusetts Naval Militia, the establishment of a national navy was an issue of debate among the members of the Second Continental Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping, defend the coast, detractors countered that challenging the British Royal Navy, then the worlds preeminent naval power, was a foolish undertaking. Commander in Chief George Washington resolved the debate when he commissioned the ocean-going schooner USS Hannah to interdict British merchant ships, and reported the captures to the Congress
9.
Woods Hole, Massachusetts
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Woods Hole is a census-designated place in the town of Falmouth in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, United States. It lies at the extreme southwest corner of Cape Cod, near Marthas Vineyard, the population was 781 at the 2010 census. Historically, Woods Hole included one of the few good harbors on the side of Cape Cod. The community became a center for whaling, shipping, and fishing, prior to its dominance today by tourism, other notable businessmen established homes on Gansett Point, Nobska Point, and at Quissett Harbor, further from the village center. Woods Hole is located at the southwest tip of the town of Falmouth at 41°31′36″N 70°39′47″W, the term Woods Hole refers to a passage for ships between Vineyard Sound and Buzzards Bay known for its extremely strong current, approaching four knots. The strait separates Cape Cod from the Elizabeth Islands and it is one of four straits allowing maritime passage between Buzzards Bay and the Vineyard Sound. The others are Canapitsit Channel, Quicks Hole and Robinsons Hole, ferries operated by the Steamship Authority run regularly between Woods Hole and Marthas Vineyard. In the past ferries also ran between Woods Hole and Nantucket, but these have been discontinued in recent decades, much of Woods Hole centers around the enclosed harbor of Eel Pond. A drawbridge at the mouth of the harbor allows boats to enter, the local lighthouse at Nobska Point is operated by the United States Coast Guard, and the accompanying house is the home of the commander of the Coast Guard base at Little Harbor. Local landmark The Knob is a rocky outcropping that overlooks Buzzards Bay and it is a part of the privately owned Salt Pond bird sanctuaries. According to the United States Census Bureau, the Woods Hole CDP has an area of 3.9 square miles. 2.1 square miles of it is land, and 1.8 square miles of it is water, the annual Falmouth Road Race brings thousands of runners to Woods Hole in August each year. The Woods Hole School is the home of the Childrens School of Science, founded in 1913, this institution provides science classes for students between 8 and 15 years old that focus on scientific investigation by observation. Students regularly visit ecosystems around the village to study the organisms in their natural environments, the Childrens School of Science draws upon the talent brought to the village by the research institutions but also educates the children of both scientists and locals. Some mention of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is made in the 1975 blockbuster film Jaws as having been the center of research for the fictional character Matt Hooper, Hooper is described as a marine biologist, focusing on the study of sharks. Coincidentally, a white shark was spotted some years later near Woods Hole in September 2004. Woods Hole is part of the Falmouth public school district, served by Mullen-Hall Elementary, Morse Pond Middle School, Lawrence Junior High School, Woods Hole students also often attend Upper Cape Cod Regional Technical High School, Sturgis Charter Public School, and Falmouth Academy. As of the census of 2000, there were 925 people,459 households, there were 942 housing units at an average density of 168. 4/km²
10.
General Mills
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General Mills, Inc. is an American multinational manufacturer and marketer of branded consumer foods sold through retail stores. It is headquartered in Golden Valley, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis and its brand portfolio includes more than 89 other leading U. S. brands and numerous category leaders around the world. The company can trace its history to the Minneapolis Milling Company, cadwallader C. Washburn acquired the company shortly after its founding and hired his brother William D. Washburn to assist in the companys development. In 1866 the Washburns got into the business themselves, building the Washburn B Mill at the falls, at the time, the building was considered to be so large and output so vast that it could not possibly sustain itself. However, the company succeeded, and in 1874 he built the even bigger Washburn A Mill, in 1877 the mill entered a partnership with John Crosby to form the Washburn-Crosby Company, producing Winter Wheat Flour. That same year Washburn sent William Hood Dunwoody to England to open the market for spring wheat, Dunwoody was successful and became a silent partner. In 1878 the A mill was destroyed in a flour dust explosion along with five nearby buildings, the ensuing fire led to the death of 18 workers. Construction of a new mill began immediately, not only was the new mill safer but it also was able to produce a higher quality flour after the old grinding stones were replaced with automatic steel rollers, the first ever used. In 1880 Washburn-Crosby flour brands won gold, silver and bronze medals at the Millers International Exhibition in Cincinnati, in 1924 the company stepped in to take over a failing Twin Cities radio station, WLAG, renaming it WCCO. General Mills itself was created in June 1928 when Washburn-Crosby President James Ford Bell directed his company to merge with 26 other mills, in 1928, General Mills acquired the Wichita Mill and Elevator Company of the industrialist Frank Kell of Wichita Falls, Texas. With the sale, Kell acquired cash plus stock in the corporation, the coupons and the catalog were discontinued by the company in 2006. A similar program, Box Tops for Education, in which coupon icons clipped off various General Mills products can be redeemed by schools for cash, General Mills became the sponsor of the popular radio show The Lone Ranger in 1941. The show was brought to television, and, after 20 years. Beginning in 1959, General Mills sponsored the Rocky and His Friends television series, until 1968, Rocky and Bullwinkle were featured in a variety of advertisements for General Mills. General Mills was also a sponsor of the Saturday-morning cartoons from the Total TeleVision productions studio, the company also was a sponsor of the ABC western series The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, starring Hugh OBrian. In 1946 General Mills established their Aeronautical Research Division with chief engineer Otto C and this division developed high altitude balloons in conjunction with the United States Navy Office of Naval Research, such as the Skyhook balloon. The General Mills Electronics division developed the DSV Alvin submersible, which is notable for being used in investigating the wreck of the Titanic among other deep-sea exploration missions, the first venture General Mills took into the toy industry was in 1965. The company bought Rainbow Crafts, which was the manufacturer of Play-Doh, General Mills purchase of the company was substantial because it brought production costs down and tripled the revenue
11.
Minneapolis
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Minneapolis is the county seat of Hennepin County, and the larger of the Twin Cities, the 16th-largest metropolitan area in the United States. As of 2015, Minneapolis is the largest city in the state of Minnesota, Minneapolis and Saint Paul anchor the second-largest economic center in the Midwest, after Chicago. Minneapolis lies on both banks of the Mississippi River, just north of the confluence with the Minnesota River, and adjoins Saint Paul. It was once the worlds flour milling capital and a hub for timber, the city and surrounding region is the primary business center between Chicago and Seattle, with Minneapolis proper containing Americas fifth-highest concentration of Fortune 500 companies. As an integral link to the economy, Minneapolis is categorized as a global city. Noted for its music and performing arts scenes, Minneapolis is home to both the award-winning Guthrie Theater and the historic First Avenue nightclub. The name Minneapolis is attributed to Charles Hoag, the citys first schoolteacher, who combined mni, a Dakota Sioux word for water, and polis, Dakota Sioux had long been the regions sole residents when French explorers arrived around 1680. For a time relations were based on fur trading, gradually more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Dakota. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired this territory from France, fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the United States Army, and it attracted traders, settlers and merchants, spurring growth in the area. The United States government pressed the Mdewakanton band of the Dakota to sell their land, the Minnesota Territorial Legislature authorized present-day Minneapolis as a town in 1856 on the Mississippis west bank. Minneapolis incorporated as a city in 1867, the rail service began between Minneapolis and Chicago. It later joined with the city of St. Anthony in 1872. Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River, forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes. Due to the hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the citys thirty-four flour mills, a father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Some ideas were developed by William Dixon Gray and some acquired through industrial espionage from the Hungarians by William de la Barre, pillsbury Company across the river were barely a step behind, hiring Washburn employees to immediately use the new methods. The hard red spring wheat that grows in Minnesota became valuable, not until later did consumers discover the value in the bran that Minneapolis
12.
RV Atlantis (AGOR-25)
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R/V Atlantis is an oceanographic research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution as part of the University-National Oceanographic Laboratory System fleet. She is the host vessel of DSV Alvin and she is named for the first research vessel operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, R/V Atlantis for which the Space Shuttle Atlantis is also named. Atlantis was built by Halter Marine Inc and she was laid down in August 1994 and launched in February 1996. She was delivered to the U. S. Navy on 25 February 1998, winches Traction -30,000.68 EM or 9/16 wire Hydro -33,000 3-cond. The three sister ships are R/V Thomas G. Thompson, R/V Roger Revelle and NOAAS Ronald H. Brown, navSource Online, Service Ship Photo Archive - T-AGOR-25 Atlantis R/V Atlantis Specifications Where are the Ships Now
13.
