1.
DVD Player (Windows)
–
DVD Player is an app developed by Microsoft that plays DVD-Video on Microsoft Windows. DVD Player was introduced in Windows 98, and was included in Windows ME and Windows 2000 before removal from Windows XP, after Windows XP, DVD playback was built into other apps such as Windows Media Player and Windows Media Center instead. Following the discontinuation of Media Center in Windows 10 and the removal of DVD codecs from Windows 8, when the DVD Player is launched, it searches all local drives in alphabetical order from C, looking for a Video_TS folder. When this folder is located, the data file within it is loaded, if this folder exists on a drive that comes before the DVD drive, the player will try to play the data in the first folder it finds. In Windows 98 and Windows 2000, DVD Player only plays DVDs if a hardware-based MPEG decoder is present, in Windows ME, DVD Player supports software-based MPEG decoders. DVD Player was dropped in Windows XP in favor of the DVD functionality introduced into Windows Media Player, while the DVDPlay executable still resides in %Windir%\system32, it simply executes Windows Media Player. On Windows 10, Windows DVD Player is a Windows Store app that provides DVD playback functionality, when launched, it searches for movie files in the disc drive. It can also be picked as an option in the AutoPlay dialog when a disc is inserted, however, if the disc is switched, the app needs to restart
DVD Player (Windows)
2.
Sony
–
Sony Corporation is a Japanese multinational conglomerate corporation that is headquartered in Kōnan, Minato, Tokyo. Its diversified business includes consumer and professional electronics, gaming, entertainment, the company is one of the leading manufacturers of electronic products for the consumer and professional markets. Sony was ranked 116th on the 2015 list of Fortune Global 500 and these make Sony one of the most comprehensive entertainment companies in the world. The group consists of Sony Corporation, Sony Pictures Entertainment, Sony Interactive Entertainment, Sony Music Entertainment, Sony Financial Holdings and others. Sony is among the Semiconductor sales leaders by year and as of 2013, the companys current slogan is BE MOVED. Their former slogans were make. believe, like. no. other, Sony has a weak tie to the SMFG keiretsu, the successor to the Mitsui keiretsu. Sony began in the wake of World War II, in 1946, Masaru Ibuka started an electronics shop in a department store building in Tokyo. The company had $530 in capital and a total of eight employees, in the following year he was joined by his colleague, Akio Morita, and they founded a company called Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo 東京通信工業. The company built Japans first tape recorder, called the Type-G, in 1958 the company changed its name to Sony. When Tokyo Tsushin Kogyo was looking for a name to use to market themselves, they strongly considered using their initials. The primary reason they did not is that the railway company Tokyo Kyuko was known as TTK, the company occasionally used the acronym Totsuko in Japan, but during his visit to the United States, Morita discovered that Americans had trouble pronouncing that name. Another early name that was tried out for a while was Tokyo Teletech until Akio Morita discovered that there was an American company already using Teletech as a brand name, the name Sony was chosen for the brand as a mix of two words. One was the Latin word sonus, which is the root of sonic and sound, and the other was sonny, a common slang term used in 1950s America to call a boy. In the 1950s Japan sonny boys, was a word into Japanese which connoted smart and presentable young men. The first Sony-branded product, the TR-55 transistor radio, appeared in 1955, at the time of the change, it was extremely unusual for a Japanese company to use Roman letters to spell its name instead of writing it in kanji. The move was not without opposition, TTKs principal bank at the time and they pushed for a name such as Sony Electronic Industries, or Sony Teletech. Akio Morita was firm, however, as he did not want the company tied to any particular industry. Eventually, both Ibuka and Mitsui Banks chairman gave their approval, according to Schiffer, Sonys TR-63 radio cracked open the U. S. market and launched the new industry of consumer microelectronics
Sony
–
Sony Headquarters at
Sony City in
Minato, Tokyo
Sony
–
Sony Store in
Markville Shopping Centre in 2014
Sony
–
Sony at
Westfield Riccarton shopping centre in
Christchurch, New Zealand
Sony
–
Sony Pictures Plaza, next to the main studio lot of
Sony Pictures Entertainment in
Culver City
3.
Philips
–
Koninklijke Philips N. V. is a Dutch technology company headquartered in Amsterdam with primary divisions focused in the areas of electronics, healthcare and lighting. It was founded in Eindhoven in 1891, by Gerard Philips and it is one of the largest electronics companies in the world and employs around 105,000 people across more than 60 countries. Philips is organized into three divisions, Philips Consumer Lifestyle, Philips Healthcare and Philips Lighting. As of 2012, Philips was the largest manufacturer of lighting in the world measured by applicable revenues, Philips said it would seek damages for breach of contract in the US$200-million sale. In April 2016, the International Court of Arbitration ruled in favour of Philips, Philips has a primary listing on the Euronext Amsterdam stock exchange and is a component of the Euro Stoxx 50 stock market index. It has a listing on the New York Stock Exchange. The Philips Company was founded in 1891, by Gerard Philips and this first factory has been adapted and is used as a museum. In 1895, after a difficult first few years and near bankruptcy, though he had earned a degree in engineering, Anton started work as a sales representative, soon, however, he began to contribute many important business ideas. After Gerard and Anton Philips changed their business by founding the Philips corporation. In the 1920s, the company started to other products. In 1939, they introduced their electric razor, the Philishave, the Chapel is a radio with built-in loudspeaker, which was designed during the early 1930s. On 11 March 1927, Philips went on the air with shortwave radio station PCJJ which was joined in 1929 by sister station PHOHI, PHOHI broadcast in Dutch to the Dutch East Indies while PCJJ broadcast in English, Spanish and German to the rest of the world. The international program on Sundays commenced in 1928, with host Eddie Startz hosting the Happy Station show, broadcasts from the Netherlands were interrupted by the German invasion in May 1940. The Germans commandeered the transmitters in Huizen to use for pro-Nazi broadcasts, some originating from Germany, Philips Radio was absorbed shortly after liberation when its two shortwave stations were nationalised in 1947 and renamed Radio Netherlands Worldwide, the Dutch International Service. Some PCJ programs, such as Happy Station, continued on the new station, by the late 1940s, the Type 10 was ready to be handed over to Philips subsidiary Johan de Witt in Dordrecht to be produced and incorporated into a generator set as originally planned. The result, rated at 180/200 W electrical output from a bore, approximately 150 of these sets were eventually produced. However, they filed a number of patents and amassed a wealth of information. The first Philips shaver was introduced in the 1930s, and was simply called “The Philishave”, in the USA, it was called the “Norelco”, which remains a part of their product line today
Philips
–
World headquarters in
Amsterdam,
Netherlands
Philips
–
Gerard Philips
Philips
–
Philips chapel radio model 930A, 1931
Philips
–
The Philips Light Tower in Eindhoven, originally a light bulb factory and later the company headquarters
4.
DVD
–
DVD is a digital optical disc storage format invented and developed by Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. The medium can store any kind of data and is widely used for software. DVDs offer higher capacity than compact discs while having the same dimensions. Pre-recorded DVDs are mass-produced using molding machines that physically stamp data onto the DVD, such discs are a form of DVD-ROM because data can only be read and not written or erased. Blank recordable DVD discs can be recorded using a DVD recorder. Rewritable DVDs can be recorded and erased many times, DVDs containing other types of information may be referred to as DVD data discs. The OED also states that in 1995, The companies said the name of the format will simply be DVD. Toshiba had been using the name ‘digital video disk’, but that was switched to ‘digital versatile disk’ after computer companies complained that it left out their applications, Digital versatile disc is the explanation provided in a DVD Forum Primer from 2000 and in the DVD Forums mission statement. There were several formats developed for recording video on optical discs before the DVD, Optical recording technology was invented by David Paul Gregg and James Russell in 1958 and first patented in 1961. A consumer optical disc data format known as LaserDisc was developed in the United States and it used much larger discs than the later formats. CD Video used analog video encoding on optical discs matching the established standard 120 mm size of audio CDs, Video CD became one of the first formats for distributing digitally encoded films in this format, in 1993. In the same year, two new optical disc formats were being developed. By the time of the launches for both formats in January 1995, the MMCD nomenclature had been dropped, and Philips and Sony were referring to their format as Digital Video Disc. Representatives from the SD camp asked IBM for advice on the system to use for their disc. Alan E. Bell, a researcher from IBMs Almaden Research Center, got that request and this group was referred to as the Technical Working Group, or TWG. On August 14,1995, an ad hoc group formed from five computer companies issued a release stating that they would only accept a single format. The TWG voted to both formats unless the two camps agreed on a single, converged standard. They recruited Lou Gerstner, president of IBM, to pressure the executives of the warring factions, as a result, the DVD specification provided a storage capacity of 4.7 GB for a single-layered, single-sided disc and 8.5 GB for a dual-layered, single-sided disc
DVD
DVD
–
Backside of a
Sony DADC -manufactured DVD
DVD
–
A DVD burner drive for a PC
DVD
–
Sony Rewritable DVD
5.
DVD-Video
–
DVD-Video is a consumer video format used to store digital video on DVD discs, and as of 2003 is the dominant consumer video format in Asia, North America, Europe, and Australia. Discs using the DVD-Video specification require a DVD drive and an MPEG-2 decoder, commercial DVD movies are encoded using a combination MPEG-2 compressed video and audio of varying formats. Typically, the rate for DVD movies ranges from 3 Mbit/s to 9.5 Mbit/s. It was first available in November 1996 in Japan, the DVD-Video specification was created by DVD Forum and can be obtained from DVD Format/Logo Licensing Corporation for a fee of $5,000. The specification is not publicly available and every subscriber must sign a non-disclosure agreement, certain information in the DVD Book is proprietary and confidential. To record moving pictures, DVD-Video uses either H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 compression at up to 9.8 Mbit/s or MPEG-1 Part 2 compression at up to 1.856 Mbit/s. DVD-Video supports video with a bit depth of 8-bits per color YCbCr with 4,2,0 chroma subsampling,704 ×480 pixels 352 ×480 pixels. Widescreen video is supported only in D-1 resolutions, the MPEG-1 Part 2 format does not support interlaced video. The H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 format supports both interlaced and progressive-scan content, Content with a frame rate different from one of the rates shown above can be encoded to H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 by using pulldown. This is most commonly used to encode 23.976 frame/s content for playback at 29.97 frame/s. Alternately, the content can be encoded on the disc itself at one of several alternate frame rates, such flags can be added in video stream by the H. 262/MPEG-2 Part 2 encoder. A DVD player uses these flags to convert progressive content into interlaced video in real-time during playback and these flags also allow reproducing progressive content at their original, non-interlaced format when used with compatible DVD players and progressive-scan television sets. The audio data on a DVD movie can be PCM, DTS, MPEG-1 Audio Layer II, a similar standard exists in countries using the NTSC system, though with no requirement mandating the use of or support for the MP2 format. DTS audio is optional for all players, as DTS was not part of the draft standard and was added later, thus. Only PCM and DTS support 96 kHz sampling rate, because PCM, being uncompressed, requires a lot of bandwidth and DTS is not universally supported by players,96 kHz sampling rate is rare for DVDs. The vast majority of commercial DVD-Video releases today employ AC-3 audio. The official allowed formats for the tracks on a DVD Video are, PCM,48 kHz or 96 kHz sampling rate,16 bit or 24 bit Linear PCM,2 to 6 channels, up to 6,144 kbit/s. DVDs can contain more than one channel of audio to go together with the video content and this is most commonly used for different audio formats – DTS5.1, AC-32.0 etc. – as well as for commentary and audio tracks in different languages
DVD-Video
–
DVD-Video format logo
6.
DVD-Audio
–
DVD-Audio is a digital format for delivering high-fidelity audio content on a DVD. DVD-Audio uses most of the storage on the disc for high-quality audio and is not intended to be a delivery format. DVD-Audio has much higher quality than video DVDs containing concert films or music videos. The first discs entered the marketplace in 2000, DVD-Audio offers many possible configurations of audio channels, ranging from single-channel mono to 5. 1-channel surround sound, at various sampling frequencies and sample rates. Audio on a DVD-Audio disc can be stored in different bit depth/sampling rate/channel combinations. For instance, a DVD-Audio disc may contain a 96 kHz/24-bit 5. 1-channel audio track as well as a 192 kHz/24-bit stereo audio track, also, the channels of a track can be split into two groups stored at different resolutions. For example, the front speakers could be 96/24, while the surrounds are 48/20, Audio is stored on the disc in Linear PCM format, which is either uncompressed or losslessly compressed with MLP. The maximum permissible total bit rate is 9.6 Megabits per second, channel/resolution combinations that would exceed this need to be compressed. In uncompressed modes, it is possible to get up to 96/16 or 48/24 in 5.1, to store 5.1 tracks in 88. 2/20,88. 2/24, 96/20 or 96/24 MLP encoding is mandatory. If no native stereo audio exists on the disc, the DVD-Audio player may be able to downmix the 5. 1-channel audio to two-channel stereo audio if the listener does not have a surround sound setup. Downmixing can only be done to two-channel stereo, not to other configurations, with the introduction of the DVD-Audio format, some kind of backward compatibility with existing DVD-Video players was desired, although not required. To address this, most DVD-Audio discs also contain DVD-Video compatible data to play the standard DVD-Video Dolby Digital 5. 1-channel audio track on the disc. Many DVD-Video players also offer the option to create a Dolby MP matrix-encoded soundtrack for older surround sound systems lacking Dolby Digital or DTS decoding, some discs also include a native Dolby Digital 2.0 stereo, and even a DTS 96/245. 1-channel, audio track. Since the DVD-Audio format is a member of the DVD family, a disc can have multiple layers. A common configuration is a single-sided DVD with content in both the DVD-Video and DVD-Audio directories, the high-resolution, Packed PCM audio encoded using MLP is only playable by DVD players containing DVD-Audio decoding capability. DVD-Video content, which can include LPCM, Dolby or DTS material, other disc configurations may consist of double layer DVDs or two-sided discs. Some labels have released two-sided DVD titles that contain DVD-Audio content on one side and DVD-Video content on the other, unofficial playback of DVD-Audio on a PC is possible through freeware audio player foobar2000 for Windows using an open source plug-in extension called DVDADecoder. VLC media player has DVD-Audio support Cyberlinks PowerDVD Version 8 provides a method of playing DVD-Audio discs
DVD-Audio
–
DVD-Audio
7.
United States
–
Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third- or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci
United States
–
Native Americans meeting with Europeans, 1764
United States
–
Flag
United States
–
The signing of the
Mayflower Compact, 1620.
United States
–
The
Declaration of Independence: the
Committee of Five presenting their draft to the
Second Continental Congress in 1776
8.