Wreck of the RMS Titanic
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The wreck of the RMS Titanic is located about 370 miles south-southeast off the coast of Newfoundland, lying at a depth of about 12,500 feet or about 2.37 miles. The liner sank in April 1912, when it hit an iceberg during her maiden voyage, the wreck lies in two main pieces about a third of a mile apart. The bow is still recognizable and has a great deal of preserved interiors, despite its deterioration. A substantial section of the middle of the ship apart and is scattered in chunks across the sea bed. The bodies of the passengers and crew would have also distributed across the debris field. Exploration of the wreckage found a pair of boots together on the sea floor where a body had lain. Until 1985, the location and condition of the wreck were unknown, the wreck was finally located,13. The key to its discovery was a remotely controlled deep-sea vehicle called Argo. The wreckage is too fragile to be raised because its condition has deteriorated in the century it has remained on the seafloor, many species of marine animals have made Titanic their home, such as rattail fish, spider crabs and brittle starfishes. The Titanic also plays host to communities of metal-eating bacteria. Over the years after her sinking, many impractical, expensive, the project was soon abandoned as impractical as the divers could not even reach a significant fraction of the necessary depth, where the pressure is over 6,000 pounds per square inch. The lack of technology at the time as well as the outbreak of World War I also put off such a project. In later years, numerous proposals were put forward to salvage Titanic, however, all fell afoul of practical and technological difficulties, a lack of funding and, in many cases, a lack of understanding of the physical conditions at the wreck site. Charles Smith, an architect from Denver, proposed in March 1914 to attach electromagnets to a submarine which would be drawn to the wrecks steel hull. Having found its position, more electromagnets would be sent down from a fleet of barges which would winch Titanic to the surface. An estimated cost of $1.5 million and its impracticality meant that the idea was not put into practice, another proposal involved raising Titanic by means of attaching balloons to her hull using electromagnets. Once enough balloons had been attached, the ship would float gently to the surface, again, the idea got no further than the drawing board. The declared objective was to bring the wreck into Liverpool and convert it to a floating museum, the Titanic Salvage Company was established to manage the scheme and a group of businessmen from West Berlin set up an entity called Titanic-Tresor to support it financially
14.
Bathyscaphe
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The float is filled with gasoline because it is readily available, buoyant, and, for all practical purposes, incompressible. By contrast, the cabin must withstand a huge pressure differential and is massively built. Buoyancy at the surface can be trimmed easily by replacing gasoline with water, Auguste Piccard, inventor of the first bathyscaphe, composed the name bathyscaphe using the Ancient Greek words βαθύς bathys and σκάφος skaphos. For example, the pressure at the bottom of the Challenger Deep is more than seven times that in a standard H-type compressed gas cylinder, instead, ballast in the form of iron shot is released to ascend, the shot being lost to the ocean floor. The iron shot containers are in the form of one or more hoppers which are open at the bottom throughout the dive, the iron shot being held in place by an electromagnet at the neck. This is a device as it requires no power to ascend, in fact, in the event of a power failure, shot runs out by gravity. The first bathyscaphe was dubbed FNRS-2, named after the Fonds National de la Recherche Scientifique, propulsion was provided by battery-driven electric motors. The float held 37,850 litres of aviation gasoline, there was no access tunnel, the sphere had to be loaded and unloaded while on deck. The first journeys were detailed in the Jacques Cousteau book The Silent World, as described in the book, the vessel had serenely endured the pressure of the depths, but had been destroyed in a minor squall. FNRS-3 was a new submersible, using the crew sphere from the damaged FNRS-2, Piccards second bathyscaphe was actually a third vessel Trieste, which was purchased by the United States Navy from Italy in 1957. It had two water ballast tanks and eleven buoyancy tanks holding 120,000 litres of gasoline, in 1960 Trieste, carrying Piccards son Jacques Piccard and Lt. Don Walsh, reached the deepest known point on the Earths surface, the Challenger Deep, in the Mariana Trench. The onboard systems indicated a depth of 37,800 ft but this was corrected to 35,813 ft by taking into account variations arising from salinity. Later and more accurate measurements made in 1995 have found the Challenger Deep to be slightly shallower at 35,798 ft. The crew of the Trieste noted that the floor consisted of diatomaceous ooze and reported observing some type of flatfish, resembling a sole, in 1995, the Japanese sent an unmanned submersible to this depth, Kaikō, but it was later lost at sea. In 2009, a team from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution sent a submarine named Nereus to the bottom of the trench. On 25 March 2012, James Cameron reached the Challenger Deep in the Deepsea Challenger submersible, siphonophores and the Deep Scattering Layer. The US Navy account of the dive, with photographs Brewington, depth of the Deepest Dive in a Bathyscaphe. History of the Bathyscape Trieste FNRS-213,000 Feet Under the Sea in the French Bathyscaphe Popular Mechanics, May 1954, Deepsea Challenger – Mariana Trench Dive
15.
Oceanography
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Oceanography, also known as oceanology, is the study of the physical and the biological aspects of the ocean. Paleoceanography studies the history of the oceans in the geologic past, humans first acquired knowledge of the waves and currents of the seas and oceans in pre-historic times. Observations on tides were recorded by Aristotle and Strabo, early exploration of the oceans was primarily for cartography and mainly limited to its surfaces and of the animals that fishermen brought up in nets, though depth soundings by lead line were taken. Although Juan Ponce de León in 1513 first identified the Gulf Stream, Franklin measured water temperatures during several Atlantic crossings and correctly explained the Gulf Streams cause. Franklin and Timothy Folger printed the first map of the Gulf Stream in 1769-1770, information on the currents of the Pacific Ocean was gathered by explorers of the late 18th century, including James Cook and Louis Antoine de Bougainville. James Rennell wrote the first scientific textbooks on oceanography, detailing the current flows of the Atlantic, during a voyage around the Cape of Good Hope in 1777, he mapped the banks and currents at the Lagullas. He was also the first to understand the nature of the intermittent current near the Isles of Scilly, Robert FitzRoy published a four-volume report of the Beagles three voyages. In 1841–1842 Edward Forbes undertook dredging in the Aegean Sea that founded marine ecology, the first superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory, Matthew Fontaine Maury devoted his time to the study of marine meteorology, navigation, and charting prevailing winds and currents. His 1855 textbook Physical Geography of the Sea was one of the first comprehensive oceanography studies, many nations sent oceanographic observations to Maury at the Naval Observatory, where he and his colleagues evaluated the information and distributed the results worldwide. Despite all this, human knowledge of the oceans remained confined to the topmost few fathoms of the water, almost nothing was known of the ocean depths. The Royal Navys efforts to all of the worlds coastlines in the mid-19th century reinforced the vague idea that most of the ocean was very deep. As exploration ignited both popular and scientific interest in the regions and Africa, so too did the mysteries of the unexplored oceans. The seminal event in the founding of the science of oceanography was the 1872-76 Challenger expedition. As the first true oceanographic cruise, this laid the groundwork for an entire academic. In response to a recommendation from the Royal Society, The British Government announced in 1871 an expedition to explore worlds oceans, charles Wyville Thompson and Sir John Murray launched the Challenger expedition. The Challenger, leased from the Royal Navy, was modified for scientific work, under the scientific supervision of Thomson, Challenger travelled nearly 70,000 nautical miles surveying and exploring. On her journey circumnavigating the globe,492 deep sea soundings,133 bottom dredges,151 open water trawls and 263 serial water temperature observations were taken, around 4,700 new species of marine life were discovered. The result was the Report Of The Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H. M. S, Murray, who supervised the publication, described the report as the greatest advance in the knowledge of our planet since the celebrated discoveries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries
16.
Syntactic foam
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Syntactic foams are composite materials synthesized by filling a metal, polymer, or ceramic matrix with hollow particles called microballoons. In this context, syntactic means put together, the presence of hollow particles results in lower density, higher specific strength, lower coefficient of thermal expansion, and, in some cases, radar or sonar transparency. The term was coined by the Bakelite Company of New York, in 1955, for their lightweight composites made of hollow phenolic microspheres bonded to a matrix of phenolic, epoxy. Tailorability is one of the biggest advantages of these materials, the matrix material can be selected from almost any metal, polymer, or ceramic. Microballoons are available in a variety of sizes and materials, including microspheres, cenospheres, carbon. The most widely used and studied foams are glass microspheres, the compressive properties of syntactic foams, in most cases, strongly depend on the properties of microballoons. In general, the strength of the material is proportional to its density. The matrix material has more influence on the tensile properties, tensile strength may be highly improved by a chemical surface treatment of the particles, such as silanization, which allows the formation of strong bonds between glass particles and epoxy matrix. Addition of fibrous materials can also increase the tensile strength and these materials were developed in early 1960s as improved buoyancy materials for marine applications. Other characteristics led these materials to aerospace and ground transportation vehicle applications, structural applications of syntactic foams include use as the intermediate layer of sandwich panels
17.