Macrovision
–
TiVo Corporation is an American technology company. The company holds over 6,000 pending and registered patents, the company also provides analytics and recommendation platforms for the video industry. In 2016, Rovi acquired digital video recorder maker TiVo Inc. Macrovision Corporation was established in 1983. The 1984 film The Cotton Club was the first video to be encoded with Macrovision technology when it was released in 1985, by the end of the 1980s, most major Hollywood studios were utilizing their services. John O. Ryan and William A. Krepick led the company through an IPO in 1997 priced at $9.00 a share. In July 2005, the company hired Alfred J. Amoroso as chief officer and president to succeed William A. Krepick. Macrovision acquired Gemstar-TV Guide on May 2,2008, in a deal worth about $2.8 billion. The combined company would seek to be “the homepage for the TV experience, the divestiture of the software business unit closed on April 1,2008, becoming Acresso Software. Macrovision also ultimately sold off parts of Gemstar-TV Guide not focused on entertainment, including TryMedia, eMeta, TV Guide Magazine, TV Guide Network. The company also bought two companies providing entertainment metadata, All Media Guide on November 6,2007, and substantially all the assets of Muze, on July 16,2009, Macrovision Solution Corporation announced the official change of its name to Rovi Corporation. Rovi announced its first product on January 7,2010 – TotalGuide, on March 16,2010, Rovi acquired MediaUnbound for an undisclosed amount. MediaUnbound had helped build static and dynamic personalization and recommendation engines for such as Napster, eMusic. On June 16,2010, the announced the Rovi Advertising Network which bundled guide advertising. On December 23,2010, the announced its intention to acquire Sonic Solutions. Sonic provided digital video processing, playback and distribution technologies and owned RoxioNow an OTT technology provider, on March 1,2011, Rovi announced its acquisition of online video guide SideReel. The company announced Amorosos intention to retire on May 26,2011, tom Carson, formerly the executive vice president of sales and marketing, was appointed CEO and President in December 2011. Continuing on this path, the made a similar announcement in January 2014 indicating its intent to sell the DivX. On April 1,2013, Rovi acquired Integral Reach, a provider of predictive analysis services, the technology would be integrated into Rovis audience analysis services
Macrovision
–
Macrovision pulses in an otherwise unused video line. Here they are large, forcing a VCR's auto contrast circuit to make the picture darker.
Macrovision
–
Rovi Corporation
Macrovision
–
A couple of seconds later, the pulses have reduced in amplitude, forcing a VCR's auto contrast circuit to make the picture lighter. A couple of seconds later still, the pulses return to their original amplitude, darkening the picture once more.
9.
MPEG-2
–
MPEG-2 is a standard for the generic coding of moving pictures and associated audio information. MPEG-2 is widely used as the format of television signals that are broadcast by terrestrial, cable. It also specifies the format of movies and other programs that are distributed on DVD, TV stations, TV receivers, DVD players, and other equipment are often designed to this standard. MPEG-2 was the second of several developed by the Moving Pictures Expert Group and is an international standard. Parts 1 and 2 of MPEG-2 were developed in a collaboration with ITU-T, while MPEG-2 is the core of most digital television and DVD formats, it does not completely specify them. Regional institutions can adapt it to their needs by restricting and augmenting aspects of the standard, MPEG-2 includes a Systems section, part 1, that defines two distinct, but related, container formats. Program stream exceptions are M2TS, which is used on Blu-ray discs, AVCHD on re-writable DVDs, while VOB on DVDs and Enhanced VOB on the short lived HD DVD do not waste storage space and just use the program stream. MPEG-2 Systems is formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-1 and as ITU-T Rec, ISO authorized the SMPTE Registration Authority, LLC as the registration authority for MPEG-2 format identifiers. This provision will permit the MPEG-2 transport standard to all types of data while providing for a method of unambiguous identification of the characteristics of the underlying private data. The Video section, part 2 of MPEG-2, is similar to the previous MPEG-1 standard, but also support for interlaced video. MPEG-2 video is not optimized for low bit-rates, especially less than 1 Mbit/s at standard definition resolutions, all standards-compliant MPEG-2 Video decoders are fully capable of playing back MPEG-1 Video streams conforming to the Constrained Parameters Bitstream syntax. MPEG-2/Video is formally known as ISO/IEC 13818-2 and as ITU-T Rec, with some enhancements, MPEG-2 Video and Systems are also used in some HDTV transmission systems, and is the standard format for over-the-air ATSC digital television.1 multichannel. This method is backwards-compatible, allowing MPEG-1 audio decoders to decode the two main components of the presentation. MPEG-2 part 3 also defined additional bit rates and sample rates for MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, MPEG-2 BC low bitrate encoding with halved sampling rate multichannel encoding with up to 5.1 channels, a. k. a. MPEG Multichannel Part 7 of the MPEG-2 standard specifies a rather different, Part 7 is referred to as MPEG-2 AAC. AAC is more efficient than the previous MPEG audio standards, and is in some ways less complicated than its predecessor, MPEG-1 Audio, Layer 3, in that it does not have the hybrid filter bank. It supports from 1 to 48 channels at sampling rates of 8 to 96 kHz, with multichannel, multilingual, advanced Audio is also defined in Part 3 of the MPEG-4 standard. MPEG-2 NBC MPEG-2 AAC multichannel encoding with up to 48 channels MPEG-2 standards are published as parts of ISO/IEC13818, each part covers a certain aspect of the whole specification
MPEG-2
–
MPEG-2 is used in Digital Video Broadcast and DVDs. The
MPEG transport stream, TS, and
MPEG program stream, PS, are
container formats.
10.
Pulse-code modulation
–
Pulse-code modulation is a method used to digitally represent sampled analog signals. It is the form of digital audio in computers, compact discs, digital telephony. In a PCM stream, the amplitude of the signal is sampled regularly at uniform intervals. Linear pulse-code modulation is a type of PCM where the quantization levels are linearly uniform. This is in contrast to PCM encodings where quantization levels vary as a function of amplitude, though PCM is a more general term, it is often used to describe data encoded as LPCM. Early electrical communications started to sample signals in order to interlace samples from multiple telegraphy sources, the American inventor Moses G. Farmer conveyed telegraph time-division multiplexing as early as 1853. Electrical engineer W. M. Miner, in 1903, used an electro-mechanical commutator for time-division multiplexing multiple telegraph signals and he obtained intelligible speech from channels sampled at a rate above 3500–4300 Hz, lower rates proved unsatisfactory. This was TDM, but pulse-amplitude modulation rather than PCM, in 1920 the Bartlane cable picture transmission system, named after its inventors Harry G. Bartholomew and Maynard D. In 1926, Paul M. Rainey of Western Electric patented a machine which transmitted its signal using 5-bit PCM. The machine did not go into production, british engineer Alec Reeves, unaware of previous work, conceived the use of PCM for voice communication in 1937 while working for International Telephone and Telegraph in France. He described the theory and advantages, but no practical application resulted, Reeves filed for a French patent in 1938, and his US patent was granted in 1943. By this time Reeves had started working at the Telecommunications Research Establishment, the first transmission of speech by digital techniques, the SIGSALY encryption equipment, conveyed high-level Allied communications during World War II. In 1943 the Bell Labs researchers who designed the SIGSALY system became aware of the use of PCM binary coding as already proposed by Alec Reeves. In 1949 for the Canadian Navys DATAR system, Ferranti Canada built a working PCM radio system that was able to transmit digitized radar data over long distances, PCM in the late 1940s and early 1950s used a cathode-ray coding tube with a plate electrode having encoding perforations. The plate collected or passed the beam, producing current variations in binary code, rather than natural binary, the grid of Goodalls later tube was perforated to produce a glitch-free Gray code, and produced all bits simultaneously by using a fan beam instead of a scanning beam. Patent 2,801,281 filed in 1946 and 1952, another patent by the same title was filed by John R. Pierce in 1945, and issued in 1948, U. S. The three of them published The Philosophy of PCM in 1948, PCM is the method of encoding generally used for uncompressed audio, although there are other methods such as pulse-density modulation. The 4ESS switch introduced time-division switching into the US telephone system in 1976, LPCM is used for the lossless encoding of audio data in the Compact disc Red Book standard, introduced in 1982
Pulse-code modulation
–
Sampling and quantization of a signal (red) for 4-bit PCM
11.
Dolby AC-3
–
Dolby Digital is the name for audio compression technologies developed by Dolby Laboratories. It was originally named Dolby Stereo Digital until 1994, except for Dolby TrueHD, the audio compression is lossy. The first use of Dolby Digital was to digital sound in cinemas from 35mm film prints. It is now used for other applications such as TV broadcast, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs. Batman Returns was the first film to use Dolby Digital technology when it premiered in theaters in the summer of 1992. Dolby Digital cinema soundtracks are optically recorded on a 35 mm release print using sequential data blocks placed between every perforation hole on the track side of the film. A constant bit rate of 320 kbit/s is used, a charge-coupled device scanner in the image projector picks up a scanned video image of this area, and a processor correlates the image area and extracts the digital data as an AC-3 bitstream. The data is decoded into a 5.1 channel audio source. All film prints with Dolby Digital data also have Dolby Stereo analogue soundtracks using Dolby SR noise reduction, almost all current release cinema prints are of this type and may also include SDDS data and a timecode track to synchronize CD-ROMs carrying DTS soundtracks. The simplest way of converting existing projectors is to add a so-called penthouse digital soundhead above the projector head, however, for new projectors it made sense to use dual analogue/digital soundheads in the normal optical soundhead position under the projector head. To allow for the arrangement the data is recorded 26 frames ahead of the picture. If a penthouse soundhead is used, the data must be delayed in the processor for the amount of time. This delay can be adjusted in steps of the time between perforations, as of 2015, Dolby Digital in the cinema is being gradually replaced with Dolby Surround 7.1, a process that may take up to 2018 to complete.1 Creator. Dolby Digital is the version containing up to six discrete channels of sound. The most elaborate mode in use involves five channels for normal-range speakers. Mono and stereo modes are also supported, AC-3 supports audio sample-rates up to 48 kHz. This format has different names, Dolby Digital DD AC-3 ATSC A/52 Before 1996, was marketed as Dolby Surround AC-3, Dolby Stereo Digital, in 1991, a limited experimental release of Star Trek 6 in Dolby Digital played in 3 US theatres. In 1992, Batman Returns is the first movie to be released in Dolby Digital, Dolby Digital EX is similar in practice to Dolbys earlier Pro-Logic format, which utilized matrix technology to add a center surround channel and single rear surround channel to stereo soundtracks
Dolby AC-3
–
A Dolby Digital Penthouse Soundhead mounted on a mid-'50s vintage Kalee model 20 projector
Dolby AC-3
–
Dolby Digital logo
Dolby AC-3
–
A photo of a 35 mm film print featuring all four audio formats (or quad track)- from left to right:
Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS) (blue area to the left of the sprocket holes), Dolby Digital (grey area between the sprocket holes labelled with the Dolby Double-D logo in the middle), analog optical sound (the two white lines to the right of the sprocket holes), and the
DTS time code (the dashed line to the far right.)
Dolby AC-3
–
A Dolby home theater badge on a laptop
12.
NTSC
–
The first NTSC standard was developed in 1941 and had no provision for color. In 1953 a second NTSC standard was adopted, which allowed for television broadcasting which was compatible with the existing stock of black-and-white receivers. NTSC was the first widely adopted broadcast color system and remained dominant until 1997, North America, parts of Central America, and South Korea are adopting or have adopted the ATSC standards, while other countries are adopting or have adopted other standards instead of ATSC. After nearly 70 years, the majority of over-the-air NTSC transmissions in the United States ceased on January 1,2010, the majority of NTSC transmissions ended in Japan on July 24,2011, with the Japanese prefectures of Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima ending the next year. In March 1941, the committee issued a standard for black-and-white television that built upon a 1936 recommendation made by the Radio Manufacturers Association. Technical advancements of the side band technique allowed for the opportunity to increase the image resolution. The NTSC selected 525 scan lines as a compromise between RCAs 441-scan line standard and Philcos and DuMonts desire to increase the number of lines to between 605 and 800. The standard recommended a frame rate of 30 frames per second, other standards in the final recommendation were an aspect ratio of 4,3, and frequency modulation for the sound signal. In January 1950, the committee was reconstituted to standardize color television, in December 1953, it unanimously approved what is now called the NTSC color television standard. The compatible color standard retained full backward compatibility with existing black-and-white television sets, Color information was added to the black-and-white image by introducing a color subcarrier of precisely 315/88 MHz. These changes amounted to 0.1 percent and were tolerated by existing television receivers. The FCC had briefly approved a different color standard, starting in October 1950. However, this standard was incompatible with black-and-white broadcasts and it used a rotating color wheel, reduced the number of scan lines from 525 to 405, and increased the field rate from 60 to 144, but had an effective frame rate of only 24 frames per second. CBS rescinded its system in March 1953, and the FCC replaced it on December 17,1953, with the NTSC color standard, later that year, the improved TK-41 became the standard camera used throughout much of the 1960s. The NTSC standard has been adopted by countries, including most of the Americas. With the advent of television, analog broadcasts are being phased out. Most US NTSC broadcasters were required by the FCC to shut down their analog transmitters in 2009, low-power stations, Class A stations and translators were required to shut down by 2015. NTSC color encoding is used with the System M television signal, each frame is composed of two fields, each consisting of 262.5 scan lines, for a total of 525 scan lines
NTSC
–
Television encoding systems by nation; countries using the NTSC system are shown in green.
13.
PAL
–
Phase Alternating Line is a colour encoding system for analogue television used in broadcast television systems in most countries broadcasting at 625-line /50 field per second. Other common colour encoding systems are NTSC and SECAM, all the countries using PAL are currently in process of conversion or have already converted standards to DVB, ISDB or DTMB. This page primarily discusses the PAL colour encoding system, the articles on broadcast television systems and analogue television further describe frame rates, image resolution and audio modulation. To overcome NTSCs shortcomings, alternative standards were devised, resulting in the development of the PAL, the goal was to provide a colour TV standard for the European picture frequency of 50 fields per second, and finding a way to eliminate the problems with NTSC. PAL was developed by Walter Bruch at Telefunken in Hannover, Germany, with important input from Dr. Kruse, the format was patented by Telefunken in 1962, citing Bruch as inventor, and unveiled to members of the European Broadcasting Union on 3 January 1963. When asked, why the system was named PAL and not Bruch the inventor answered that a Bruch system would not have sold very well. The first broadcasts began in the United Kingdom in June 1967, the one BBC channel initially using the broadcast standard was BBC2, which had been the first UK TV service to introduce 625-lines in 1964. Telefunken PALcolor 708T was the first PAL commercial TV set and it was followed by Loewe-Farbfernseher S920 & F900. Telefunken was later bought by the French electronics manufacturer Thomson, Thomson also bought the Compagnie Générale de Télévision where Henri de France developed SECAM, the first European Standard for colour television. The term PAL was often used informally and somewhat imprecisely to refer to the 625-line/50 Hz television system in general, accordingly, DVDs were labelled as PAL or NTSC even though technically the discs do not carry either PAL or NTSC composite signal. CCIR 625/50 and EIA 525/60 are the names for these standards, PAL. Both the PAL and the NTSC system use a quadrature amplitude modulated subcarrier carrying the chrominance information added to the video signal to form a composite video baseband signal. The frequency of this subcarrier is 4.43361875 MHz for PAL and NTSC4.43, the SECAM system, on the other hand, uses a frequency modulation scheme on its two line alternate colour subcarriers 4.25000 and 4.40625 MHz. Early PAL receivers relied on the eye to do that cancelling, however. The effect is that phase errors result in changes, which are less objectionable than the equivalent hue changes of NTSC. In any case, NTSC, PAL, and SECAM all have chrominance bandwidth reduced greatly compared to the luminance signal. The 4.43361875 MHz frequency of the carrier is a result of 283.75 colour clock cycles per line plus a 25 Hz offset to avoid interferences. Since the line frequency is 15625 Hz, the carrier frequency calculates as follows,4.43361875 MHz =283.75 ×15625 Hz +25 Hz
PAL
–
Television encoding systems by nation; countries now using (and once using) the PAL system are shown in blue.