Plug door
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A plug door is a door designed to seal itself by taking advantage of pressure difference on its two sides and is typically used on aircraft with cabin pressurization. The higher pressure on one side forces the usually wedge-shaped door into its socket, making a good seal, non-plug doors rely on the strength of the locking mechanism to keep the door shut, whereas a plug door relies on the pressure differential to keep it shut. The term plug door may also refer to a bus door that is not actually held in place by pressure. The following doors are self-sealing, being held in place by pressure and are true plug doors, the plug door is often seen on aircraft with pressurized cabins. Due to the air pressure within the cabin being higher than that of the surrounding atmosphere, the door seals itself closed as the aircraft climbs. This prevents accidental opening of the door, plug doors are used on most modern airliners, particularly for the small passenger doors. However, since plug doors must open inward, the design is disadvantageous for cargo doors, due to its large area, the cargo door on an airliner can not be swung inside the fuselage without taking up a considerable amount of valuable cargo space. For this reason, these doors open outward and use a locking mechanism with multiple pins or hatch dogs to prevent opening while in flight. Inward opening plug hatches were used during the early U. S. space program on the Block I Apollo Command Module, because this ensured a reliable seal to the pressurised module. NASA decided to return to outward opening hatches on the Command Module after the plug hatch prevented rapid egress of the crew from the Apollo 1 fire, plug doors were also used as the outer hatch doors on the Space Shuttle. Currently, they are used on the International Space Station, as well as on the hatch between the Orbital Module and Descent Module of the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. The following doors are referred to as plug doors but are not held in place by pressure. There is some dispute that these are in fact plug doors, a plug door on a bus has a pantographic hinge that moves the door panel outwards from its plug socket and then parallel to the side of the bus to clear the opening. On closing, the door is wedged and locked into the opening and this arrangement makes a very good airtight and soundproof seal but is usually limited to buses such as coaches that make infrequent stops as the door operation is slow and mechanically complex. Many passenger train carriages use plug doors, on commuter and regional trains doors of plug design take less room than sliding doors, but may restrict the compatibility of a car with high passenger platforms since these doors open outwards. High-speed trains use plug doors because they can be made airtight, soundproof, plug doors are often used on refrigerated freight cars and shipping containers. These tight-fitting doors are highly insulated and have locking mechanisms that wedge the door into place
18.
Ship class
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A ship class is a group of ships of a similar design. This is distinct from a type, which might reflect a similarity of tonnage or intended use. For example, USS Carl Vinson is an aircraft carrier of the Nimitz class. In the course of building a class of ships, design changes might be implemented, in such a case, the ships of different design might not be considered of the same class, each variation would either be its own class, or a subclass of the original class. If ships are built of a class whose production had been discontinued, ships in a class often have names linked by a common factor, e. g. Trafalgar-class submarines names all begin with T, and Ticonderoga-class cruisers are named after American battles. Ships of the class may be referred to as sister ships. The name of a ship class is most commonly the name of the lead ship. However, other systems can be used without confusion or conflict, a descriptive name may be used, for example it was decided to group destroyers made to the same design as HMS Tomahawk, all named after weapons, as the Weapon rather than Tomahawk class. In European navies a class is named after the first ship commissioned regardless of when she was ordered or laid down, the West German Navy used a three-digit type number for every class in service or in advanced project state. Modified versions were identified by a letter suffix. After the reunification of Germany the German Navy kept the system, informally, classes are also traditionally named after their lead ships. The Indonesian Navy has a naming for its ships. Moreover, the type and missions can be identified by the first number on the ships three-digit hull number, which is placed on the front bows. That project sometimes, but not always, had a metaphorical name, in addition, the ships of the class would be numbered, and that number prefixed by a letter indicating the role of that type of vessel. For example, Project 641 had no name, though NATO referred to its members as Foxtrot-class submarines. The British Royal Navy has used methods of naming classes. For instance, the Amphion class is known as the A class. Most destroyer classes were known by the letter used in naming the vessels, e. g. V
19.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
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The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration is an American scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the oceans and the atmosphere. NOAA warns of dangerous weather, charts seas, guides the use and protection of ocean and coastal resources, and conducts research to improve understanding and stewardship of the environment. In addition to its employees, over 11,000 as of 2015, NOAA research. NOAA plays several roles in society, the benefits of which extend beyond the U. S. economy and into the larger global community. NOAA supplies information to its customers and partners pertaining to the state of the oceans and this is clearly manifest in the production of weather warnings and forecasts through the National Weather Service, but NOAAs information products extend to climate, ecosystems, and commerce as well. A Provider of Environmental Stewardship Services, NOAA is also the steward of U. S. coastal and marine environments. A Leader in Applied Scientific Research, the five fundamental activities are, Monitoring and observing Earth systems with instruments and data collection networks. Understanding and describing Earth systems through research and analysis of that data, assessing and predicting the changes of these systems over time. Engaging, advising, and informing the public and partner organizations with important information, managing resources for the betterment of society, economy and environment. NOAA formed a conglomeration of several existing agencies that were among the oldest in the federal government, NOAA was established within the Department of Commerce via the Reorganization Plan No.4 of 1970. In 2007 NOAA celebrated 200 years of service with its ties to the United States Coast, the NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps is a uniformed service of men and women who operate NOAA ships and aircraft, and serve in scientific and administrative posts. And in addition more than a dozen staff offices, including the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology, the NOAA Central Library and this is done through a collection of national and regional centers,13 river forecast centers, and more than 120 local weather forecast offices. They are charged with issuing weather and river forecasts, advisories, watches and they issue more than 734,000 weather and 850,000 river forecasts, and more than 45,000 severe weather warnings annually. NOAA data is relevant to the issues of global warming. The NWS operates NEXRAD, a network of Doppler weather radars which can detect precipitation. Many of their products are broadcast on NOAA Weather Radio, a network of transmitters that broadcasts weather forecasts, severe weather statements, watches. The National Ocean Service focuses on ensuring that ocean and coastal areas are safe, healthy, in 1960 TIROS-1, NOAAs first owned and operated geostationary satellite was launched. Since 1966 NESDIS has managed polar orbiting satellites and since 1974 it has operated geosynchronous satellites, in 1979 NOAAs first polar-orbiting environmental satellite was launched
20.
Thermonuclear weapon
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A thermonuclear weapon is a nuclear weapon that uses the energy from a primary nuclear fission reaction to compress and ignite a secondary nuclear fusion reaction. The result is greatly increased power when compared to single-stage fission weapons. It is colloquially referred to as a bomb or an H-bomb because it employs the fusion of isotopes of hydrogen. The first full scale thermonuclear test was carried out by the United States in 1952, similar devices were developed by the Soviet Union, United Kingdom, China, and France. The radiation implosion mechanism is an engine that exploits the temperature difference between the secondary stages hot, surrounding radiation channel and its relatively cool interior. This temperature difference is maintained by a massive heat barrier called the pusher. If made of uranium, as is almost always the case, it can capture neutrons produced by the reaction and undergo fission itself. In many Teller–Ulam weapons, fission of the pusher dominates the explosion, detailed knowledge of fission and fusion weapons is classified to some degree in virtually every industrialized nation. Born secret is rarely invoked for cases of private speculation, in a small number of prior cases, the U. S. government has attempted to censor weapons information in the public press, with limited success. According to the New York Times, physicist Kenneth Ford defied government orders to remove classified information from his new book, Building the H Bomb, the state of public knowledge about the Teller–Ulam design has been mostly shaped from a few specific incidents outlined in a section below. At a bare minimum, this implies a primary section consists of an implosion-type fission bomb. The energy released by the primary compresses the secondary through a process called radiation implosion, at which point it is heated, surrounding the other components is a hohlraum or radiation case, a container that traps the first stage or primarys energy inside temporarily. The outside of this case, which is also normally the outside casing of the bomb, is the only direct visual evidence publicly available of any thermonuclear bomb components configuration. Numerous photographs of various thermonuclear bomb exteriors have been declassified, generally, a research program with the capacity to create a thermonuclear bomb has already mastered the ability to engineer boosted fission. The secondary is usually shown as a column of fusion fuel, around the column is first a pusher-tamper, a heavy layer of uranium-238 or lead that serves to help compress the fusion fuel. Inside this is the fuel itself, usually a form of lithium deuteride. This dry fuel, when bombarded by neutrons, produces tritium, inside the layer of fuel is the spark plug, a hollow column of fissile material that, when compressed, can itself undergo nuclear fission. The tertiary, if one is present, would be set below the secondary, separating the secondary from the primary is the interstage
21.
United States Air Force
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The United States Air Force is the aerial warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces and one of the seven American uniformed services. Initially part of the United States Army, the USAF was formed as a branch of the military on 18 September 1947 under the National Security Act of 1947. It is the most recent branch of the U. S. military to be formed, the U. S. Air Force is a military service organized within the Department of the Air Force, one of the three military departments of the Department of Defense. The Air Force is headed by the civilian Secretary of the Air Force, who reports to the Secretary of Defense, the U. S. Air Force provides air support for surface forces and aids in the recovery of troops in the field. As of 2015, the service more than 5,137 military aircraft,406 ICBMs and 63 military satellites. It has a $161 billion budget with 313,242 active duty personnel,141,197 civilian employees,69,200 Air Force Reserve personnel, and 105,500 Air National Guard personnel. According to the National Security Act of 1947, which created the USAF and it shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The stated mission of the USAF today is to fly, fight, and win in air, space and we will provide compelling air, space, and cyber capabilities for use by the combatant commanders. We will excel as stewards of all Air Force resources in service to the American people, while providing precise and reliable Global Vigilance, Reach and it should be emphasized that the core functions, by themselves, are not doctrinal constructs. The purpose of Nuclear Deterrence Operations is to operate, maintain, in the event deterrence fails, the US should be able to appropriately respond with nuclear options. Dissuading others from acquiring or proliferating WMD, and the means to deliver them, moreover, different deterrence strategies are required to deter various adversaries, whether they are a nation state, or non-state/transnational actor. Nuclear strike is the ability of forces to rapidly and accurately strike targets which the enemy holds dear in a devastating manner. Should deterrence fail, the President may authorize a precise, tailored response to terminate the conflict at the lowest possible level, post-conflict, regeneration of a credible nuclear deterrent capability will deter further aggression. Finally, the Air Force regularly exercises and evaluates all aspects of operations to ensure high levels of performance. Nuclear surety ensures the safety, security and effectiveness of nuclear operations, the Air Force, in conjunction with other entities within the Departments of Defense or Energy, achieves a high standard of protection through a stringent nuclear surety program. The Air Force continues to pursue safe, secure and effective nuclear weapons consistent with operational requirements, adversaries, allies, and the American people must be highly confident of the Air Forces ability to secure nuclear weapons from accidents, theft, loss, and accidental or unauthorized use. This day-to-day commitment to precise and reliable nuclear operations is the cornerstone of the credibility of the NDO mission, positive nuclear command, control, communications, effective nuclear weapons security, and robust combat support are essential to the overall NDO function. OCA is the method of countering air and missile threats, since it attempts to defeat the enemy closer to its source
22.
1966 Palomares B-52 crash
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The KC-135 was completely destroyed when its fuel load ignited, killing all four crew members. The B-52G broke apart, killing three of the seven crew members aboard, of the four Mk28-type hydrogen bombs the B-52G carried, three were found on land near the small fishing village of Palomares in the municipality of Cuevas del Almanzora, Almería, Spain. The non-nuclear explosives in two of the weapons detonated upon impact with the ground, resulting in the contamination of a 2-square-kilometer area by plutonium, the fourth, which fell into the Mediterranean Sea, was recovered intact after a 2½-month-long search. The B-52G began its mission from Seymour Johnson Air Force Base, North Carolina, the flight plan took the aircraft east across the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea towards the European borders of the Soviet Union before returning home. The lengthy flight required two mid-air refuellings over Spain, at about 10,30 am on 17 January 1966, while flying at 31,000 feet, the bomber commenced its second aerial refuelling with a KC-135 out of Morón Air Base in southern Spain. The B-52 pilot, Major Larry G. Messinger, later recalled, We came in behind the tanker, and we were a bit fast. There is a procedure they have in refueling where if the boom operator feels that youre getting too close and its a situation, he will call, Break away, break away. There was no call for an away, so we didnt see anything dangerous about the situation. But all of a sudden, all seemed to break loose. All four men on the KC-135 and three of the seven men on the bomber were killed. Those killed in the tanker were boom operator Master sergeant Lloyd Potolicchio, pilot Major Emil J. Chapla, copilot Captain Paul R. Lane, and navigator Captain Leo E. Simmons. On board the bomber, navigator First Lieutenant Steven G. Montanus, electronic warfare officer First Lieutenant George J. Glessner, Montanus was seated on the lower deck of the main cockpit and was able to eject from the plane, but his parachute never opened. Glessner and Snyder were on the deck, near the point where the refuelling boom struck the fuselage. Buchanan received burns from the explosion and was unable to separate himself from his seat, but he was nevertheless able to open his parachute. The other three surviving crew members landed safely several miles out to sea, the Palomares residents carried Buchanan to a local clinic, while Wendorf and Rooney were picked up at sea by the fishing boat Dorita. The last to be rescued was Messinger, who spent 45 minutes in the water before he was aboard the fishing boat Agustin y Rosa by Francisco Simó Orts. All three men who landed in the sea were taken to a hospital in Águilas, the aircraft and hydrogen bombs fell to earth near the fishing village of Palomares. This settlement is part of Cuevas del Almanzora municipality, in the Almeria province of Andalucía, on 22 January, the Air Force contacted the U. S. Navy for assistance
23.
Swordfish
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Swordfish, also known as broadbills in some countries, are large, highly migratory, predatory fish characterized by a long, flat bill. They are a sport fish of the billfish category, though elusive. Swordfish are elongated, round-bodied, and lose all teeth and scales by adulthood and these fish are found widely in tropical and temperate parts of the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and can typically be found from near the surface to a depth of 550 m. They commonly reach 3 m in length, and the maximum reported is 4.55 m in length and 650 kg in weight and they are the sole member of their family, Xiphiidae. The swordfish is named after its bill, which resembles a sword and this makes it superficially similar to other billfish such as marlin, but upon examination, their physiology is quite different and they are members of different families. They commonly reach 3 m in length, and the maximum reported is 4.55 m in length and 650 kg in weight, the International Game Fish Associations all-tackle angling record for a swordfish was a 1,182 lb specimen taken off Chile in 1953. Females are larger than males, and Pacific swordfish reach a greater size than northwest Atlantic and they reach maturity at 4–5 years of age and the maximum age is believed to be at least 9 years. The oldest swordfish found in a recent study were a 16-year-old female, swordfish ages are derived, with difficulty, from annual rings on fin rays rather than otoliths, since their otoliths are small in size. Swordfish are ectothermic animals, however, along some species of sharks, they have special organs next to their eyes to heat their eyes. Temperatures of 10 to 15 °C above the water temperature have been measured. The heating of the eyes greatly improves their vision, and consequently improves their ability to catch prey, of the 25, 000+ fish species, only 22 are known to have a mechanism to conserve heat. These include the swordfish, marlin, tuna, and some sharks, contrary to popular belief, the sword is not used to spear, but instead may be used to slash at its prey to injure the prey animal, to make for an easier catch. Mainly, the swordfish relies on its speed and agility in the water to catch its prey. It is undoubtedly among the fastest fish, but the basis for the frequently quoted speed of 97 km/h is unreliable, swordfish prefer water temperatures between 18 and 22 °C, but have the widest tolerance among billfish, and can be found from 5 to 27 °C. This highly migratory species typically moves towards colder regions to feed during the summer, swordfish feed daily, most often at night, when they rise to surface and near-surface waters in search of smaller fish. During the day, they occur to depths of 550 m and have exceptionally been recorded as deep as 2,878 m. Adults feed on a range of pelagic fish, such as mackerel, barracudinas, silver hake, rockfish, herring, and lanternfishes, but they also take demersal fish, squid. Large prey are typically slashed with the sword, while small are swallowed whole and they swim alone or in very loose aggregations, separated by as much as 10 m from a neighboring swordfish
24.
Grumman F6F Hellcat
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The Grumman F6F Hellcat is an American carrier-based fighter aircraft of World War II. Designed to replace the earlier F4F Wildcat and to counter the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero, the Hellcat competed with the faster Vought F4U Corsair for that role and prevailed, as the Corsair had significant issues with carrier landings. The Corsair instead was primarily deployed to great effect in land-based use by the U. S. Marine Corps, some military observers tagged the Hellcat as the Wildcats big brother. 12,275 were built in just over two years, Hellcats were credited with destroying a total of 5,223 enemy aircraft while in service with the U. S. Navy, U. S. Marine Corps and the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm. This was more than any other Allied naval aircraft, postwar, the Hellcat was phased out of front line service but remained in service as late as 1954 as a night fighter. Grumman had been working on a successor to the F4F Wildcat since 1938, the aircraft was originally designed to use the Wright R-2600 Twin Cyclone two-row, 14-cylinder radial engine of 1,700 hp driving a three-bladed Curtiss Electric propeller. In addition, the forward fuselage sloped down slightly to the cowling, affording the Hellcats pilot good visibility. Grumman complied by redesigning and strengthening the F6F airframe to incorporate the 2,000 hp R-2800-10, with this combination Grumman estimated the XF6F-3s performance would increase by 25% over that of the XF6F-1. The Cyclone-powered XF6F-1 first flew on 26 June 1942, followed by the first Double Wasp-equipped aircraft, the XF6F-3, the first production F6F-3, powered by an R-2800-10, flew on 3 October 1942, with the type reaching operational readiness with VF-9 on USS Essex in February 1943. The F6F series were designed to damage and get the pilot safely back to base. A bullet-resistant windshield and a total of 212 lb of armor was fitted, along with armor around the oil tank. A250 gal self-sealing fuel tank was fitted in the fuselage, Standard armament on the F6F-3 consisted of six.50 in M2/AN Browning air-cooled machine guns with 400 rounds per gun. Six 5 in HVARs could be carried, three under each wing on zero-length launchers, Hellcat night fighters claimed their first victories in November 1943. A total of 4,402 F6F-3s were built through until April 1944, in addition, the rear fuselage and tail units were strengthened, and, apart from some early production aircraft, the majority of the F6F-5s built were painted in an overall gloss sea blue finish. After the first few F6F-5s were built, the windows behind the main canopy were deleted. The F6F-5N night fighter variant was fitted with an AN/APS-6 radar in a fairing on the outer-starboard wing, a small number of standard F6F-5s were also fitted with camera equipment for reconnaissance duties as the F6F-5P. The F6F-5 was the most common F6F variant, with 7,870 being built, other prototypes in the F6F series included the XF6F-4 which first flew on 3 October 1942 as the prototype for the projected F6F-4. This version never entered production and 02981 was converted to an F6F-3 production aircraft, the turbochargers proved to be unreliable on both engines, while performance improvements were marginal
25.