14.
Composite video
–
Composite video is an analog video transmission that carries standard definition video typically at 480i or 576i resolution. Video information is encoded on one channel, unlike the higher-quality S-video, Composite video is usually in standard formats such as NTSC, PAL, and SECAM and is often designated by the CVBS initialism, for color, video, blanking and sync, or simply as video. A composite video signal combines on one wire the video information required to recreate a picture, as well as line. The color video signal is a combination of the luminance of the picture, and a modulated subcarrier carries the chrominance or color information. Details of the process vary between the NTSC, PAL and SECAM systems. The burst signal is inverted in phase from the reference subcarrier, Composite video can easily be directed to any broadcast channel simply by modulating the proper RF carrier wave with it. On playback, these devices often give the user the option to output the signal or to modulate it onto a VHF or UHF frequency compatible with a TV tuner. In home applications, the video signal is typically connected using an RCA connector. It is often accompanied with red and white connectors for right, BNC connectors and higher quality coaxial cable are often used in professional television studios and post-production applications. BNC connectors were used for composite video connections on early home VCRs. The BNC connector, in turn post dated the PL-259 connector which featured on first generation VCRs. In Europe, SCART connections are used instead of RCA jacks, so where available, RGB is used instead of composite video with computers, video game consoles. Video cables are 75 ohm impedance, low in capacitance, typical values run from 52 pF/m for an HDPE-foamed dielectric precision video cable to 69 pF/m for a solid PE dielectric cable. Some devices that connect to a TV, such as VCRs, older video game consoles and home computers of the 1980s and this may then be converted to RF with an external box known as an RF modulator that generates the proper carrier. Sometimes this modulator was built into the product and sometimes it was a unit powered by the computer or with an independent power supply. In the United States, using an external RF modulator frees the manufacturer from obtaining FCC approval for each variation of a device, Video game consoles on the other hand were less of an issue with FCC approval because the circuitry was inexpensive enough to allow for channel 3/4 outputs. Modern day devices with analog outputs have typically omitted channel 3 and 4 outputs in favor of composite and S-video outputs as composite, in addition, many TV sets sold these days no longer have analog television tuners and cannot accept channel 3/4. The process of modulating RF with the video signal, and then demodulating the original signal again in the TV
Composite video
–
On consumer products a yellow
RCA connector is typically used for composite video.
15.
S-Video
–
S-Video is a signaling standard for standard definition video, typically 480i or 576i. By separating the black-and-white and coloring signals, it achieves better image quality than composite video, the S-video cable carries video using two synchronized signal and ground pairs, termed Y and C. Y is the signal, which carries the luminance – or black-and-white – of the picture. C is the signal, which carries the chrominance – or coloring-in – of the picture. This signal contains both the saturation and the hue of the video, the luminance signal carries horizontal and vertical sync pulses in the same way as a composite video signal. Luma is a signal carrying luminance after gamma correction, and is therefore termed Y because of the similarity to the lower-case Greek letter gamma, in composite video, the signals co-exist on different frequencies. To achieve this, the signal must be low-pass filtered, dulling the image.57 to 4.43 megahertz. It is worth noting that this difference is meaningless on home videotape systems, carrying the color information as one signal means that the color has to be encoded in some way, typically in accord with NTSC, PAL, or SECAM, depending on the applicable local standard. Also, S-Video suffers from low color resolution, NTSC S-Video color resolution is typically 120 lines horizontal, versus 250 lines horizontal for the Rec. 601-encoded signal of a DVD, or 30 lines horizontal for standard VCRs, in many European Union countries, S-Video is less common because of the dominance of SCART connectors, which are present on most existing televisions. It is possible for a player to output S-Video over SCART, but televisions SCART connectors are not necessarily wired to accept it, in this case it is sometimes possible to modify the SCART adapter cable to make it work. Game consoles sold in PAL territories usually do not output S-Video, early consoles generally came with RF adapters, and the equally uncommon composite video on the classic RCA type video jack. The Nintendo 64 was a case, Both NTSC and PAL models could output S-Video. In the US and some other NTSC countries, S-Video is provided on some equipment, including most televisions. The primary exceptions are VHS and Beta VCRs, the four-pin mini-DIN connector is the most common of several S-Video connector types. The same mini-DIN connector is used in the Apple Desktop Bus for Macintosh computers, other connector variants include seven-pin locking dub connectors used on many professional S-VHS machines, and dual Y and C BNC connectors, often used for S-Video patch panels. Early Y/C video monitors often used phono that were switchable between Y/C and composite video input, though the connectors are different, the Y/C signals for all types are compatible. The mini-DIN pins, being weak, sometimes bend and this can result in the loss of colour or other corruption in the signal
S-Video
–
A standard 4-pin S-Video cable connector, with each signal pin paired with its own ground pin.
S-Video
–
A 7-pin pseudo-mini-DIN socket.
S-Video
S-Video
16.
SCART
–
SCART is a French-originated standard and associated 21-pin connector for connecting audio-visual equipment. It is also known as Péritel, 21-pin EuroSCART, Euroconector, in America, another name is EIA Multiport. In Europe, SCART used to be the most common method of connecting AV equipment, hDMI-CEC is derived from SCARTs AV. link. However, SCART Connection can also support HD signals like 480p, 720p, 1080i, 1080p, if the SCART connection of a device is designed to support YPbPr connection, the same for multichannel audio, but even this configuration remains rare, as it is not standardized. The official standard for SCART is CENELEC document number EN 50049-1, SCART is sometimes referred to as the IEC 933-1 standard. Note that there is also a Japanese version of the SCART connector and this version of SCART uses similar signals and the same connector, but it has a different pinout. It became compulsory on new TVs sold in France from January 1980, before SCART was introduced, TVs did not offer a standardised way of inputting signals other than RF antenna connectors, and these differed between countries. Assuming other connectors even existed, devices made by various companies could have different, for example, a domestic VCR could output a composite video signal through a German-originated DIN-style connector, an American-originated RCA connector, an SO239 connector or a BNC connector. The SCART system was intended to simplify connecting AV equipment, to achieve this it gathered all of the analogue signal connections into a single cable with a unique connector that made incorrect connections nearly impossible. The signals carried by SCART include both composite and RGB video, stereo audio input/output and digital signalling, the standard was extended at the end of the 1980s to support the new S-Video signals. A TV can be awakened from standby mode, and it can switch to appropriate AV channel. SCART is bi-directional regarding standard composite video and analogue audio, a TV will typically send the antenna audio and video signals to the SCART sockets all the time and watch for returned signals, to display and reproduce them. This allows transparent set-top boxes, without any tuner, which just hook and this feature is used for analogue pay TV like Canal Plus and was used for decoding teletext. A VCR will often have two SCART sockets, to connect it to the TV, and for input from a set-top box or other device. When idle or powered off, VCRs will usually forward the signals from the TV to the set-top decoder and send the processed result back to the TV. When a scrambled show is recorded, the VCR will drive the box from its own tuner. Alternatively, the VCR could use the signals from the TV, the down socket can also be used to connect other devices, such as DVD players or game consoles. As long as all devices have at least one up and down socket, while audio and video signals can travel both up to the TV and down to devices farther away from the TV, this is not true for RGB signals, which can only travel towards the TV
SCART
–
A male SCART connector (21-pin)
SCART
–
Typical SCART sockets on a set-top box
SCART
–
EIA interface on a 1987
RCA Dimensia
SCART
–
Non-RGB SCART male connector. Only 10 pins (2, 6, 7, 8, 11, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20) are available. Some cheap cables or devices (DVD players, TVs) have a 21-pin SCART connector or socket that actually have 10 wires connected and are thus not RGB / S-Video capable, but only
CVBS.
17.
Component video
–
Component video is a video signal that has been split into two or more component channels. In popular use, it refers to a type of component analog video information that is transmitted or stored as three separate signals. Component video can be contrasted with composite video in all the video information is combined into a single line level signal that is used in analog television. Like composite, component-video cables do not carry audio and are paired with audio cables. When used without any qualifications the term component video usually refers to analog YPBPR component video with sync on luma. Reproducing a video signal on a device is a straightforward process complicated by the multitude of signal sources. DVD, VHS, computers and video game consoles all store, process and transmit video signals using different methods, one way of maintaining signal clarity is by separating the components of a video signal so that they do not interfere with each other. A signal separated in this way is called component video, S-Video, RGB and YPBPR signals comprise two or more separate signals, and thus are all component-video signals. In the past, for most consumer-level applications, analog component video was used, however, component video is capable of carrying various signals, such as 480i, 480p, 576i, 576p, 720p, 1080i, 1080p, 2160p and beyond. Many new high definition TVs support the use of component video up to their native resolution, most modern computers offer this signal via a VGA port. Many televisions, especially in Europe, utilize RGB via the SCART connector, all arcade games, other than early vector and black-and-white games, use RGB monitors. In addition to the red, green and blue color signals, sync on luma, where the Y signal from S-Video is used alongside the RGB signal only for the purposes of sync. Composite sync is common in the European SCART connection scheme, RGBS requires four wires – red, green, blue and sync. If separate cables are used, the cable is usually colored yellow or white. Separate sync is most common with VGA, used worldwide for analog computer monitors and this is sometimes known as RGBHV, as the horizontal and vertical synchronization pulses are sent in separate channels. If separate cables are used, the lines are usually yellow and white, yellow and black, or gray. Sync on Green is less common, and while some VGA monitors support it, sony is a big proponent of SoG, and most of their monitors use it. Like devices that use video or S-video, SoG devices require additional circuitry to remove the sync signal from the green line
Component video
–
Three cables, each with
RCA plugs at both ends, are often used to carry
YPbPr analog component video.
Component video
–
A 15-pin
VGA connector for a personal computer
Component video
–
A 21-pin
SCART connector
Component video
–
YP B P R component video out on a consumer electronics device
18.
Digital visual interface
–
Digital Visual Interface is a video display interface developed by the Digital Display Working Group. The digital interface is used to connect a source, such as a video display controller, to a display device. It was developed with the intention of creating a standard for the transfer of digital video content. The interface is designed to transmit uncompressed digital video and can be configured to support multiple modes such as DVI-A, featuring support for analog connections, the DVI specification is compatible with the VGA interface. This compatibility, along with other advantages, led to its widespread acceptance over competing digital display standards Plug and Display, although DVI is predominantly associated with computers, it is sometimes used in other consumer electronics such as television sets and DVD players. DVIs digital video format is based on panelLink, a serial format developed by Silicon Image that utilizes a high-speed serial link called transition minimized differential signaling. Like modern analog VGA connectors, the DVI connector includes pins for the data channel. A newer version of DDC called DDC2 allows the graphics adapter to read the monitors extended display identification data, if a display supports both analog and digital signals in one DVI-I input, each input method can host a distinct EDID. Since the DDC can only support one EDID, there can be a problem if both the digital and analog inputs in the DVI-I port detect activity and it is up to the display to choose which EDID to send. When a source and display are connected, the source first queries the displays capabilities by reading the monitor EDID block over an I²C link, the EDID block contains the displays identification, color characteristics, and table of supported video modes. The table can designate a preferred mode or native resolution, for backward compatibility with displays using analog VGA signals, some of the contacts in the DVI connector carry the analog VGA signals. To ensure a level of interoperability, DVI compliant devices are required to support one baseline video mode. Digitally encoded video pixel data is transported using multiple TMDS links, at the electrical level, these links are highly resistant to electrical noise and other forms of analog distortion. A single link DVI connection consists of four TMDS links, each link transmits data from the source to the device over one twisted wire pair. Three of the links represent the RGB components – red, green, the fourth link carries the pixel clock. The binary data is encoded using 8b10b encoding, DVI does not use packetization, but rather transmits the pixel data as if it were a rasterized analog video signal. As such, the frame is drawn during each vertical refresh period. The full active area of each frame is transmitted without compression
Digital visual interface
Digital visual interface
–
A
male DVI-D (single link) connector.
Digital visual interface
–
A passive DVI-to-VGA adapter. This adapter will not work with a DVI-D output. It requires a DVI-I or DVI-A output to get the analog signal to a VGA input (even if the adapter looks like a DVI-D). A more expensive active adapter (or converter) is required to connect DVI-D to VGA.
19.
High-Definition Multimedia Interface
–
HDMI is a digital replacement for analog video standards. HDMI implements the EIA/CEA-861 standards, which video formats and waveforms, transport of compressed, uncompressed, and LPCM audio, auxiliary data. CEA-861 signals carried by HDMI are electrically compatible with the CEA-861 signals used by the visual interface. No signal conversion is necessary, nor is there a loss of quality when a DVI-to-HDMI adapter is used. The CEC capability allows HDMI devices to each other when necessary. Several versions of HDMI have been developed and deployed since initial release of the technology but all use the same cable and connector. Other than improved audio and video capacity, performance, resolution and color spaces, newer versions have optional advanced features such as 3D, Ethernet data connection, production of consumer HDMI products started in late 2003. In Europe either DVI-HDCP or HDMI is included in the HD ready in-store labeling specification for TV sets for HDTV, HDMI began to appear on consumer HDTV camcorders and digital still cameras in 2006. As of January 6,2015, over 4 billion HDMI devices have been sold, the HDMI founders are Hitachi, Panasonic, Philips, Silicon Image, Sony, Thomson, RCA and Toshiba. Digital Content Protection, LLC provides HDCP for HDMI, HDMI has the support of motion picture producers Fox, Universal, Warner Bros. and Disney, along with system operators DirecTV, EchoStar and CableLabs. The HDMI founders began development on HDMI1.0 on April 16,2002, at the time, DVI-HDCP and DVI-HDTV were being used on HDTVs. HDMI1.0 was designed to improve on DVI-HDTV by using a connector and adding audio capability and enhanced YCbCr capability. The first Authorized Testing Center, which tests HDMI products, was opened by Silicon Image on June 23,2003, in California, the first ATC in Japan was opened by Panasonic on May 1,2004, in Osaka. The first ATC in Europe was opened by Philips on May 25,2005, in Caen, the first ATC in China was opened by Silicon Image on November 21,2005, in Shenzhen. The first ATC in India was opened by Philips on June 12,2008, the HDMI website contains a list of all the ATCs. According to In-Stat, the number of HDMI devices sold was 5 million in 2004,17.4 million in 2005,63 million in 2006, and 143 million in 2007. HDMI has become the de facto standard for HDTVs, and according to In-Stat, In-Stat has estimated that 229 million HDMI devices were sold in 2008. On April 8,2008 there were over 850 consumer electronics, on January 7,2009, HDMI Licensing, LLC announced that HDMI had reached an installed base of over 600 million HDMI devices
High-Definition Multimedia Interface
High-Definition Multimedia Interface
–
HDMI official logo and standard connector
High-Definition Multimedia Interface
–
An adapter with HDMI (male) and DVI (female) connectors
High-Definition Multimedia Interface
–
An adapter with DVI and HDMI (female) connectors
20.