Nantucket, Massachusetts
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Nantucket /ˌnænˈtʌkᵻt/ is an island about 30 miles by ferry south from Cape Cod, in the American state of Massachusetts. Together with the islands of Tuckernuck and Muskeget, it constitutes the Town of Nantucket, and the conterminous Nantucket County. As of the 2010 census, the population was 10,172, part of the town is designated the Nantucket CDP, or census-designated place. The region of Surfside on Nantucket is the southernmost settlement in Massachusetts, the name Nantucket is adapted from similar Algonquian names for the island, perhaps meaning faraway land or island. Nantucket is a tourist destination and summer colony, due to tourists and seasonal residents, the population of the island increases to at least 50,000 during the summer months. In 2008, Forbes magazine cited Nantucket as having home values among the highest in the US, home prices per square foot are considered much higher than those in the Hamptons on Long Island. The meaning of the term is uncertain, although it may have meant in the midst of waters, wampanoag is an Eastern Algonquian language of southern New England. The Nehantucket were an Algonquin-speaking culture of the area, Nantuckets nickname, The Little Grey Lady of the Sea, refers to the island as it appears from the ocean when it is fog-bound. The earliest French settlement in the region began on the island of Marthas Vineyard. Nantucket was part of Dukes County, New York, until 1691, as Europeans began to settle Cape Cod, the island became a place of refuge for Native Americans in the region, as Nantucket was not yet settled by Europeans. The growing population welcomed seasonal groups of other Native Americans who traveled to the island to fish and later harvest whales that washed up on shore. In October 1641, William, Earl of Sterling, deeded the island to Thomas Mayhew of Watertown, anxious to add to their number and to induce tradesmen to come to the island, the total number of shares were increased to twenty-seven. By 1667, twenty-seven shares had been divided between 31 owners, and also two beaver hats, one for myself, and one for my wife. The nine original purchasers were Tristram Coffin, Peter Coffin, Thomas Macy, Christopher Hussey, Richard Swain, Thomas Barnard, Stephen Greenleaf, John Swain and these men are considered the founding fathers of Nantucket, and many islanders are related to these families. Seamen and tradesmen began to populate Nantucket, such as Richard Gardner, John Gardner, sons of Thomas Gardner. In his 1835 history of Nantucket Island, Obed Macy wrote that in the early pre-1672 colony and this event started the Nantucket whaling industry. Herman Melville commented on Nantuckets whaling dominance in Moby-Dick, Chapter 14, for the sea is his, he owns it, as Emperors own empires. The Moby-Dick characters Ahab and Starbuck are both from Nantucket, by 1850, whaling was in decline, as Nantuckets whaling industry had been surpassed by that of New Bedford
26.
USNS Mizar (T-AGOR-11)
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USNS Mizar was a vessel of the United States Navy. She was named after the star Mizar, Mizar was built as a small ice-strengthened cargo ship of the Eltanin class on a Maritime Administration type hull, by Avondale Marine Ways, Inc. from January 1957. She entered service on March 7,1958 and served as part of the Military Sea Transportation Service, working around Canada and Greenland, in 1963 she was chosen for a major conversion. On April 15,1964 she was reclassified AGOR-11, designed for deep search and research and fitted with a deepsea probe, equipped with strobe lights, cameras, sonar. She was then operated by the MSTS under the Naval Research Laboratory and her major tasks were ocean floor study and service as a floating base for underwater acoustic, chemical, and biological research. She was assigned to Military Sealift Command Pacific in 1975 and underwent another major modification in 1980 and she has also taken part in searches for foreign wrecks, including Eurydice and Soviet submarines including K-129. She was withdrawn from service in the 1990s and reclassified as AK-272. Bay Bridge Enterprizes, LLC, was awarded a contract for the dismantling and recycling of Mizar on 21 July 2005 and this article incorporates text from the public domain Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships. The entry can be found here and this article includes information collected from the Naval Vessel Register, which, as a U. S. government publication, is in the public domain. The entry can be found here, cS1 maint, Multiple names, authors list http, //www. history. navy. mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-m/ak272. htm AGOR Numeric List
27.
Pontoon (boat)
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A pontoon is a flotation device with buoyancy sufficient to float itself as well as a heavy load. A pontoon boat is a boat that relies on pontoons to float. Boats with three pontoons are sometimes called “tri-toons, better tube design has also allowed builders to put ever-increasing amounts of horsepower on the stern. Pontoons may be used on boats, rafts, barges, docks, airboats, hovercrafts, pontoons may support a platform, creating a raft. A raft supporting a house-like structure is a houseboat, a fixed platform can be used as a dock. Common boat designs are a catamaran with two pontoons, or a trimaran with three, pontoons may be simply constructed from sealed cylinders such as pipes or barrels, or fabricated as boxes from metal or concrete. Pontoon boat drafts may be as shallow as eight inches, which risk of running aground. The pontoon effect is when a force applied to the side capsizes a pontoon boat without much warning. Pontoon boats for boating and fishing can be low cost for their capacity. Small inflatable pontoon boats are one or two person, catamaran type boats, designed for leisure and fishing and their pontoons are made out of abrasion resistant PVC and nylon with aluminum, steel and/or plastic frames for support. They are powered with paddles, oars and often with electric trolling motors using deep cycle lead batteries, commonly they are equipped with motor mount, battery storage area, fishing rod holders, canopy, fishfinder mount, small anchor and other required fishing gear. Such boats are suitable for ponds, lakes, rivers and seas during calm weather, however, due to light weight, they are susceptible to waves and windy conditions. Nonetheless, such boats are used even for big game fishing. Pontoon boats are used as small ferries to cross rivers and lakes in many parts of the world. Pontoon ferries may be motorised, such as the Kazungula Ferry across the Zambezi River, or powered by another boat, or pulled by cables. A type of known as the cable ferry pull themselves across a river using a motor or human power applied to the cable. The flotation tubes of RIB are often referred to as pontoons, in Australia and New Zealand, the term pontoon often refers to an anchored raft-like platform used for diving from. Pontoons are located at many beaches and lake shores, but usually only during the summer months, the 1952 invention of the pontoon motorboat in the USA is credited to a farmer who lived on the Horseshoe Chain of Lakes, near Richmond, Minnesota
28.
Atlantic Ocean
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The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans with a total area of about 106,460,000 square kilometres. It covers approximately 20 percent of the Earths surface and about 29 percent of its surface area. It separates the Old World from the New World, the Atlantic Ocean occupies an elongated, S-shaped basin extending longitudinally between Eurasia and Africa to the east, and the Americas to the west. The Equatorial Counter Current subdivides it into the North Atlantic Ocean, in contrast, the term Atlantic originally referred specifically to the Atlas Mountains in Morocco and the sea off the Strait of Gibraltar and the North African coast. The Greek word thalassa has been reused by scientists for the huge Panthalassa ocean that surrounded the supercontinent Pangaea hundreds of years ago. The term Aethiopian Ocean, derived from Ancient Ethiopia, was applied to the Southern Atlantic as late as the mid-19th century, many Irish or British people refer to the United States and Canada as across the pond, and vice versa. The Black Atlantic refers to the role of ocean in shaping black peoples history. Irish migration to the US is meant when the term The Green Atlantic is used, the term Red Atlantic has been used in reference to the Marxian concept of an Atlantic working class, as well as to the Atlantic experience of indigenous Americans. Correspondingly, the extent and number of oceans and seas varies, the Atlantic Ocean is bounded on the west by North and South America. It connects to the Arctic Ocean through the Denmark Strait, Greenland Sea, Norwegian Sea, to the east, the boundaries of the ocean proper are Europe, the Strait of Gibraltar and Africa. In the southeast, the Atlantic merges into the Indian Ocean, the 20° East meridian, running south from Cape Agulhas to Antarctica defines its border. In the 1953 definition it extends south to Antarctica, while in later maps it is bounded at the 60° parallel by the Southern Ocean, the Atlantic has irregular coasts indented by numerous bays, gulfs, and seas. Including these marginal seas the coast line of the Atlantic measures 111,866 km compared to 135,663 km for the Pacific. Including its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers an area of 106,460,000 km2 or 23. 5% of the ocean and has a volume of 310,410,900 km3 or 23. 3%. Excluding its marginal seas, the Atlantic covers 81,760,000 km2 and has a volume of 305,811,900 km3, the North Atlantic covers 41,490,000 km2 and the South Atlantic 40,270,000 km2. The average depth is 3,646 m and the maximum depth, the bathymetry of the Atlantic is dominated by a submarine mountain range called the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. It runs from 87°N or 300 km south of the North Pole to the subantarctic Bouvet Island at 42°S, the MAR divides the Atlantic longitudinally into two halves, in each of which a series of basins are delimited by secondary, transverse ridges. The MAR reaches above 2000 m along most of its length, the MAR is a barrier for bottom water, but at these two transform faults deep water currents can pass from one side to the other
29.