Blu-ray
–
Blu-ray or Blu-ray Disc is a digital optical disc data storage format. It was designed to supersede the DVD format, in that it is capable of storing high-definition, the plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional Blu-ray Disc discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs being the standard for feature-length video discs. Triple-layer discs and quadruple layers are available for BD-XL re-writer drives, the name Blu-ray refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs. The main application of Blu-ray is as a medium for video material such as films and physical distribution of video games for the PlayStation 3, PlayStation 4. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu-ray is associated with a set of multimedia formats, high-definition video may be stored on Blu-ray discs with up to 2160p resolution, at up to 60 frames per second. DVD discs had been limited to a resolution of 480p or 576p. The BD format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware, Sony unveiled the first Blu-ray disc prototypes in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in April 2003 in Japan. Afterwards, it continued to be developed until its release in June 2006. During the high definition disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVD format. Toshiba, the company that supported HD DVD, conceded in February 2008. According to Media Research, high-definition software sales in the US were slower in the first two years than DVD software sales, Blu-ray faces competition from video on demand and the continued sale of DVDs. As of January 2016, 44% of U. S. broadband households had a Blu-ray player, the information density of the DVD format was limited by the wavelength of the laser diodes used. Following protracted development, blue laser diodes operating at 405 nanometers became available on a production basis, Sony started two projects in collaboration with Philips applying the new diodes, UDO, and DVR Blue, a format of rewritable discs that would eventually become Blu-ray Disc. The core technologies of the formats are similar, the first DVR Blue prototypes were unveiled at the CEATEC exhibition in October 2000 by Sony. A trademark for the Blue Disc logo was filed February 9,2001, on February 19,2002, the project was officially announced as Blu-ray Disc, and Blu-ray Disc Founders was founded by the nine initial members. The first consumer device arrived in stores on April 10,2003, the Sony BDZ-S77, but there was no standard for prerecorded video, and no movies were released for this player. On October 4,2004, the name Blu-ray Disc Founders was officially changed to the Blu-ray Disc Association, the Blu-ray Disc physical specifications were completed in 2004
Blu-ray
–
A blank rewritable Blu-ray Disc (
BD-RE).
Blu-ray
–
Blu-ray Disc
Blu-ray
–
100 GB BDXL Triple layer disc made by
Sharp
Blu-ray
–
Ultra HD Blu-ray
21.
Compact disc
–
Compact disc is a digital optical disc data storage format released in 1982 and co-developed by Philips and Sony. The format was developed to store and play only sound recordings but was later adapted for storage of data. The first commercially available Audio CD player, the Sony CDP-101, was released October 1982 in Japan, standard CDs have a diameter of 120 millimetres and can hold up to about 80 minutes of uncompressed audio or about 700 MiB of data. The Mini CD has various diameters ranging from 60 to 80 millimetres, they are used for CD singles, storing up to 24 minutes of audio. At the time of the introduction in 1982, a CD could store much more data than a personal computer hard drive. By 2010, hard drives commonly offered as much space as a thousand CDs. In 2004, worldwide sales of audio CDs, CD-ROMs and CD-Rs reached about 30 billion discs, by 2007,200 billion CDs had been sold worldwide. In 2014, revenues from digital music services matched those from physical format sales for the first time. American inventor James T. Russell has been credited with inventing the first system to record information on an optical transparent foil that is lit from behind by a high-power halogen lamp. Russells patent application was first filed in 1966, and he was granted a patent in 1970, following litigation, Sony and Philips licensed Russells patents in the 1980s. The compact disc is an evolution of LaserDisc technology, where a laser beam is used that enables the high information density required for high-quality digital audio signals. Prototypes were developed by Philips and Sony independently in the late 1970s, although originally dismissed by Philips Research management as a trivial pursuit, the CD became the primary focus for Philips as the LaserDisc format struggled. In 1979, Sony and Philips set up a joint task force of engineers to design a new audio disc. After a year of experimentation and discussion, the Red Book CD-DA standard was published in 1980, after their commercial release in 1982, compact discs and their players were extremely popular. Despite costing up to $1,000, over 400,000 CD players were sold in the United States between 1983 and 1984, by 1988 CD sales in the United States surpassed those of vinyl LPs, and by 1992 CD sales surpassed those of prerecorded music cassette tapes. The success of the disc has been credited to the cooperation between Philips and Sony, who came together to agree upon and develop compatible hardware. The unified design of the disc allowed consumers to purchase any disc or player from any company. In 1974, L. However, due to the performance of the analog format
Compact disc
–
The pits in a CD are 500
nm wide, between 830 nm and 3,000 nm long and 150 nm deep
Compact disc
Compact disc
–
700
MiB CD-R next to a
mechanical pencil
22.
CD-DA
–
Compact Disc Digital Audio is the standard format for audio compact discs. The standard is defined in the Red Book, one of a series of Rainbow Books that contain the specifications for all Compact Disc formats. These parameters are common to all discs and used by all logical formats. The standard also specifies the form of audio encoding, 2-channel signed 16-bit Linear PCM sampled at 44,100 Hz. Although rarely used, the specification allows for discs to be mastered with a form of emphasis, the second edition of IEC60908 was published in 1999 and it cancels and replaces the first edition, amendment 1 and the corrigendum to amendment 1. The IEC60908 however does not contain all the information for extensions that is available in the Red Book, such as the details for CD-Text, CD+G, the standard is not freely available and must be licensed. It is available from Philips and the IEC, as of 2013, Philips outsources licensing of the standard to Adminius, which charges US$100 for the Red Book, plus US$50 each for the Subcode Channels R-W and CD Text Mode annexes. The audio contained in a CD-DA consists of two-channel signed 16-bit Linear PCM sampled at 44,100 Hz, the sampling rate is adapted from that attained when recording digital audio on a PAL videotape with a PCM adaptor, an earlier way of storing digital audio. An audio CD can represent frequencies up to 22.05 kHz, the selection of the sample rate was based primarily on the need to reproduce the audible frequency range of 20–20,000 Hz. The Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem states that a rate of more than twice the maximum frequency of the signal to be recorded is needed. The exact sampling rate of 44, the device that converts an analog audio signal into PCM audio, which in turn is changed into an analog video signal is called a PCM adaptor. This technology could store six samples in a horizontal line. 60 field/s black and white video was required, and in NTSC countries that video signal has 245 usable lines per field, similarly, PAL has 294 lines and 50 fields, which gives 44,100 samples/s/stereo channel. This system could store 14-bit samples with some correction, or 16-bit samples with almost no error correction. There was a debate over the use of 14-bit or 16-bit quantization. When the Sony/Philips task force designed the Compact Disc, Philips had already developed a 14-bit D/A converter, in the end,16 bits and 44.1 kilosamples per second prevailed. Philips found a way to produce 16-bit quality using its 14-bit DAC by using four times oversampling, some CDs are mastered with pre-emphasis, an artificial boost of high audio frequencies. The pre-emphasis improves the apparent signal-to-noise ratio by making use of the channels dynamic range
CD-DA
–
This image of a
CD-R demonstrates some of the visible features of an audio CD, including the lead-in, program area, and lead-out. A microscopic spiral of digital information begins near the disc's middle and ends near the edge. Data-free areas of the disc and silent portions of the spiral reflect light differently, sometimes allowing track boundaries to be seen
CD-DA
–
Compact Disc Digital Audio
23.
MP3
–
Compared to CD quality digital audio, MP3 compression commonly achieves 75 to 95% reduction in size. MP3 files are thus 1/4 to 1/20 the size of the digital audio stream. This is important for both transmission and storage concerns, the basis for such comparison is the CD digital audio format which requires 1411200 bit/s. A commonly used MP3 encoding setting is CBR128 kbit/s resulting in file size 1/11 of the original CD-quality file, the MP3 lossy compression works by reducing the accuracy of certain parts of a continuous sound that are considered to be beyond the auditory resolution ability of most people. This method is referred to as perceptual coding or psychoacoustics. It uses psychoacoustic models to discard or reduce the precision of less audible to human hearing. MP3 was designed by the Moving Picture Experts Group as part of its MPEG-1 standard, the first subgroup for audio was formed by several teams of engineers at Fraunhofer IIS, University of Hanover, AT&T-Bell Labs, Thomson-Brandt, CCETT, and others. MPEG-1 Audio, which included MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, II and III was approved as a draft of ISO/IEC standard in 1991, finalised in 1992. A backwards compatible MPEG-2 Audio extension with lower sample and bit rates was published in 1995, MP3 is a streaming or broadcast format meaning that individual frames can be lost without affecting the ability to decode successfully delivered frames. Storing an MP3 stream in a file enables time-shifted playback, the MP3 lossy audio data compression algorithm takes advantage of a perceptual limitation of human hearing called auditory masking. In 1894, the American physicist Alfred M. Mayer reported that a tone could be rendered inaudible by another tone of lower frequency, in 1959, Richard Ehmer described a complete set of auditory curves regarding this phenomenon. Ernst Terhardt et al. created an algorithm describing auditory masking with high accuracy and this work added to a variety of reports from authors dating back to Fletcher, and to the work that initially determined critical ratios and critical bandwidths. A wide variety of compression algorithms were reported in IEEEs refereed Journal on Selected Areas in Communications. The genesis of the MP3 technology is described in a paper from Professor Hans Musmann who chaired the ISO MPEG Audio group for several years. The immediate predecessors of MP3 were Optimum Coding in the Frequency Domain, the first practical implementation of an audio perceptual coder in hardware, was an implementation of a psychoacoustic transform coder based on Motorola 56000 DSP chips. Another predecessor of the MP3 format and technology is to be found in the perceptual codec MUSICAM based on an integer arithmetics 32 sub-bands filterbank, driven by a psychoacoustic model. It was primarily designed for Digital Audio Broadcasting and digital TV and this codec incorporated into a broadcasting system using COFDM modulation was demonstrated on air and on the field together with Radio Canada and CRC Canada during the NAB show in 1991. F. As a doctoral student at Germanys University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Karlheinz Brandenburg began working on music compression in the early 1980s
MP3
–
Diagram of the structure of an MP3 file (MPEG version 2.5 not supported, hence 12 instead of 11 bits for MP3 Sync Word).
24.
Video CD
–
Video CD is a home video format and the first format for distributing films on standard 120 mm optical discs. The format was adopted in Southeast Asia instead of VHS. The format is a digital format for storing video on a compact disc. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most DVD and Blu-ray Disc players, personal computers, the Video CD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the White Book standard. Although they have been superseded by other media, VCDs continue to be retailed as a low-cost video format, in 1979, Philips introduced the optical LaserDisc, which was about 30 cm in diameter. This disc could hold an hour of analog video along with audio on each side. The Laserdisc provided picture quality nearly double that of VHS tape, Philips later teamed up with Sony to develop a new type of disc, the compact disc or CD. Introduced in 1982 in Japan, the CD is about 120 mm in diameter, the format was initially designed to store digitized sound and proved to be a success in the music industry. A few years later, Philips decided to give CDs the ability to produce video and this led to the creation of CD Video in 1987. However, the small size significantly impeded the ability to store analog video. Therefore, CD-V distribution was limited to featuring music videos, by the early 1990s engineers were able to digitize and compress video signals, greatly improving storage efficiency. Because this new format could hold 83 minutes of audio and video, extra capacity was obtained by sacrificing the error correction. This format was named Video CD or VCD, VCD enjoyed a brief period of success, with a few major feature films being released in the format. However, VCDs are still being released in countries in Asia. The development of sophisticated, higher capacity optical disc formats yielded the DVD format. DVD players use lasers that are of shorter wavelength than those used on CDs, allowing the recorded pits to be smaller, the DVD was so successful that it eventually pushed VHS out of the video market once suitable recorders became widely available. Nevertheless, VCDs made considerable inroads into developing nations, where they are still in use today, Video CDs comply with the CD-i Bridge format, and are authored using tracks in CD-ROM XA mode. The first track of a VCD is in CD-ROM XA Mode 2 Form 1 and this track may also contain other non-essential files, and is shown by operating systems when loading the disc
Video CD
–
PlayBack Control (PBC) added in VCD 2.0 requires a special 'Return' button
Video CD
–
Compact Disc Digital Video (VCD)
Video CD
–
As of 2014, VCDs and DVDs are the norm for home media in the Philippines. Blu-ray discs are also available but are only displayed at small separate shelves at the counter.
Video CD
–
Films released on VCD can come as many as 3 discs, depending on the length of the film. Cases of VCDs are shaped like those of audio CDs. DVD and Blu-ray cases, however, favor height over width.
25.
VCD
–
Video CD is a home video format and the first format for distributing films on standard 120 mm optical discs. The format was adopted in Southeast Asia instead of VHS. The format is a digital format for storing video on a compact disc. VCDs are playable in dedicated VCD players, most DVD and Blu-ray Disc players, personal computers, the Video CD standard was created in 1993 by Sony, Philips, Matsushita, and JVC and is referred to as the White Book standard. Although they have been superseded by other media, VCDs continue to be retailed as a low-cost video format, in 1979, Philips introduced the optical LaserDisc, which was about 30 cm in diameter. This disc could hold an hour of analog video along with audio on each side. The Laserdisc provided picture quality nearly double that of VHS tape, Philips later teamed up with Sony to develop a new type of disc, the compact disc or CD. Introduced in 1982 in Japan, the CD is about 120 mm in diameter, the format was initially designed to store digitized sound and proved to be a success in the music industry. A few years later, Philips decided to give CDs the ability to produce video and this led to the creation of CD Video in 1987. However, the small size significantly impeded the ability to store analog video. Therefore, CD-V distribution was limited to featuring music videos, by the early 1990s engineers were able to digitize and compress video signals, greatly improving storage efficiency. Because this new format could hold 83 minutes of audio and video, extra capacity was obtained by sacrificing the error correction. This format was named Video CD or VCD, VCD enjoyed a brief period of success, with a few major feature films being released in the format. However, VCDs are still being released in countries in Asia. The development of sophisticated, higher capacity optical disc formats yielded the DVD format. DVD players use lasers that are of shorter wavelength than those used on CDs, allowing the recorded pits to be smaller, the DVD was so successful that it eventually pushed VHS out of the video market once suitable recorders became widely available. Nevertheless, VCDs made considerable inroads into developing nations, where they are still in use today, Video CDs comply with the CD-i Bridge format, and are authored using tracks in CD-ROM XA mode. The first track of a VCD is in CD-ROM XA Mode 2 Form 1 and this track may also contain other non-essential files, and is shown by operating systems when loading the disc
VCD
–
PlayBack Control (PBC) added in VCD 2.0 requires a special 'Return' button
VCD
–
Compact Disc Digital Video (VCD)
VCD
–
As of 2014, VCDs and DVDs are the norm for home media in the Philippines. Blu-ray discs are also available but are only displayed at small separate shelves at the counter.
VCD
–
Films released on VCD can come as many as 3 discs, depending on the length of the film. Cases of VCDs are shaped like those of audio CDs. DVD and Blu-ray cases, however, favor height over width.