Nautical mile
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A nautical mile is a unit of measurement defined as exactly 1852 meters. Historically, it was defined as one minute of latitude, which is equivalent to one sixtieth of a degree of latitude. Today it is an SI derived unit, being rounded to a number of meters. The derived unit of speed is the knot, defined as one mile per hour. The geographical mile is the length of one minute of longitude along the Equator, there is no internationally agreed symbol. M is used as the abbreviation for the mile by the International Hydrographic Organization and by the International Bureau of Weights. NM is used by the International Civil Aviation Organization, nm is used by the U. S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Nmi is used by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, the word mile is from the Latin word for a thousand paces, mīlia. In 1617 the Dutch scientist Snell assessed the circumference of the Earth at 24,630 Roman miles, around that time British mathematician Edmund Gunter improved navigational tools including a new quadrant to determine latitude at sea. He reasoned that the lines of latitude could be used as the basis for a unit of measurement for distance, as one degree is 1/360 of a circle, one minute of arc is 1/21600 of a circle. These sexagesimal units originated in Babylonian astronomy, Gunter used Snells circumference to define a nautical mile as 6,080 feet, the length of one minute of arc at 48 degrees latitude.3 metres. Other countries measure the minute of arc at 45 degrees latitude, in 1929, the international nautical mile was defined by the First International Extraordinary Hydrographic Conference in Monaco as 1,852 meters. Imperial units and United States customary units used a definition of the nautical mile based on the Clarke Spheroid, the United States nautical mile was defined as 6,080.20 feet based in the Mendenhall Order foot of 1893. It was abandoned in favour of the nautical mile in 1954.181 meters. It was abandoned in 1970 and, legally, references to the unit are now converted to 1,853 meters. Conversion of units Orders of magnitude
30.
Aluminaut
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Aluminaut was built in 1964 and was the worlds first aluminum submarine since the WWII Type 21. An experimental vessel, the 80-ton,15.5 meter manned deep-ocean research submersible was built by Reynolds Metals Company, after retirement, Aluminaut was donated to the Science Museum of Virginia in Richmond, where it is on permanent display. Reynolds Metals was a pioneer in research and development of products using aluminum. These included a transit bus and other aluminum motor vehicles. Reynolds Metals designed and built the Aluminaut as an experiment, the concept of an aluminum submarine was developed at Reynolds during World War II in 1942 by executive vice president Julian Louis Reynolds, a son of the founder. At 34, Louis Reynolds led the division, which accounted for 65% of the companys sales before the war. Reynolds Metals played a role in the U. S. war effort. In 1964, Reynolds had the Electric Boat Division of General Dynamics in Groton, the submersible was operated by subsidiary Reynolds Submarine Services Corporation, based in Miami, Florida. Compared to many deep-sea vessels, Aluminaut was large and it weighed 80 tons and could accommodate a crew of three and three to four scientists. It had four view ports, active and passive sonar, manipulators, side-scan sonar, for flexibility, it was outfitted for many types of oceanographic and salvage missions. Time Magazine reported in September 1964 on the specifications, reporting that the vessels 51-foot hull consists of 11 forged cylinders. Aluminums strength-to-weight ratio exceeds that of steel, so Aluminauts 6.5 inches thick shell could withstand pressures of 7,500 lbf/in² at the subs 17,000 ft maximum diving range, the Aluminaut was designed at Woods Hole Marine Station in Massachusetts. A full-scale wooden mock-up was built to engineer the interior spaces, the project was classified as top secret at that time. At that time it did not have a conning tower entry and it immediately flooded, the tower entry was designed and added and in the first test turned the submarine upside down. It was thought at that time that the design was impractical and was almost scrapped, a one-sixteenth scale model of the final design was built in 1960 and run through stability and pressure tests. The Aluminaut soon became useful during an incident with potentially major implications, on January 17,1966, a 1. 45-megaton-of-TNT thermonuclear bomb was lost in the Mediterranean Sea during a United States Air Force 1966 Palomares B-52 crash over Palomares, Spain. Eight crew members were killed in the crash of a B-52 bomber. The crash dropped three bombs on the land, and one in the sea
31.
Reynolds Group Holdings
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Reynolds Metals was acquired by Alcoa in June 2000. Reynolds Metals became known for the consumer product Reynolds Wrap, as well as for developing and promoting new uses for aluminum and its RV Aluminaut submarine was operated by Reynolds Submarine Services Corporation. It was headquartered for most of its existence in Richmond, Virginia, the Reynolds Metals Company was founded in 1919 as the U. S. Foil Company in Louisville, Kentucky by Richard S. Reynolds, initially, the new company supplied lead and tin foil wrappers to cigarette and candy companies. Foil purchased the manufacturer of Eskimo Pies, which were wrapped in foil, in 1928, Reynolds purchased Robertshaw Thermostat, Fulton Sylphon, and part of Beechnut Foil, adding them to U. S. In 1931 the company headquarters was moved to New York City and in 1938 the headquarters was moved again to Richmond, the company began producing aluminum foil for packaging in 1926. Reynolds Metals created the first high-speed, gravure-printed foil, aluminum bottle labels, heat-sealed foil bags for foods, in 1940 Reynolds Metals began mining bauxite in Bauxite, Arkansas and opened its first aluminum plant near Sheffield, Alabama, the following year. In 1947, the company released Reynolds Wrap Aluminum Foil, Reynolds Metals pioneered the development of aluminum siding in 1945, and Richard S. Reynolds began predicting a growing demand for additional aluminum during peacetime. He believed new aluminum-producing facilities would need to be built to meet demand, Reynolds Metals Company leased, and later bought, six government defense plants that were up for disposal. Reynolds later expanded into non aluminum products such as plastics and precious metals, after the Second World War, the sense of aluminums utility expanded to include its ornamental characteristics. By repurposing military by-products into consumer goods, aluminum was now being marketed for its appeal as well. Reynolds advertised aluminum for its property, now reaching areas of fashion, home improvement. Reynolds marketed aluminum foil as gift wrap, aluminum yarn for Vogue dress patterns, and even extended their advertising strategy to include wrapping their office headquarters in aluminum. Four sons of founder Richard S. Reynolds, William Gray Reynolds, Richard S. Reynolds, Jr. David P. Reynolds, in 1976 David P. Reynolds, also known for his involvement in Thoroughbred horse racing, took over as president. He was the last member of his family to head the company, Reynolds Metals developed other, less well-known products. Not all became commercially viable, such as an aluminum bus developed with Rohr Industries, the aluminum vehicles were surpassed in weight and cost by steel, plastics and fiberglass. However, when Reynolds Metals developed the worlds first aluminum submarine, the Aluminaut, aluminauts assistance enabled Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution to continue operating its submersible. Alvins work continues 45 years later, the company merged with Alcoa on May 3,2000 to become the largest aluminum company in the United States
32.
Hurricane Camille
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Hurricane Camille was the third and strongest tropical cyclone and second hurricane during the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season. Camille was the second strongest U. S. landfalling hurricane in recorded history in terms of atmospheric pressure, the storm formed on 14 August and rapidly deepened. It scraped the western edge of Cuba at Category 2 intensity, Camille rapidly deepened once again over the Gulf of Mexico and made landfall with a pressure of 900 mbar, estimated sustained winds of 175 mph and a peak official storm surge of 24 feet. The hurricane flattened nearly everything along the coast of the U. S. state of Mississippi, in total, Camille killed 259 people and caused $1.42 billion in damages. To date, an understanding of the reasons for the systems power, extremely rapid intensification over open water. The origins of Hurricane Camille were from a wave off the western coast of Africa on August 5. It tracked quickly westward along the 15th parallel north, a tropical disturbance became clearly identifiable on satellite imagery on August 9, by that time, the thunderstorm activity concentrated into a circular area of convection. The next day, it moved through the Lesser Antilles, although there was no evidence of a closed circulation, on August 13, the wave passed near or over the southern coast of Jamaica as its convection spread northeastward through the Bahamas. Subsequently, it began a motion to the northwest. It is believed that a depression formed shortly thereafter, early on August 14. On the morning of August 14, the Hurricane Hunters flew to investigate for a closed circulation near the Bahamas as well as near the Cayman Islands, the crew observed a developing center in the western Caribbean, and winds had reached tropical storm status. By then, the storm had strengthened into a tropical storm with winds of 60 mph. Upon first being classified as a storm, Camille was located in an area favorable for further strengthening. It was located within an area of light wind shear. Additionally, the storm developed strong low-level inflow from the deep southern Caribbean, throughout its duration, it was a small tropical cyclone, although with a radius of gale-force winds spreading 100 miles to the north, the storms thunderstorm area quickly spread over Cuba. As the storm approached the western coast of Cuba, it began rapid deepening, reaching hurricane status and less than 12 hours later attained winds of 110 mph. Prior to landfall, its eye was tracked by radar from Havana, Camille was a small hurricane as it crossed western Cuba, and its winds decreased slightly to 105 mph over land before it emerged into the Gulf of Mexico. Initially, Hurricane Camille was forecast to turn northeastward toward the Florida panhandle, instead, it continued northwestward and rapidly intensified once again almost immediately after leaving Cuba
33.
Robert Ballard
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He is most known for the discoveries of the wrecks of the RMS Titanic in 1985, the battleship Bismarck in 1989, and the aircraft carrier USS Yorktown in 1998. He discovered the wreck of John F. Kennedys PT-109 in 2002 and visited Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana and he leads ocean exploration on E/V Nautilus. Ballard grew up in Pacific Beach, San Diego, California to a mother of German heritage, at North American, he worked on North Americans failed proposal to build the submersible Alvin for the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. In 1965, Ballard graduated from the University of California, Santa Barbara, earning degrees in chemistry. While a student in Santa Barbara, California, he joined Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity and his first graduate degree was in geophysics from the University of Hawaiis Institute of Geophysics where he trained porpoises and whales. Subsequently, he returned to Andreas Rechnitzers Ocean Systems Group at North American Aviation, Ballard was working towards a Ph. D. in marine geology at the University of Southern California in 1967 when he was called to active duty. Upon his request, he was transferred from the Army into the US Navy as an oceanographer, the Navy assigned him as a liaison between the Office of Naval Research and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Four years later he received a Ph. D. in marine geology, Ballards first dive in a submersible was in the Ben Franklin in 1969 off the coast of Florida during a Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution expedition. In summer 1970, he began a field mapping project of the Gulf of Maine for his doctoral dissertation. It used an air gun that sent sound waves underwater to determine the structure of the ocean floor and the submersible Alvin. A1979 expedition was aided by deep-towed still camera sleds that were able to take pictures of the ocean floor, when Alvin inspected one of the sites they located, the scientists observed black smoke billowing out of the vents, something not observed at the Galápagos Rift. Ballard and geophysicist Jean Francheteau went down in Alvin the day after the black smokers were first observed and they were able to take an accurate temperature reading of the active vent, and recorded 350 °C. They continued searching for more vents along the East Pacific Rise between 1980 and 1982, Ballard joined the United States Army in 1965 through the Armys Reserve Officers Training program. He was designated as an officer and initially received a commission as a second lieutenant in the Army Reserve. When called to duty in 1967, he asked to fulfill his obligation in the United States Navy. His request was approved, and he was transferred to the Navy Reserve on the active duty list. He retired from the Navy as a commander in 1995 after reaching the statutory service limit, while Ballard had been interested in the sea since an early age, his work at Woods Hole and his scuba diving experiences off Massachusetts spurred his interest in shipwrecks and their exploration. As early as 1973, he saw this as way of searching for the wreck of the Titanic, in 1977, he led his first expedition, which was unsuccessful
34.
PH
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In chemistry, pH is a numeric scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. It is approximately the negative of the base 10 logarithm of the concentration, measured in units of moles per liter. More precisely it is the negative of the logarithm to base 10 of the activity of the hydrogen ion, solutions with a pH less than 7 are acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic. Pure water is neutral, at pH7, being neither an acid nor a base, contrary to popular belief, the pH value can be less than 0 or greater than 14 for very strong acids and bases respectively. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is established by international agreement, the pH of aqueous solutions can be measured with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or an indicator. In the first papers, the notation had the H as a subscript to the p, as so. The exact meaning of the p in pH is disputed, but according to the Carlsberg Foundation and it has also been suggested that the p stands for the German Potenz, others refer to French puissance. Another suggestion is that the p stands for the Latin terms pondus hydrogenii, potentia hydrogenii and it is also suggested that Sørensen used the letters p and q simply to label the test solution and the reference solution. Currently in chemistry, the p stands for decimal cologarithm of, PH is defined as the decimal logarithm of the reciprocal of the hydrogen ion activity, aH+, in a solution. P H = − log 10 = log 10 For example and this definition was adopted because ion-selective electrodes, which are used to measure pH, respond to activity. For H+ number of electrons transferred is one and it follows that electrode potential is proportional to pH when pH is defined in terms of activity. The reference electrode may be a silver chloride electrode or a calomel electrode, the hydrogen-ion selective electrode is a standard hydrogen electrode. Reference electrode | concentrated solution of KCl || test solution | H2 | Pt Firstly, the cell is filled with a solution of hydrogen ion activity. Then the emf, EX, of the cell containing the solution of unknown pH is measured. PH = pH + E S − E X z The difference between the two measured emf values is proportional to pH and this method of calibration avoids the need to know the standard electrode potential. The proportionality constant, 1/z is ideally equal to 12.303 R T / F the Nernstian slope, to apply this process in practice, a glass electrode is used rather than the cumbersome hydrogen electrode. A combined glass electrode has a reference electrode. It is calibrated against buffer solutions of hydrogen ion activity
35.
RMS Titanic
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Of the 2,224 passengers and crew aboard, more than 1,500 died, making it one of the deadliest commercial peacetime maritime disasters in modern history. Thomas Andrews, her architect, died in the disaster, the first class accommodation was designed to be the pinnacle of comfort and luxury, with an on-board gymnasium, swimming pool, libraries, high-class restaurants and opulent cabins. A high-power radiotelegraph transmitter was available for sending passenger marconigrams and for the operational use. Titanic only carried enough lifeboats for 1,178 people—slightly more than half of the number on board, after leaving Southampton on 10 April 1912, Titanic called at Cherbourg in France and Queenstown in Ireland before heading west to New York. On 14 April, four days into the crossing and about 375 miles south of Newfoundland, the collision caused the ships hull plates to buckle inwards along her starboard side and opened five of her sixteen watertight compartments to the sea, she could only survive four flooding. Meanwhile, passengers and some members were evacuated in lifeboats. A disproportionate number of men were left aboard because of a women and children first protocol for loading lifeboats, at 2,20 a. m. she broke apart and foundered—with well over one thousand people still aboard. Just under two hours after Titanic sank, the Cunard liner RMS Carpathia arrived at the scene, where she brought aboard an estimated 705 survivors. The disaster was greeted with shock and outrage at the huge loss of life. Public inquiries in Britain and the United States led to improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, which still governs maritime safety today. Additionally, several new regulations were passed around the world in an effort to learn from the many missteps in wireless communications—which could have saved many more passengers. The wreck of Titanic, first discovered over 70 years after the sinking, remains on the seabed, since her discovery in 1985, thousands of artifacts have been recovered and put on display at museums around the world. Titanic has become one of the most famous ships in history, her memory is kept alive by numerous works of culture, including books, folk songs, films, exhibits. Titanic is the second largest ocean liner wreck in the world, only beaten by her sister HMHS Britannic, the name Titanic was derived from Greek mythology and meant gigantic. They were by far the largest vessels of the British shipping company White Star Lines fleet, Teutonic was replaced by Olympic while Majestic was replaced by Titanic. Majestic would be back into her old spot on White Stars New York service after Titanics loss. The ships were constructed by the Belfast shipbuilders Harland and Wolff, cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and Harland and Wolff was authorised to spend what it needed on the ships, plus a five percent profit margin
36.