26.
Home cinema
–
In the 1980s, home cinemas typically consisted of a movie pre-recorded on a LaserDisc or VHS tape, a LaserDisc or VHS player, and a heavy, bulky large-screen cathode ray tube TV set. Whether home cinema enthusiasts have a stereo set-up or a 5, in the 1950s, playing home movies became popular in the United States with middle class and upper-class families as Kodak 8 mm film projector equipment became more affordable. The development of audio systems and later LaserDisc in the 1980s created a new paradigm for home video, as it enabled movie enthusiasts to add better sound. In the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s, a home cinema in the United States would have a LaserDisc or VHS player playing a movie. Some people used expensive front projectors in a viewing room. During the 1990s, watching movies on VHS at home became a leisure activity. In the 2010s, affordable large HDTV flatscreen TVs, high resolution video projectors, 3D television technology, in the 2000s, the term home cinema encompasses a range of systems meant for movie playback at home. 3D-TV-enabled home theaters make use of 3D TV sets/projectors and Blu-ray 3D players in which the viewers wear 3D-glasses, enabling them to see 3D content. Home theater designs and layouts are a choice and the type of home cinema a user can set up depends on her/his budget. Finally a set of speakers, at least two, are needed but more common are anywhere from six to eight with a subwoofer for bass or low-frequency effects. In the 2010s, many home cinema enthusiasts aim to replicate, to the degree that is possible, to do so, many home cinema buffs purchase higher quality components than used for everyday television viewing on a relatively small TV with only built-in speakers. As of 2016, home cinema enthusiasts using Smart Blu-ray players may also watch DVDs of TV shows, as well, with a Smart player, a user may be able to stream movies, TV shows and other content over the Internet. Many 2016-era DVD players and Blu-ray players also have inputs which allow users to view digital photos, video and audio input devices, One or more video/audio sources. High resolution movie media formats such as Blu-ray discs are normally preferred, some home theaters include a HTPC with a media center software application to act as the main library for video and music content using a 10-foot user interface and remote control. In 2016, some of the more-expensive Blu-ray players can stream movies, the user selects the input at this point before it is forwarded to the output stage. Some AV receivers enable the viewer to use a control to select which input device or source to use. Audio output, Systems consist of preamplifiers, power amplifiers and two or more loudspeakers mounted in speaker enclosures, the audio system requires at least a stereo power amplifier and two speakers, for stereo sound, most systems have multi-channel surround sound power amplifier and six or more speakers. Some users have 7.1 Surround Sound and it is possible to have up to 11 speakers with additional subwoofers
Home cinema
–
Basic home theater made up of a home entertainment system consisting of large-screen
LCD television, a
Sky+ HD satellite TV box, and a
DVD player (and a Blu-ray Disc-capable
PlayStation 3 game console). The comprising equipment are situated on/in a TV stand.
Home cinema
–
An inexpensive DIY-type home theatre setup in a bedroom consisting mostly of used and mismatched components; note the console television,
iPod nano with dock,
Xbox 360 and speakers of different brands (receiver is made by Sony and the
subwoofer is made by Philips.)
Home cinema
–
A large
projection screen in a media room.
Home cinema
–
This example is of home theater screening room with
video projector mounted in a box on the ceiling. Built-in shelves provide a place for movie decor, DVDs, and equipment. Note the component stack on the right, where the audio receiver, DVD player, secondary monitor, and video game system are located.
27.
Dolby Digital
–
Dolby Digital is the name for audio compression technologies developed by Dolby Laboratories. It was originally named Dolby Stereo Digital until 1994, except for Dolby TrueHD, the audio compression is lossy. The first use of Dolby Digital was to digital sound in cinemas from 35mm film prints. It is now used for other applications such as TV broadcast, DVDs, Blu-ray Discs. Batman Returns was the first film to use Dolby Digital technology when it premiered in theaters in the summer of 1992. Dolby Digital cinema soundtracks are optically recorded on a 35 mm release print using sequential data blocks placed between every perforation hole on the track side of the film. A constant bit rate of 320 kbit/s is used, a charge-coupled device scanner in the image projector picks up a scanned video image of this area, and a processor correlates the image area and extracts the digital data as an AC-3 bitstream. The data is decoded into a 5.1 channel audio source. All film prints with Dolby Digital data also have Dolby Stereo analogue soundtracks using Dolby SR noise reduction, almost all current release cinema prints are of this type and may also include SDDS data and a timecode track to synchronize CD-ROMs carrying DTS soundtracks. The simplest way of converting existing projectors is to add a so-called penthouse digital soundhead above the projector head, however, for new projectors it made sense to use dual analogue/digital soundheads in the normal optical soundhead position under the projector head. To allow for the arrangement the data is recorded 26 frames ahead of the picture. If a penthouse soundhead is used, the data must be delayed in the processor for the amount of time. This delay can be adjusted in steps of the time between perforations, as of 2015, Dolby Digital in the cinema is being gradually replaced with Dolby Surround 7.1, a process that may take up to 2018 to complete.1 Creator. Dolby Digital is the version containing up to six discrete channels of sound. The most elaborate mode in use involves five channels for normal-range speakers. Mono and stereo modes are also supported, AC-3 supports audio sample-rates up to 48 kHz. This format has different names, Dolby Digital DD AC-3 ATSC A/52 Before 1996, was marketed as Dolby Surround AC-3, Dolby Stereo Digital, in 1991, a limited experimental release of Star Trek 6 in Dolby Digital played in 3 US theatres. In 1992, Batman Returns is the first movie to be released in Dolby Digital, Dolby Digital EX is similar in practice to Dolbys earlier Pro-Logic format, which utilized matrix technology to add a center surround channel and single rear surround channel to stereo soundtracks
Dolby Digital
–
A Dolby Digital Penthouse Soundhead mounted on a mid-'50s vintage Kalee model 20 projector
Dolby Digital
–
A photo of a 35 mm film print featuring all four audio formats (or quad track)- from left to right:
Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS) (blue area to the left of the sprocket holes), Dolby Digital (grey area between the sprocket holes labelled with the Dolby Double-D logo in the middle), analog optical sound (the two white lines to the right of the sprocket holes), and the
DTS time code (the dashed line to the far right.)
Dolby Digital
–
A Dolby home theater badge on a laptop
28.
Digital Theater Systems
–
It was known as The Digital Experience until 1995. DTS licenses its technologies to consumer electronics manufacturers, in December 2016, DTS was acquired by Tessera. Work on the new format started in 1991, four years after Dolby Laboratories started work on its new codec. Encoders and decoders support numerous channel combinations, and stereo, four-channel, and four-channel+LFE soundtracks have been released commercially on DVD, CD, other, newer DTS variants are also currently available, including versions that support up to seven primary audio channels plus one LFE channel. The core stream can be decoded by any DTS decoder, even if it does not understand the new variant, a decoder which does understand the new variant decodes the core stream, and then modifies it according to the instructions contained in the extension stream. DTSs main competitors in multichannel theatrical audio are Dolby Digital and SDDS, although only Dolby Digital and DTS are used on DVDs and implemented in home theater hardware. Spielberg debuted the format with his 1993 production of Jurassic Park, in 2008, the cinema division was divested to form DTS Digital Cinema. In 2009 DTS Digital Cinema was purchased by Beaufort International Group Plc. in 2012 DTS acquired the business of SRS Labs, including over 1,000 audio patents and trademarks. In 2014 DTS acquired Manzanita Systems, a provider of MPEG software solutions for television, VOD. Phorus, a subsidiary of DTS, Inc. is a Los Angeles based technology group dedicated to wireless audio solutions for connected devices, in theatrical use, a proprietary 24-bit time code is optically imaged onto the film. An LED reader scans the timecode data from the film and sends it to the DTS processor, the multi-channel DTS audio is recorded in compressed form on standard CD-ROM media at a bitrate of 882 kbit/s. The audio compression used in the theatrical DTS system is the APT-X100 system, unlike the home version of DTS or any version of Dolby Digital, the APT-X100 system is fixed at a 4,1 compression ratio. Data reduction is accomplished via sub-band coding with linear prediction and adaptive quantization, the theatrical DTS processor acts as a transport mechanism, as it holds and reads the audio discs. The DTS time code on the 35mm print identifies the title which is matched to the individual DTS CD-ROMs. Each DTS CD-ROM contains a DOS program that the uses to play back the soundtrack. Unlike Dolby Digital and SDDS, or the version of DTS. The.1 LFE subwoofer track is mixed into the surround channels on the disc. On the consumer level, DTS is the shorthand for the DTS Coherent Acoustics codec, transportable through S/PDIF and part of the LaserDisc, DVD
Digital Theater Systems
–
A photo of a 35 mm film print featuring all four audio formats (or "quad track")- from left to right:
SDDS (blue area to the left of the sprocket holes),
Dolby Digital (grey area between the sprocket holes labelled with the Dolby "Double-D" logo in the middle), analog optical sound (the two white lines to the right of the sprocket holes), and the DTS
time code (the dashed line to the far right.)
Digital Theater Systems
–
DTS, Inc.
29.
DivX
–
DivX is a brand of video codec products developed by DivX, LLC. The DivX codec is notable for its ability to compress lengthy video segments into small sizes while maintaining relatively high visual quality. There are three DivX codecs, the original MPEG-4 Part 2 DivX codec, the H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC DivX Plus HD codec, the most recent version of the codec itself is version 6.9.2, which is several years old. New version numbers on the packages now reflect updates to the player, converter. The DivX brand is distinct from DIVX, which is a video rental system developed by Circuit City Stores that used custom DVD-like discs. The winking emoticon in the early DivX, -) codec name was a reference to the DIVX system. Although not created by them, the DivX company adopted the name of the popular DivX, the company dropped the smiley and released DivX4.0, which was actually the first DivX version, trademarking the word, DivX. DivX, -)3.11 Alpha and later 3. xx versions refers to a version of the Microsoft MPEG-4 Version 3 video codec from Windows Media Tools 4 codecs. The video codec, which was actually not MPEG-4 compliant, was extracted around 1998 by French hacker Jerome Rota at Montpellier, the Microsoft codec originally required that the compressed output be put in an ASF file. It was altered to allow other containers such as Audio Video Interleave, Rota hacked the Microsoft codec because newer versions of the Windows Media Player would not play his video portfolio and résumé that were encoded with it. Instead of re-encoding his portfolio, Rota and German hacker Max Morice decided to engineer the codec. In early 2000, Jordan Greenhall recruited Rota to form a company to develop an MPEG-4 codec, from scratch and this effort resulted first in the release of the OpenDivX codec and source code on 15 January 2001. OpenDivX was hosted as a project on the Project Mayo web site hosted at projectmayo. com. The companys internal developers and some external developers worked jointly on OpenDivX for the several months. In early 2001, DivX employee Sparky wrote a new and improved version of the codecs encoding algorithm known as encore2 and this code was included in the OpenDivX public source repository for a brief time, but then was abruptly removed. The explanation from DivX at the time was that the community really wants a Winamp and it was at this point that the project forked. That summer, Rota left the French Riviera and moved to San Diego with nothing but a pack of cigarettes where he and Greenhall founded what would eventually become DivX, DivX took the encore2 code and developed it into DivX4.0, initially released in July 2001. Other developers who had participated in OpenDivX took encore2 and started a new project—Xvid—that started with the encoding core
DivX
–
Dr. DivX OSS 2 for Windows
DivX
30.
Portable DVD player
–
A portable DVD Player is a mobile, battery powered DVD player in the format of a mobile device. Many recent players play files from USB flash drives and SD cards, Portable DVD players were created in order to aid the ability to watch DVDs away from home. They were created in 1998, first introduced by Panasonic and they are practical for on the go use, and many perform secondary functions such as playing music from audio CDs and displaying images from digital cameras or camcorders. Many consumers use portable DVD players while travelling, including on buses, trains, the popularity of low cost battery powered Portable DVD players in North Korea allows families to watch Chinese and South Korean programs on SD cards and USB flash drives. North Korean defectors run activist groups, like Fighters for a Free North Korea that smuggle DVDs, activist groups planned to distribute DVD copies of The Interview via balloon drops. The balloon drop was postponed after the North Korean government referred to the plan as a de facto declaration of war, most PDPs use TFT LCD screens, some using LED backlighting. The most common PDP screen size is 7 inches, although some are as large as 10 to 12 inches - the larger size competing with Tablet computers, some have articulating screens that rotate 180 degrees & fold flat. Portable DVD players generally have connections for additional screens and a car lighter plug, some PDPs now have iPod docks, USB and SD Card slots built in. Some can play videos in other such as MP4, DivX, either from CDs. Also some DVD players include a USB video recorder, some DVD players have Wifi access, helping to play Internet TV, and some have bluetooth, allowing users to play content from or to other devices like smartphones. Previous models of portable DVD players had AV inputs for external game consoles, many portable DVD players can display more than just video DVDs. Many can also play other formats, image formats and music formats. Prices of portable DVD players vary, usually retailing for about US$40–300, when first released, portable DVD players would retail at over $1,000 and were only manufactured in Japan. Price drops in 2015 have led to some devices being retailed for a little as $40. \ Digital television In car entertainment Handheld television Notel Television set Portable DVD Players info from CNet
Portable DVD player
–
A Philips portable DVD player
31.
Television
–
Television or TV is a telecommunication medium used for transmitting moving images in monochrome, or in color, and in two or three dimensions and sound. The term can refer to a set, a television program. Television is a medium for entertainment, education, news, politics, gossip. Television became available in experimental forms in the late 1920s. After World War II, a form of black-and-white TV broadcasting became popular in the United States and Britain, and television sets became commonplace in homes, businesses. During the 1950s, television was the medium for influencing public opinion. In the mid-1960s, color broadcasting was introduced in the US, for many reasons, the storage of television and video programming now occurs on the cloud. At the end of the first decade of the 2000s, digital television transmissions greatly increased in popularity, another development was the move from standard-definition television to high-definition television, which provides a resolution that is substantially higher. HDTV may be transmitted in various formats, 1080p, 1080i, in 2013, 79% of the worlds households owned a television set. Most TV sets sold in the 2000s were flat-panel, mainly LEDs, major manufacturers announced the discontinuation of CRT, DLP, plasma, and even fluorescent-backlit LCDs by the mid-2010s. In the near future, LEDs are gradually expected to be replaced by OLEDs, also, major manufacturers have announced that they will increasingly produce smart TVs in the mid-2010s. Smart TVs with integrated Internet and Web 2.0 functions became the dominant form of television by the late 2010s, Television signals were initially distributed only as terrestrial television using high-powered radio-frequency transmitters to broadcast the signal to individual television receivers. Alternatively television signals are distributed by cable or optical fiber, satellite systems and. Until the early 2000s, these were transmitted as analog signals, a standard television set is composed of multiple internal electronic circuits, including a tuner for receiving and decoding broadcast signals. A visual display device which lacks a tuner is correctly called a video monitor rather than a television, the word television comes from Ancient Greek τῆλε, meaning far, and Latin visio, meaning sight. The Anglicised version of the term is first attested in 1907 and it was. formed in English or borrowed from French télévision. In the 19th century and early 20th century, other. proposals for the name of a technology for sending pictures over distance were telephote. The abbreviation TV is from 1948, the use of the term to mean a television set dates from 1941
Television
–
Flat-screen televisions for sale at a consumer electronics store
Television
–
The first known photograph of a moving image produced by Baird's "televisor", circa 1926 (The subject is Baird's business partner Oliver Hutchinson)
Television
–
Vladimir Zworykin demonstrates electronic television (1929)
Television
–
Ad for the beginning of experimental television broadcasting in New York City by RCA in 1939
32.