Iceberg
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An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water. It may subsequently become frozen into pack ice, as it drifts into shallower waters, it may come into contact with the seabed, a process referred to as seabed gouging by ice. Almost 91% of an iceberg is below the surface of the water, the word iceberg is a partial loan translation from Dutch ijsberg, literally meaning ice mountain, cognate to Danish isbjerg, German Eisberg, Low Saxon Iesbarg and Swedish isberg. Because the density of ice is about 920 kg/m³. The shape of the underwater portion can be difficult to judge by looking at the portion above the surface and this has led to the expression tip of the iceberg, for a problem or difficulty that is only a small manifestation of a larger problem. Icebergs generally range from 1 to 75 metres above sea level, the largest known iceberg in the North Atlantic was 168 metres above sea level, reported by the USCG icebreaker East Wind in 1958, making it the height of a 55-story building. These icebergs originate from the glaciers of western Greenland and may have a temperature of −15 to −20 °C. Icebergs are usually confined by winds and currents to move close to the coast, the largest icebergs recorded have been calved, or broken off, from the Ross Ice Shelf of Antarctica. Iceberg B-15, photographed by satellite in 2000, measured 295 by 37 kilometres and this iceberg was larger than Belgium. When a piece of ice melts, it makes a fizzing sound called Bergie Seltzer. This sound is made when the water-ice interface reaches compressed air trapped in the ice. As this happens, each bubble bursts, making a popping sound, the bubbles contain air trapped in snow layers very early in the history of the ice, that eventually got buried to a given depth and pressurized as it transformed into firn then to glacial ice. About a month later, this split into two pieces upon crashing into Joe Island in the Nares Strait next to Greenland. In June 2011, large fragments of the Petermann Ice Islands were observed off the Labrador coast, iceberg B-17B140 km2,1999, shipping alert issued December 2009. In addition to classification, icebergs can be classified on the basis of their shape. The two basic types of forms are tabular and non-tabular. Tabular icebergs have steep sides and a top, much like a plateau. This type of iceberg, also known as an ice island, can be quite large, Antarctic icebergs formed by breaking off from an ice shelf, such as the Ross Ice Shelf or Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf, are typically tabular
37.
National Geographic Society
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The National Geographic Society, headquartered in Washington, D. C. United States, is one of the largest nonprofit scientific and educational institutions in the world and its interests include geography, archaeology and natural science, the promotion of environmental and historical conservation, and the study of world culture and history. In partnership with 21st Century Fox, the Society operates the magazine, TV channels, a website that features extra content and worldwide events, the National Geographic Society was founded in 1888 to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge. The Society believes in the power of science, exploration and storytelling to change the world, National Geographic is governed by a board of trustees, whose 21 members include distinguished educators, business executives, former government officials and conservationists. The organization sponsors and funds research and exploration. National Geographic maintains a museum for the public in its Washington and its Education Foundation gives grants to education organizations and individuals to improve geography education. Its Committee for Research and Exploration has awarded more than 11,000 grants for scientific research, National Geographic has retail stores in Washington, D. C. The locations outside of the United States are operated by Worldwide Retail Store S. L and it also publishes other magazines, books, school products, maps, and Web and film products in numerous languages and countries. National Geographics various media properties reach more than 280 million people monthly, the National Geographic Society began as a club for an elite group of academics and wealthy patrons interested in travel. After preparing a constitution and a plan of organization, the National Geographic Society was incorporated two weeks later on January 27, Gardiner Greene Hubbard became its first president and his son-in-law, Alexander Graham Bell, succeeded him in 1897. Bell and Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor devised the successful marketing notion of Society membership, the current National Geographic Society president and CEO is Gary E. Knell. The chairman of the board of trustees is John Fahey, the editor-in-chief of National Geographic magazine is Susan Goldberg. Gilbert Melville Grosvenor, a chairman of the Society board of trustees received the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2005 for his leadership in geography education. In 2004, the National Geographic Society headquarters in Washington, D. C. was one of the first buildings to receive a Green certification from Global Green USA. The National Geographic received the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award for Communication and Humanities in October 2006 in Oviedo, in 2013 the society was investigated for possible violation of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act relating to their close association with an Egyptian government official responsible for antiquities. This new, for-profit corporation, will own National Geographic and other magazines, as reported by The Guardian, a spokesman for National Geographic in a November 2,2015 e-mail statement, briefly discussed the rationale for the staff reductions as part of the. Process of reorganizing in order to move forward following the closing the National Geographic Partners deal. Additional specifics were provided to Photo District News by M. J. Jacobsen, National Geographic’s SVP of communications, similar to the contents of a formal announcement by the two companies
38.
USS Scorpion (SSN-589)
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USS Scorpion was a Skipjack-class nuclear submarine of the United States Navy and the sixth vessel of the U. S. Navy to carry that name. Scorpion was lost on 22 May 1968, with 99 crewmen dying in the incident, USS Scorpion is one of two nuclear submarines the U. S. Navy has lost, the other being USS Thresher. It was one of four mysterious submarine disappearances in 1968, the others being the Israeli submarine INS Dakar, the French submarine Minerve, Scorpions keel was laid down 20 August 1958 by General Dynamics Electric Boat in Groton, Connecticut. She was launched 19 December 1959, sponsored by Mrs. Elizabeth S. Morrison, Scorpion was commissioned 29 July 1960, Commander Norman B. Assigned to Submarine Squadron 6, Division 62, Scorpion departed New London, during that time, she participated in exercises with 6th Fleet units and NATO-member navies. After returning to New England in late October, she trained along the seaboard until May 1961. On 9 August 1961, she returned to New London, moving to Norfolk, Virginia, in 1962, she earned a Navy Unit Commendation. Norfolk was Scorpions port for the remainder of her career, varying roles from hunter to hunted, she participated in exercises along the Atlantic coast, Bermuda, and Puerto Rico operating areas. From June 1963 to May 1964, she interrupted operations for an overhaul at Charleston and she resumed duty in late spring, but was again interrupted from 4 August to 8 October for a transatlantic patrol. In the spring of 1965, she conducted a patrol in European waters. During late winter, early spring, and autumn of 1966, after completing those assignments, her commanding officer received a Navy Commendation Medal for outstanding leadership, foresight, and professional skill. Other Scorpion officers and crewmen were also cited for meritorious achievement, Scorpion is reputed to have entered an inland Russian sea during a Northern Run in 1966, where it filmed a Soviet missile launch through its periscope before fleeing from Soviet Navy ships. On 1 February 1967, Scorpion entered Norfolk Naval Shipyard for another extended overhaul, however, instead of a much-needed complete overhaul, she received only emergency repairs to get quickly back on duty. The preferred SUBSAFE program required increased submarine overhaul times, from nine months in length to 36 months, Submarine Force Atlantic officers to hunt for ways to cut corners, the last overhaul cost only one-seventh of those given other nuclear submarines at the same time. This was the result of concerns about the percentage of time offline for nuclear attack submarines. Scorpions original full overhaul was reduced in scope, long-overdue SUBSAFE work, crucially, her emergency system was not corrected for the same problems that destroyed Thresher. While Charleston Naval Ship Yard claimed the Emergency Main Ballast Tank Blow system worked as-is, SUBLANT claimed it did not, perceived problems with overhaul duration led to a delay on all SUBSAFE work in 1967. CNO Admiral David Lamar McDonald approved Scorpions reduced overhaul on 17 June 1966, on 20 July, McDonald deferred SUBSAFE extensions, otherwise deemed essential since 1963
39.
Skipjack-class submarine
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The Skipjack class was a class of United States Navy nuclear submarines that entered service in 1959-61. This class was named after its lead boat, USS Skipjack, the new class introduced the teardrop hull and the S5W reactor to U. S. nuclear submarines. The Skipjacks were the fastest U. S. nuclear submarines until the Los Angeles-class submarines, the Skipjacks design was based on the USS Albacores high-speed hull design. The hull and innovative internal arrangement were similar to the diesel-powered Barbel class that were built concurrently, the design of the Skipjacks was very different from the Skate-class submarines that preceded the Skipjacks. Unlike the Skates, this new design was maximized for underwater speed by fully streamlining the hull like a blimp and this required a single screw aft of the rudders and stern planes. Adoption of a screw was a matter of considerable debate and analysis within the Navy. The so-called body-of-revolution hull reduced her surface sea-keeping, but was essential for underwater performance, hY-80 remained the standard submarine steel through the Los Angeles class. Another Barbel-like innovation was the combination of the tower, control room. This was continued in all subsequent US nuclear submarines, combining the functions in one space was facilitated by the adoption of push-button ballast control, another feature of Albacore. Previous designs had routed the trim system piping through the control room, the push-button system used hydraulic operators on each valve, remotely electrically operated from the control room. This greatly conserved control room space and reduced the required to conduct trim operations. The overall layout made coordination of the weapons and ship control systems easier during combat operations, much of the overall internal arrangement was continued in the subsequent Thresher- and Sturgeon-class submarines. The Skipjacks five compartments were called the Torpedo Room, Operations Compartment, Reactor Compartment, Auxiliary Machinery Space, with the addition of a missile compartment, the arrangement of the first 41 US nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines was similar. The design was primarily single-hull, with a double hull around the torpedo room, the George Washington class, the first SSBNs, were derived from the Skipjacks, with USS George Washington rebuilt from the incomplete first Scorpion. The hull of Scorpion was laid down twice, as the hull was redesigned to become the George Washington. Also, the material for building Scamp was diverted into building Theodore Roosevelt, the bow planes were moved to the massive sail to cut down on flow-induced noise near the bow sonar arrays. They were known as planes or fairwater planes. The Skipjacks were the first class built with sail planes, they were later backfitted on the Barbels and this design feature would be repeated on all U. S. nuclear submarines until the improved Los Angeles-class submarine, the first of which was launched in 1988
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