Liquid crystal display
–
A liquid-crystal display is a flat-panel display or other electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid crystals. Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome and they use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made up of a large number of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCDs are used in a range of applications including computer monitors, televisions, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays. Small LCD screens are common in consumer devices such as digital cameras, watches, calculators. LCD screens are used on consumer electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices. LCD screens have replaced heavy, bulky cathode ray tube displays in all applications. LCD screens are available in a range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, with LCD screens available in sizes ranging from tiny digital watches to huge. Since LCD screens do not use phosphors, they do not suffer image burn-in when an image is displayed on a screen for a long time. LCDs are, however, susceptible to image persistence, the LCD screen is more energy-efficient and can be disposed of more safely than a CRT can. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment more efficiently than CRTs can be, by 2008, annual sales of televisions with LCD screens exceeded sales of CRT units worldwide, and the CRT became obsolete for most purposes. Without the liquid crystal between the filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second polarizer. Before an electric field is applied, the orientation of the molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device, the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure. This induces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and this light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, color LCD systems use the same technique, with color filters used to generate red, green, and blue pixels. The optical effect of a TN device in the state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, TN displays with low content and no backlighting are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage. When no image is displayed, different arrangements are used, for this purpose, TN LCDs are operated between parallel polarizers, whereas IPS LCDs feature crossed polarizers
Liquid crystal display
–
LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are perpendicular.
Liquid crystal display
–
Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.
Liquid crystal display
–
18 parallel CCFLs as backlight for a 42-inch LCD TV
Liquid crystal display
–
A pink elastomeric connector mating an LCD panel to circuit board traces, shown next to a centimeter-scale ruler. (The conductive and insulating layers in the black stripe are very small, click on the image for more detail.)
33.
RCA connector
–
An RCA connector, sometimes called a phono connector or Cinch connector, is a type of electrical connector commonly used to carry audio and video signals. The connectors are sometimes casually referred to as A/V jacks. The name RCA derives from the Radio Corporation of America, which introduced the design by the early 1940s for internal connection of the pickup to the chassis in home radio-phonograph consoles. It was originally a low-cost, simple design, intended only for mating, refinement came with later designs, although they remained compatible. However, quarter-inch phone connectors are common in professional audio. The connections plug is called an RCA plug or phono plug, the name phono plug is sometimes confused with a phone plug which may refer to a quarter-inch phone plug – Tip/Sleeve or Tip/Ring/Sleeve connector – or to a 4P4C connector used for a telephone. In the most normal use, cables have a plug on each end, consisting of a central male connector. The ring is often segmented for flexibility, devices mount the socket, consisting of a central hole with a ring of metal around it. The ring is smaller in diameter and longer than the ring on the plug. The jack has an area between the outer and inner rings which is filled with an insulator, typically plastic. Its use as a connector for video signals is extremely common. RCA connectors and cable are commonly used to carry S/PDIF-formatted digital audio. Connections are made by pushing the cables plug into the jack on the device. Continuous noise can occur if the plug partially falls out of the jack, breaking ground connection, some variants of the plug, especially cheaper versions, also give very poor grip and contact between the ground sheaths due to their lack of flexibility. They are often color-coded, yellow for composite video, red for the audio channel. This trio of jacks can be found on the back of almost all audio, one or more sets are often found on TV sets to facilitate connection of camcorders, other portable video sources and video game consoles. Varying cable quality means that a cheap line-level audio cable might not successfully transfer component video, cables should meet the S/PDIF specification as defined by the international standard IEC 60958-3 for assured performance. The male plug has a pin which is 3.175 mm in diameter
RCA connector
–
RCA Plugs for
composite video (yellow) and
stereo audio (white and red)
RCA connector
–
RCA sockets, or jacks, here used for
YPbPr video output.
RCA connector
–
Composite video cable for the
Xbox 360.
RCA connector
–
"Bullet plug" variation – Note the hollow center conductor and the pin point for the return signal.
34.
TOSLINK
–
TOSLINK is a standardized optical fiber connector system. 1/7.1 surround sound such as Dolby Digital Plus or DTS-HD High Resolution Audio. Unlike HDMI, TOSLINK does not have the bandwidth to carry the lossless versions of Dolby TrueHD, DTS-HD Master Audio, although TOSLINK supports several different media formats and physical standards, digital audio connections using the rectangular EIAJ/JEITA RC-5720 connector are by far the most common. The optical signal is a red light with a wavelength of 650 nm. Depending on the type of modulated signal being carried, other optical wavelengths may be present, a less common format is a coaxial cable ending in RCA jacks, which is found on some receivers. Toshiba originally created TOSLINK to connect their CD players to the receivers they manufactured, the software layer is based on the Sony Philips Digital Interconnect Format, while the hardware layer utilizes a fiber optic transmission system, rather than the electrical hardware layer of S/PDIF. TOSLINK was soon adopted by manufacturers of most CD players and it can often be found on video source to connect the digital audio stream to Dolby Digital/DTS decoders. The name is a trademark of Toshiba, created from TOShiba-LINK. Variations of the name, such as TOSlink, TosLink, and Tos-link, are also seen, ADAT Lightpipe or simply ADAT Optical uses an optical transmission system similar to TOSLINK, and is used in the professional music/audio industry. While the ADAT Lightpipe format uses the same JIS F05 connectors as TOSLINK, due to their high attenuation of light, the effective range of plastic optical cables is limited to 5–10 m. They can temporarily fail or be damaged if tightly bent. Although less commonly available and more expensive than plastic optical cables, glass or silica optical fibers have lower losses. Optical cables are not susceptible to problems such as ground loops. TOSLINK cables are limited to 5 meters in length, with a technical maximum of 10 meters. However, it is common for interfaces on newer consumer electronics to easily run over 30 meters on even low-cost TOSLINK cables. TOSLINK transmitters operate at a nominal wavelength of 650 nm. Mini-TOSLINK is an optical fiber connector smaller than the standard square TOSLINK connector commonly used in larger consumer audio equipment. The plug is almost the size and shape as the ubiquitous 3.5 mm stereo minijack. Adapters are available to connect a full-size TOSLINK plug to a mini-TOSLINK socket
TOSLINK
–
Clear TOSLINK cable with a round connector.
TOSLINK
–
TOSLINK connector (JIS F05)
TOSLINK
–
A TOSLINK fiber optic audio cable being illuminated on one end
TOSLINK
–
Divisions and
subsidiaries
35.
S/PDIF
–
S/PDIF is a type of digital audio interconnect used in consumer audio equipment to output audio over reasonably short distances. The signal is transmitted over either a cable with RCA connectors or a fibre optic cable with TOSLINK connectors. S/PDIF interconnects components in home theatres and other digital high-fidelity systems, S/PDIF is based on the AES3 interconnect standard. S/PDIF is a link layer protocol as well a set of physical layer specifications for carrying digital audio signals between devices and components over either optical or electrical cable. The name stands for Sony/Philips Digital Interconnect Format but is known as Sony/Philips Digital Interface. Sony and Philips were the designers of S/PDIF. S/PDIF is standardized in IEC60958 as IEC60958 type II, a common use for the S/PDIF interface is to carry compressed digital audio for surround sound as defined by the standard IEC61937. This mode is used to connect the output of a DVD player or computer, via optical or coax, another common use is to carry two channels of uncompressed digital audio from a CD player to an amplifying receiver. S/PDIF was developed at the time as the main standard, AES3. The RCA connectors are typically colour-coded orange to differentiate from other RCA connector uses such as composite video, the cable was also changed from 110 Ω balanced twisted pair to 75 Ω coaxial cable, using RCA jacks. Signals transmitted over consumer-grade TOSLINK connections are identical in content to those transmitted over coaxial connectors, though TOSLINK S/PDIF commonly exhibits higher jitter. S/PDIF is used to digital signals of a number of formats, the most common being the 48 kHz sample rate format. In order to both systems, as well as others that might be needed, the format has no defined data rate. Instead, the data is sent using biphase mark code, which has one or two transitions for every bit, allowing the original word clock to be extracted from the signal itself. S/PDIF is meant to be used for transmitting 20-bit audio data streams plus other related information, to transmit sources with less than 20 bits of sample accuracy, the superfluous bits will be set to zero. S/PDIF can also transport 24-bit samples by way of four bits, however, not all equipment supports this. With one exception, S/PDIF protocol is identical to AES3, the channel status bit differs in S/PDIF. There is one channel status bit in each subframe, making 384 bits in each audio block, the meaning of the channel status bits is completely different between AES3 and S/PDIF
S/PDIF
–
TOSLINK connector (JIS F05)
S/PDIF
–
Primary businesses
36.
BNC connector
–
The BNC connector is a miniature quick connect/disconnect radio frequency connector used for coaxial cable. It features two bayonet lugs on the connector, mating is fully achieved with a quarter turn of the coupling nut. BNC connectors are used with coaxial cable in radio, television, and other radio-frequency electronic equipment, test instruments. The BNC was commonly used for computer networks, including ARCnet, the IBM PC Network. BNC connectors are made to match the impedance of cable at either 50 ohms or 75 ohms. They are usually applied for frequencies below 4 GHz and voltages below 500 volts, similar connectors using the bayonet connection principle exist, and a threaded connector is also available. The BNC was originally designed for use and has gained wide acceptance in video. The BNC uses a slotted outer conductor and some plastic dielectric on each gender connector and this dielectric causes increasing losses at higher frequencies. Above 4 GHz, the slots may radiate signals, so the connector is usable, both 50 ohm and 75 ohm versions are available. The BNC connector is used for signal connections such as, analog, the BNC connector is used for composite video on commercial video devices. Consumer electronics devices with RCA connector jacks can be used with BNC-only commercial video equipment by inserting an adapter, BNC connectors were commonly used on 10base2 thin Ethernet network cables and network cards. BNC connections can also be found in recording studios, digital recording equipment uses the connection for synchronization of various components via the transmission of word clock timing signals. Typically the male connector is fitted to a cable, and the female to a panel on equipment, cable connectors are often designed to be fitted by crimping using a special power or manual tool. Wire strippers which strip outer jacket, shield braid, and inner dielectric to the lengths in one operation are used. The connector was named the BNC after its bayonet mount locking mechanism and its inventors, Paul Neill, Neill worked at Bell Labs and also invented the N connector, Concelman worked at Amphenol and also invented the C connector. A backronym has been applied to it, British Naval Connector. Another common incorrectly attributed origin is Berkeley Nucleonics Corporation, the basis for the development of the BNC connector was largely the work of Octavio M. Salati, a graduate of the Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania. In 1945, while working at Hazeltine Electronics Corporation, he filed a patent for a connector for coaxial cables that would minimize wave reflection/loss, the patent was granted in 1951
BNC connector
–
Male 50 ohm BNC connector
BNC connector
–
Rear of a video switcher with an array of BNC connectors
BNC connector
–
BNC Tee Connectors with resistive load
terminators
BNC connector
–
BNC connectors. From left to right: 75 Ω female, 75 Ω male, 50 Ω female, 50 Ω male.
37.
VGA connector
–
A Video Graphics Array connector is a three-row 15-pin DE-15 connector. The 15-pin VGA connector was provided on many video cards, computer monitors, laptop computers, projectors, on laptop computers or other small devices, a mini-VGA port was sometimes used in place of the full-sized VGA connector. VGA connectors and cables carry analog component RGBHV video signals, in the original version of DE-15 pinout, one pin was keyed by plugging the female connector hole, this prevented non-VGA15 pin cables from being plugged into a VGA socket. Four pins carried Monitor ID bits which were used, VESA DDC redefined some of these pins. Devices that comply with the DDC host system standard provide 5V ±5%, the VGA interface is not engineered to be hotpluggable, although in practice this can be done and usually does not cause damage to the hardware or other problems. Also, depending on the hardware and software, monitor detection is sometimes unreliable when hotplugging a VGA connection, DE-15 has been conventionally referred to ambiguously as D-sub 15, incorrectly as DB-15 and often as HD-15. The video connector is an E size D-sub connector, with 15 pins in three rows, which is the high-density connector version. The same VGA cable can be used with a variety of supported VGA resolutions, ranging from 640×350px @70 Hz to 1280×1024px @85 Hz, there are no standards defining the quality required for each resolution but higher-quality cables typically contain coaxial wiring and insulation which make them thicker. Shorter VGA cables are less likely to introduce significant signal degradation, a good-quality cable should not suffer from signal crosstalk, whereby signals in one wire induce unwanted currents in adjacent wires, or ghosting. Ghosting occurs when impedance mismatches cause signals to be reflected, however, ghosting with long cables may be caused by equipment with incorrect signal termination or by passive cable splitters rather than the cables themselves. Some high-end monitors and video cards featured 5 separate BNC connectors for RGBHV signal, within a 15-pin connector, the red, green, and blue signals cannot be shielded from each other, so crosstalk is possible within the 15-pin interconnect. BNC prevents crosstalk by maintaining full coaxial shielding through the circular connectors, the requirement to press and turn the plug shell to disconnect requires access space around each connector to allow grasping of each BNC plug shell. Supplementary signals such as DDC are typically not supported with BNC, there are DVI to VGA adapters and cables. As neither DVI nor VGA carry audio channels, a path for audio should be used. To connect VGA to interfaces with different signaling and vice versa converters may be used, most of them need an external power source to operate and are inherently lossy. VGA to SCART converter that passes through color information is possible, because VGA — SCART RGB signals are electrically compatible, modern graphics adapters are able to widely modify their signal in software, including refresh rate, sync length, polarity and number of blank lines. Particular issues include whether or not interlacing is supported as well as if the resolution can be set to 720×576 in PAL countries, under these strict conditions, a simple circuit to combine the VGA separate synchronization signals into SCART composite sync may suffice
VGA connector
–
A female DE-15 output in a laptop computer.
VGA connector
–
A VGA cable with DE-15 male connector
VGA connector
–
VGA BNC connectors
38.
RGB color model
–
The RGB color model is an additive color model in which red, green and blue light are added together in various ways to reproduce a broad array of colors. The name of the model comes from the initials of the three primary colors, red, green and blue. Before the electronic age, the RGB color model already had a theory behind it. Thus an RGB value does not define the same color across devices without some kind of color management, typical RGB input devices are color TV and video cameras, image scanners, video games, and digital cameras. Typical RGB output devices are TV sets of technologies, computer and mobile phone displays, video projectors, multicolor LED displays. Color printers, on the hand are not RGB devices. This article discusses concepts common to all the different color spaces that use the RGB color model, to form a color with RGB, three light beams must be superimposed. Each of the three beams is called a component of color, and each of them can have an arbitrary intensity, from fully off to fully on. The RGB color model is additive in the sense that the three beams are added together, and their light spectra add, wavelength for wavelength. This is essentially opposite to the color model that applies to paints, inks, dyes. When the intensities for all the components are the same, the result is a shade of gray, darker or lighter depending on the intensity. When the intensities are different, the result is a colorized hue, a secondary color is formed by the sum of two primary colors of equal intensity, cyan is green+blue, magenta is red+blue, and yellow is red+green. The RGB color model itself does not define what is meant by red, green and blue colorimetrically, and so the results of mixing them are not specified as absolute, but relative to the primary colors. When the exact chromaticities of the red, green and blue primaries are defined, the normal three kinds of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells in the human eye respond most to yellow, green, and violet light. As an example, suppose that light in the range of wavelengths enters the eye. Light of these wavelengths would activate both the medium and long wavelength cones of the retina, but not equally—the long-wavelength cells will respond more, the difference in the response can be detected by the brain, and this difference is the basis of our perception of orange. Thus, the appearance of an object results from light from the object entering our eye and stimulating the different cones simultaneously. The first experiments with RGB in early color photography were made in 1861 by Maxwell himself, to reproduce the color photograph, three matching projections over a screen in a dark room were necessary
RGB color model
–
A representation of additive color mixing. Projection of
primary color lights on a screen shows secondary colors where two overlap; the combination of all three of red, green, and blue in equal intensities makes white.
RGB color model
–
The first permanent color photograph, taken by
J.C. Maxwell in 1861 using three filters, specifically red, green, and violet-blue.
RGB color model
–
A photograph of
Mohammed Alim Khan (1880–1944),
Emir of Bukhara, taken in 1911 by
Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii using three exposures with red, green, and blue filters.
RGB color model
–
RGB
phosphor dots in a
CRT monitor
39.
Interlaced video
–
Interlaced video is a technique for doubling the perceived frame rate of a video display without consuming extra bandwidth. The interlaced signal contains two fields of a video frame captured at two different times and this enhances motion perception to the viewer, and reduces flicker by taking advantage of the phi phenomenon. This effectively doubles the resolution as compared to non-interlaced footage. Interlaced signals require a display that is capable of showing the individual fields in a sequential order. CRT displays and ALiS plasma displays are made for displaying interlaced signals, Interlaced scan refers to one of two common methods for painting a video image on an electronic display screen by scanning or displaying each line or row of pixels. This technique uses two fields to create a frame, one field contains all odd-numbered lines in the image, the other contains all even-numbered lines. A Phase Alternating Line -based television set display, for example, the two sets of 25 fields work together to create a full frame every 1/25 of a second, but with interlacing create a new half frame every 1/50 of a second. To display interlaced video on progressive displays, playback applies deinterlacing to the video signal. The European Broadcasting Union has argued against interlaced video in production and they recommend 720p 50 fps for the current production format—and are working with the industry to introduce 1080p 50 as a future-proof production standard. 1080p 50 offers higher vertical resolution, better quality at lower bitrates, despite arguments against it, television standards organizations continue to support interlacing. It is still included in digital video formats such as DV, DVB. Progressive scan captures, transmits, and displays an image in a similar to text on a page—line by line. The interlaced scan pattern in a CRT display also completes such a scan, the first pass displays the first and all odd numbered lines, from the top left corner to the bottom right corner. The second pass displays the second and all even numbered lines and this scan of alternate lines is called interlacing. A field is an image that contains only half of the lines needed to make a complete picture, persistence of vision makes the eye perceive the two fields as a continuous image. In the days of CRT displays, the afterglow of the displays phosphor aided this effect, interlacing provides full vertical detail with the same bandwidth that would be required for a full progressive scan of twice the perceived frame rate and refresh rate. To prevent flicker, all analog broadcast television systems used interlacing, format identifiers like 576i 50 and 720p 50 specify the frame rate for progressive scan formats, but for interlaced formats they typically specify the field rate. This can lead to confusion, because industry-standard SMPTE timecode formats always deal with frame rate, not field rate
Interlaced video
–
When someone watches interlaced video on a progressive monitor with poor deinterlacing, they can see "combing" in movement between two fields of one frame.
Interlaced video
–
A screenshot from
HandBrake, demonstrating the difference between deinterlaced and interlaced images.
40.
YPbPr
–
YPBPR is a color space used in video electronics, in particular in reference to component video cables. YPBPR is the version of the YCBCR color space, the two are numerically equivalent, but YPBPR is designed for use in analog systems whereas YCBCR is intended for digital video. YPBPR cables are commonly referred to as Yipper cables. YPBPR is commonly called component video by manufacturers, but this is imprecise, as there are other types of component video. Some video cards come with video-in video-out ports for connecting to component video devices, YPBPR is converted from the RGB video signal, which is split into three components, Y, PB, and PR. Y carries luma and synchronization information, Y =0.2126 R +0.7152 G +0.0722 B. Before the advent of television, the Y axis on an oscilloscope display of a video waveform represented the intensity of the scan line. With color, Y still represents intensity but it is a composite of the component colors, PB carries the difference between blue and luma. PR carries the difference between red and luma, to send a green signal as a fourth component is redundant, as it can be derived using the blue, red and luma information. When color signals were first added to the NTSC-encoded black and white video standard, P for phase information or phase shift has carried through to represent color information even in the case where there is no longer a phase shift used to represent hue. Thus, the Y PB PR nomenclature derives from engineering metrics developed for the NTSC color standard, the same cables can be used for YPBPR and composite video. Signals that use YPBPR offer enough separation that no color multiplexing is needed and it is possible for their multiplexed counterparts to interfere with each other. Among consumer analog interfaces, only YPBPR and analog RGB component video are capable of carrying non-interlaced video and resolutions higher than 480i or 576i, Color FAQ, Charles Poynton Color formats for image and video processing - Color conversion between RGB, YUV, YCbCr and YPbPr
YPbPr
–
YP B P R is the
analog video signal carried by component video cable in consumer electronics. The green cable carries Y, the blue cable carries P B and the red cable carries P R.
YPbPr
–
Female
RCA connectors used to output YP B P R component video from a set-top-box, DVD player or similar device. Female connections in this configuration are also used for YP B P R inputs on display devices such as TVs.
41.
Digital Visual Interface
–
Digital Visual Interface is a video display interface developed by the Digital Display Working Group. The digital interface is used to connect a source, such as a video display controller, to a display device. It was developed with the intention of creating a standard for the transfer of digital video content. The interface is designed to transmit uncompressed digital video and can be configured to support multiple modes such as DVI-A, featuring support for analog connections, the DVI specification is compatible with the VGA interface. This compatibility, along with other advantages, led to its widespread acceptance over competing digital display standards Plug and Display, although DVI is predominantly associated with computers, it is sometimes used in other consumer electronics such as television sets and DVD players. DVIs digital video format is based on panelLink, a serial format developed by Silicon Image that utilizes a high-speed serial link called transition minimized differential signaling. Like modern analog VGA connectors, the DVI connector includes pins for the data channel. A newer version of DDC called DDC2 allows the graphics adapter to read the monitors extended display identification data, if a display supports both analog and digital signals in one DVI-I input, each input method can host a distinct EDID. Since the DDC can only support one EDID, there can be a problem if both the digital and analog inputs in the DVI-I port detect activity and it is up to the display to choose which EDID to send. When a source and display are connected, the source first queries the displays capabilities by reading the monitor EDID block over an I²C link, the EDID block contains the displays identification, color characteristics, and table of supported video modes. The table can designate a preferred mode or native resolution, for backward compatibility with displays using analog VGA signals, some of the contacts in the DVI connector carry the analog VGA signals. To ensure a level of interoperability, DVI compliant devices are required to support one baseline video mode. Digitally encoded video pixel data is transported using multiple TMDS links, at the electrical level, these links are highly resistant to electrical noise and other forms of analog distortion. A single link DVI connection consists of four TMDS links, each link transmits data from the source to the device over one twisted wire pair. Three of the links represent the RGB components – red, green, the fourth link carries the pixel clock. The binary data is encoded using 8b10b encoding, DVI does not use packetization, but rather transmits the pixel data as if it were a rasterized analog video signal. As such, the frame is drawn during each vertical refresh period. The full active area of each frame is transmitted without compression
Digital Visual Interface
Digital Visual Interface
–
A
male DVI-D (single link) connector.
Digital Visual Interface
–
A passive DVI-to-VGA adapter. This adapter will not work with a DVI-D output. It requires a DVI-I or DVI-A output to get the analog signal to a VGA input (even if the adapter looks like a DVI-D). A more expensive active adapter (or converter) is required to connect DVI-D to VGA.
42.
Video scaler
–
Video scalers are typically found inside consumer electronics devices such as televisions, video game consoles, and DVD or Blu-ray disc players, but can also be found in other AV equipment. Video scalers can also be a completely separate devices, often providing simple video switching capabilities and these units are commonly found as part of home theatre or projected presentation systems. They are often combined with other video processing devices or algorithms to create a processor that improves the apparent definition of video signals. Video scalers are primarily a device, however, they can be combined with an analog-to-digital converter. The native resolution of a display is how many physical pixels make up each row, there are many different video signals in use which are not the same resolution, thus some form of resolution adaptation is required to properly frame a video signal to a display device. For example, within the United States, there are NTSC, ATSC, multiple common resolutions are also used for high-definition television, 720p, 1080i, and 1080p. When the U. S. cable network TNT introduced an HD feed in 2004, FlexView used a nonlinear method to stretch more near the edges of the screen than in the center of it. The practice was imposed by the vice president of broadcast engineering at TNT. Despite TNTs intentions, the system was criticized by viewers of high definition channels. In 2014, FXX faced similar criticism for its use of cropping and scaling on reruns of The Simpsons, in February 2015, FXX announced that in response to these complaints, it would present these episodes in their original 4,3 aspect ratio on its video-on-demand service. Display resolution Deinterlacing Dither Image rescaling Video display standards DVD recorder
Video scaler
–
A blow-up of a small section of a 1024x768 (VESA XGA) resolution image; the individual
pixels are more visible in its scaled form than its normal resolution.
43.
720p
–
720p is a progressive HDTV signal format with 720 horizontal lines and an aspect ratio of 16,9, normally known as widescreen HDTV. The number 720 stands for the 720 horizontal scan lines of display resolution. The p stands for progressive scan, i. e. non-interlaced, when broadcast at 60 frames per second, 720p features the highest temporal resolution possible under the ATSC and DVB standards. The term assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9. 720i is a term found in numerous sources and publications. Typically, it is an error in which the author is referring to the 720p HDTV format. However, in cases it is incorrectly presented as an actual alternative format to 720p. No proposed or existing broadcast standard permits 720 interlaced lines in a frame at any frame rate. Progressive scanning reduces the need to prevent flicker by anti-aliasing single high contrast horizontal lines and it is also easier to perform high-quality 50↔60 Hz conversion and slow-motion clips with progressive video. A 720p60 video has advantage over 480i and 1080i60 in that it reduces the number of 3,2 artifacts introduced during transfer from 24 frame/s film. However, 576i and 1080i50, which are common in Europe, generally do not suffer from pull down artifacts as film frames are simply played at 25 frames and the audio pitch corrected by 25/24ths. As a result, 720p60 is used for U. S. broadcasts while European HD broadcasts often use 1080i50 24* frame, arte, a dual-language French-German channel produced in collaboration by ARD, ZDF and France Télévisions, broadcasts in German at 720p50 but in French at 1080i50. EBU Technical paper on HDTV formats
720p
–
This chart shows the most
common display resolutions, 720p being one of the 16:9 formats shown in dark green.
44.
1080i
–
1080i is an abbreviation referring to a combination of frame resolution and scan type, used in high-definition television and high-definition video. The number 1080 refers to the number of lines on the screen. The term assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9, so the 1080 lines of vertical resolution implies 1920 columns of horizontal resolution. A1920 pixels ×1080 lines screen has a total of 2.1 megapixels and this format is used in the SMPTE 292M standard. The choice of 1080 lines originates with Charles Poynton, who in the early 1990s pushed for square pixels to be used in HD video formats, within the designation 1080i, the i stands for interlaced scan. A frame of 1080i video consists of two fields of 1920 horizontal and 540 vertical pixels. The first field consists of all odd-numbered TV lines and the second all even numbered lines, 1080i differs from 1080p, where the p stands for progressive scan, where all lines in a frame are captured at the same time. In native or pure 1080i, the two fields of a frame correspond to different instants, so motion portrayal is good and this is true for interlaced video in general and can be easily observed in still images taken of fast motion scenes. However, when 1080p material is captured at 25 or 30 frames/second, it is converted to 1080i at 50 or 60 fields/second, respectively, in this situation both fields in a frame do correspond to the same instant. The field-to-instant relation is more complex for the case of 1080p at 24 frames/second converted to 1080i at 60 fields/second. Both field rates can be carried by digital television broadcast formats such as ATSC, DVB. The frame rate can be implied by the context, while the rate is generally specified after the letter i. In this case 1080i60 refers to 60 fields per second, the European Broadcasting Union prefers to use the resolution and frame rate separated by a slash, as in 1080i/30 and 1080i/25, likewise 480i/30 and 576i/25. Resolutions of 1080i60 or 1080i50 often refers to 1080i/30 or 1080i/25 in EBU notation, 1080i is directly compatible with some CRT HDTVs on which it can be displayed natively in interlaced form, but for display on progressive-scan—e. g. Most new LCD and plasma TVs, it must be deinterlaced, depending on the televisions video processing capabilities, the resulting video quality may vary, but may not necessarily suffer. For example, film material at 25fps may be deinterlaced from 1080i50 to restore a full 1080p resolution at the frame rate without any loss. Preferably video material with 50 or 60 motion phases/second is to be converted to 50p or 60p before display, worldwide, most HD channels on satellite and cable broadcast in 1080i. This also allows local newscasts on these ABC affiliates to be produced in the resolution to match the picture quality of their 1080i competitors
1080i
–
An example frame of poorly deinterlaced video. Despite the fact that most TV transmissions are interlaced, plasma and LCD display technologies are progressively scanned. Consequently, flat-panel TVs convert an interlaced source to progressive scan for display, which can have an adverse impact on motion portrayal on inexpensive models.
45.
1080p
–
1080p is a set of HDTV high-definition video modes characterized by 1080 horizontal lines of vertical resolution, the p stands for progressive scan, id est non-interlaced. The term usually assumes a widescreen ratio of 16,9. It is often marketed as full HD, to contrast 1080p with 720p resolution screens, 1080p video signals are supported by ATSC standards in the United States and DVB standards in Europe. Small camcorders, smartphones and digital cameras can capture still and moving images in 1080p resolution.485 Gbit/s to nominally 3 Gbit/s using uncompressed RGB encoding. Most current revisions of SMPTE 372M, SMPTE 424M and EBU Tech 3299 require YCbCr color space and 4,2,2 chroma subsampling for transmitting 1080p50 and 1080p60 signal. In the United States, the original ATSC standards for HDTV supported 1080p video, in July 2008, the ATSC standards were amended to include H. 264/MPEG-4 AVC compression and 1080p at 50,59.94 and 60 frames per second. Such frame rates require H. 264/AVC High Profile Level 4.2, in Europe, 1080p25 signals have been supported by the DVB suite of broadcasting standards. The 1080p50 format is considered to be a production format and, eventually. EBU requires that legacy MPEG-4 AVC decoders should avoid crashing in the presence of SVC and/or 1080p50 packets, the ITU-T BT.2100 standard that includes advanced 1080p video was subsequently published in July 2016. There is no word when any of the networks will consider airing at 1080p in the foreseeable future. However, satellite services utilize the 1080p/24-30 format with MPEG-4 AVC/H.264 encoding for pay-per-view movies that are downloaded in advance via satellite or on-demand via broadband. At this time, no pay service such as USA, HDNET, etc. nor premium movie channel such as HBO. For material that originates from a progressive scanned 24 frame/s source, MPEG-2 lets the video be coded as 1080p24 and these progressively-coded frames are tagged with metadata instructing a decoder how to perform a 3,2 pulldown to interlace them. In June 2016, Germany commenced terrestrial broadcasts of eight 1080p50 high-definition channels, using DVB-T2 protocol with HEVC encoding, a total of 40 channels will be available by March 2017. Blu-ray Discs are able to hold 1080p HD content, and most movies released on Blu-ray Disc produce a full 1080p HD picture when the player is connected to a 1080p HDTV via an HDMI cable. The Blu-ray Disc video specification allows encoding of 1080p23.976, 1080p24, 1080i50, generally this type of video runs at 30 to 40 megabits per second, compared to the 3.5 megabits per second for conventional standard definition broadcasts. Smartphones with 1080p FullHD display have been available on the market since 2012, as of the end of 2014, it is the standard for mid-range to high-end smartphones and many of the flagship devices of 2014 used even higher resolutions. Several websites, including YouTube, allow videos to be uploaded in the 1080p format, YouTube streams 1080p content at approximately 4 megabits per second compared to Blu-rays 30 to 40 megabits per second
1080p
–
TV standards through 1080p
46.
Deinterlacing
–
Deinterlacing is the process of converting interlaced video, such as common analog television signals or 1080i format HDTV signals, into a non-interlaced form. An interlaced video frame consists of two sub-fields taken in sequence, each sequentially scanned at odd, and then even, lines of the image sensor. Analog television employed this technique because it allowed for less transmission bandwidth, cRT-based displays were able to display interlaced video correctly due to their complete analogue nature. Newer displays are inherently digital, in that the display comprises discrete pixels, consequently, the two fields need to be combined into a single frame, which leads to various visual defects. The deinterlacing process should try to minimize these, deinterlacing has been researched for decades and employs complex processing algorithms, however, consistent results have been very hard to achieve. Both video and photographic film capture a series of frames in succession, however. In analog television, each frame is divided into two fields, one containing all even lines, another with the odd lines. The fields are captured in succession at a rate twice that of the frame rate. For instance, PAL and SECAM systems have a rate of 25 frames/s or 50 fields/s and this process of dividing frames into half-resolution fields at double the frame rate is known as interlacing. This results in a doubling of time resolution as compared with non-interlaced footage. Most modern displays, such as LCD, DLP and plasma displays, are not able to work in interlaced mode, because they are fixed-resolution displays and only support progressive scanning. In order to display interlaced signal on such displays, the two interlaced fields must be converted to one frame with a process known as de-interlacing. A good deinterlacing algorithm should try to avoid interlacing artifacts as much as possible and not sacrifice image quality in the process, deinterlacing techniques require complex processing and thus can introduce a delay into the video feed. While not generally noticeable, this can result in the display of video games lagging behind controller input. Many TVs thus have a mode in which minimal processing is done in order to maximize speed at the expense of image quality. Deinterlacing is only responsible for such lag, scaling also involves complex algorithms that take milliseconds to run. Interlaced video can carry progressive scan signal, and deinterlacing process should consider this as well, typical movie material is shot on 24 frames/s film, when converting film to interlaced video using telecine, each film frame can be presented by two progressive segmented frames. This format does not require complex deinterlacing algorithm because each contains a part of the very same progressive frame
Deinterlacing
–
Weaving
Deinterlacing
–
Blending
Deinterlacing
–
Half-sizing
Deinterlacing
–
Line doubling
47.
USB video recorder
–
A digital video recorder is an electronic device that records video in a digital format to a disk drive, USB flash drive, SD memory card, SSD or other local or networked mass storage device. The term includes set-top boxes with direct to disk recording, portable media players and TV gateways with recording capability, and digital camcorders. Personal computers are connected to video capture devices and used as DVRs. Many DVRs are classified as electronic devices, such devices are sometimes referred to as personal video recorders. Consumer digital video recorders ReplayTV and TiVo were launched at the 1999 Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas, Microsoft also demonstrated a unit with DVR capability, but this did not become available until the end of 1999 for full DVR features in Dish Networks DISHplayer receivers. TiVo shipped their first units on March 31,1999, ReplayTV won the Best of Show award in the video category with Netscape co-founder Marc Andreessen as an early investor and board member, but TiVo was more successful commercially. Many DVRs use the MPEG format for compressing the digital video, video recording capabilities have become an essential part of the modern set-top box, as TV viewers have wanted to take control of their viewing experiences. Digital video recorders tied to a video service At the 1999 CES, which also included WebTV Networks internet TV. By the end of 1999 the Dishplayer had full DVR capabilities and within a year, in the UK, digital video recorders are often referred to as plus boxes. Freeview+ have been around in the UK since the late 2000s, british Sky Broadcasting markets a popular combined receiver and DVR as Sky+. TiVo launched a UK model in 2000, and is no longer supported, except for third party services, south African based Africa Satellite TV beamer Multichoice recently launched their DVR which is available on their DStv platform. Astro introduced their DVR system, called Astro MAX, which was the first PVR in Malaysia but was phased out two years after its introduction. In the case of television, there is no encoding necessary in the DVR since the signal is already a digitally encoded MPEG stream. The digital video recorder simply stores the digital stream directly to disk and it can, however, also force the manufacturer to implement non-skippable advertisements and automatically expiring recordings. The overall net effect on video recorders and related technology is unlikely to be substantial as standalone DVRs are currently readily available on the open market. In 2003 many Satellite and Cable providers introduced dual-tuner digital video recorders, in the UK, BSkyB introduced their first PVR Sky+ with dual tuner support in 2001. These machines have two independent tuners within the same receiver, kogan. com introduced a dual-tuner PVR in the Australian market allowing free-to-air television to be recorded on a removable hard drive. Some dual-tuner DVRs also have the ability to output to two television sets at the same time
USB video recorder
–
Foxtel iQ, a combined digital video recorder and satellite receiver.
USB video recorder
–
V+, a combined digital video recorder and
cable TV receiver.
USB video recorder
–
Back view of a
TiVo Series2 5xx-generation unit.
USB video recorder
–
Side view: Even with all the DVR components inside, the LCD monitor is still slim.
48.
USB port
–
It is currently developed by the USB Implementers Forum. USB was designed to standardize the connection of peripherals to personal computers. It has become commonplace on other devices, such as smartphones, PDAs, USB has effectively replaced a variety of earlier interfaces, such as serial ports and parallel ports, as well as separate power chargers for portable devices. Also, there are 5 modes of USB data transfer, in order of increasing bandwidth, Low Speed, Full Speed, High Speed, SuperSpeed, USB devices have some choice of implemented modes, and USB version is not a reliable statement of implemented modes. Modes are identified by their names and icons, and the specifications suggests that plugs, unlike other data buses, USB connections are directed, with both upstream and downstream ports emanating from a single host. This applies to power, with only downstream facing ports providing power. Thus, USB cables have different ends, A and B, therefore, in general, each different format requires four different connectors, a plug and receptacle for each of the A and B ends. USB cables have the plugs, and the corresponding receptacles are on the computers or electronic devices, in common practice, the A end is usually the standard format, and the B side varies over standard, mini, and micro. The mini and micro formats also provide for USB On-The-Go with a hermaphroditic AB receptacle, the micro format is the most durable from the point of view of designed insertion lifetime. The standard and mini connectors have a lifetime of 1,500 insertion-removal cycles. Likewise, the component of the retention mechanism, parts that provide required gripping force, were also moved into plugs on the cable side. A group of seven companies began the development of USB in 1994, Compaq, DEC, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC, a team including Ajay Bhatt worked on the standard at Intel, the first integrated circuits supporting USB were produced by Intel in 1995. The original USB1.0 specification, which was introduced in January 1996, Microsoft Windows 95, OSR2.1 provided OEM support for the devices. The first widely used version of USB was 1.1, the 12 Mbit/s data rate was intended for higher-speed devices such as disk drives, and the lower 1.5 Mbit/s rate for low data rate devices such as joysticks. Apple Inc. s iMac was the first mainstream product with USB, following Apples design decision to remove all legacy ports from the iMac, many PC manufacturers began building legacy-free PCs, which led to the broader PC market using USB as a standard. The USB2.0 specification was released in April 2000 and was ratified by the USB Implementers Forum at the end of 2001.1 specification, the USB3.0 specification was published on 12 November 2008. Its main goals were to increase the transfer rate, decrease power consumption, increase power output. USB3.0 includes a new, higher speed bus called SuperSpeed in parallel with the USB2.0 bus, for this reason, the new version is also called SuperSpeed
USB port
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USB logo on the head of a standard-A plug, the most common
USB plug
USB port
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Certified USB logo
USB port
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A USB 2.0
PCI expansion card
USB port
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Two USB 3.0 standard-A sockets (left) and two USB 2.0 sockets (right) on a computer's front panel
49.
Bluetooth
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Bluetooth is a wireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances from fixed and mobile devices, and building personal area networks. Invented by telecom vendor Ericsson in 1994, it was conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect up to seven devices, overcoming problems that older technologies had when attempting to connect to each other. Bluetooth is managed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group, which has more than 30,000 member companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, the IEEE standardized Bluetooth as IEEE802.15.1, but no longer maintains the standard. The Bluetooth SIG oversees development of the specification, manages the qualification program, a manufacturer must meet Bluetooth SIG standards to market it as a Bluetooth device. A network of patents apply to the technology, which are licensed to individual qualifying devices, the development of the short-link radio technology, later named Bluetooth, was initiated in 1989 by Nils Rydbeck, CTO at Ericsson Mobile in Lund, Sweden, and by Johan Ullman. The purpose was to develop wireless headsets, according to two inventions by Johan Ullman, SE 8902098-6, issued 1989-06-12 and SE9202239, issued 1992-07-24, Nils Rydbeck tasked Tord Wingren with specifying and Jaap Haartsen and Sven Mattisson with developing. Both were working for Ericsson in Lund, the specification is based on frequency-hopping spread spectrum technology. The idea of this name was proposed in 1997 by Jim Kardach who developed a system that would allow mobile phones to communicate with computers, at the time of this proposal he was reading Frans G. Bengtssons historical novel The Long Ships about Vikings and King Harald Bluetooth. The implication is that Bluetooth does the same with communications protocols, the Bluetooth logo is a bind rune merging the Younger Futhark runes and, Haralds initials. Bluetooth operates at frequencies between 2402 and 2480 MHz, or 2400 and 2483.5 MHz including guard bands 2 MHz wide at the end and 3.5 MHz wide at the top. This is in the globally unlicensed Industrial, Scientific and Medical 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency band, Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum. Bluetooth divides transmitted data into packets, and transmits each packet on one of 79 designated Bluetooth channels, each channel has a bandwidth of 1 MHz. It usually performs 800 hops per second, with Adaptive Frequency-Hopping enabled, Bluetooth low energy uses 2 MHz spacing, which accommodates 40 channels. Originally, Gaussian frequency-shift keying modulation was the modulation scheme available. Since the introduction of Bluetooth 2. 0+EDR, π/4-DQPSK and 8DPSK modulation may also be used between compatible devices, devices functioning with GFSK are said to be operating in basic rate mode where an instantaneous data rate of 1 Mbit/s is possible. The term Enhanced Data Rate is used to describe π/4-DPSK and 8DPSK schemes, the combination of these modes in Bluetooth radio technology is classified as a BR/EDR radio. Bluetooth is a protocol with a master-slave structure
Bluetooth
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A typical Bluetooth mobile phone
headset.
Bluetooth
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A Bluetooth
USB dongle with a 100 m range.
Bluetooth
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A typical Bluetooth
USB dongle.
Bluetooth
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An internal notebook Bluetooth card (14×36×4 mm).
50.
Wifi
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Wi-Fi or WiFi is a technology for wireless local area networking with devices based on the IEEE802.11 standards. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, which restricts the use of the term Wi-Fi Certified to products that successfully complete interoperability certification testing. Devices that can use Wi-Fi technology include personal computers, video-game consoles, smartphones, digital cameras, tablet computers, digital audio players, Wi-Fi compatible devices can connect to the Internet via a WLAN network and a wireless access point. Such an access point has a range of about 20 meters indoors, hotspot coverage can be as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves, or as large as many square kilometres achieved by using multiple overlapping access points. Wi-Fi most commonly uses the 2.4 gigahertz UHF and 5 gigahertz SHF ISM radio bands, having no physical connections, it is more vulnerable to attack than wired connections, such as Ethernet. In 1971, ALOHAnet connected the Hawaiian Islands with a UHF wireless packet network, ALOHAnet and the ALOHA protocol were early forerunners to Ethernet, and later the IEEE802.11 protocols, respectively. A1985 ruling by the U. S. Federal Communications Commission released the ISM band for unlicensed use and these frequency bands are the same ones used by equipment such as microwave ovens and are subject to interference. In 1991, NCR Corporation with AT&T Corporation invented the precursor to 802.11, the first wireless products were under the name WaveLAN. They are the credited with inventing Wi-Fi. In 1992 and 1996, CSIRO obtained patents for a method used in Wi-Fi to unsmear the signal. The first version of the 802.11 protocol was released in 1997 and this was updated in 1999 with 802. 11b to permit 11 Mbit/s link speeds, and this proved to be popular. In 1999, the Wi-Fi Alliance formed as an association to hold the Wi-Fi trademark under which most products are sold. Wi-Fi uses a number of patents held by many different organizations. In April 2009,14 technology companies agreed to pay CSIRO $1 billion for infringements on CSIRO patents and this led to Australia labeling Wi-Fi as an Australian invention, though this has been the subject of some controversy. In 2016, the local area network Test Bed was chosen as Australias contribution to the exhibition A History of the World in 100 Objects held in the National Museum of Australia. The name Wi-Fi, commercially used at least as early as August 1999, was coined by the brand-consulting firm Interbrand, the Wi-Fi Alliance had hired Interbrand to create a name that was a little catchier than IEEE802. 11b Direct Sequence. Phil Belanger, a member of the Wi-Fi Alliance who presided over the selection of the name Wi-Fi, has stated that Interbrand invented Wi-Fi as a pun upon the word hi-fi. Interbrand also created the Wi-Fi logo, the yin-yang Wi-Fi logo indicates the certification of a product for interoperability
Wifi
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Wi-Fi
Wifi
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The
Linksys WRT54G contains a router with an 802.11b/g radio (common in the early 2000s) and two antennas
Wifi
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A sticker indicating to the public that a location is within range of a Wi-Fi network. A dot with curved lines radiating from it is a common symbol for Wi-Fi, representing a point transmitting a signal.
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