1.
Genpei War
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The Genpei War was a conflict between the Taira and Minamoto clans during the late-Heian period of Japan. It resulted in the fall of the Taira clan and the establishment of the Kamakura shogunate under Minamoto no Yoritomo in 1192, the name Genpei comes from alternate readings of the kanji Minamoto and Taira. The conflict is known in Japanese as the Jishō-Juei War. It followed a coup détat by the Taira in 1179 and call to arms against them led by the Minamoto in 1180, the ensuing Battle of Uji took place just outside Kyoto, starting a five-year-long war, concluding with a decisive Minamoto victory in the naval Battle of Dan-no-ura. The Genpei War was the culmination of a conflict between the two aforementioned clans over dominance of the Imperial court, and by extension, control of Japan. In the Hōgen Rebellion and in the Heiji Rebellion of earlier decades, in 1180, Taira no Kiyomori put his grandson Antoku on the throne after the abdication of Emperor Takakura. However, this ended with the deaths of Yorimasa and Mochihito. In June 1180, Kiyomori moved the seat of power to Fukuhara-kyō. The actions of Taira no Kiyomori having deepened Minamoto hatred for the Taira clan, not knowing who was behind this rally, Kiyomori called for the arrest of Mochihito, who sought protection at the temple of Mii-dera. The Mii-dera monks were unable to ensure him sufficient protection, so he was forced to move along and he was then chased by Taira forces to the Byōdō-in, just outside Kyoto. The war began thus, with an encounter on and around the bridge over the River Uji. This battle ended in Yorimasas ritual suicide inside the Byōdō-in and Mochihitos capture and it was at this point that Minamoto no Yoritomo took over leadership of the Minamoto clan and began traveling the country seeking to rendezvous with allies. Leaving Izu Province and heading for the Hakone Pass, he was defeated by the Taira in the battle of Ishibashiyama, however he successfully made it to the provinces of Kai and Kōzuke, where the Takeda and other friendly families helped repel the Taira army. Meanwhile, Taira no Kiyomori, seeking vengeance against the Mii-dera monks and others, besieged Nara, fighting continued the following year,1181. Minamoto no Yukiie was defeated by a led by Taira no Shigehira at the Battle of Sunomatagawa. However, the Taira could not follow up their victory, Taira no Kiyomori died from illness in the spring of 1181, and around the same time Japan began to suffer from a famine which was to last through the following year. The Taira moved to attack Minamoto no Yoshinaka, a cousin of Yoritomo, for nearly two years, the war ceased, only to resume in the spring of 1183. Both Minamoto leaders had little or no opposition in marching to the capital and now forced the Taira to flee the city
2.
Song dynasty
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The Song dynasty was an era of Chinese history that began in 960 and continued until 1279. It succeeded the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, coincided with the Liao and Western Xia dynasties and it was the first government in world history to issue banknotes or true paper money nationally and the first Chinese government to establish a permanent standing navy. This dynasty also saw the first known use of gunpowder, as well as the first discernment of true north using a compass, the Song dynasty is divided into two distinct periods, Northern and Southern. During the Northern Song, the Song capital was in the city of Bianjing. The Southern Song refers to the period after the Song lost control of its half to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in the Jin–Song Wars. During this time, the Song court retreated south of the Yangtze, the Southern Song dynasty considerably bolstered its naval strength to defend its waters and land borders and to conduct maritime missions abroad. To repel the Jin, and later the Mongols, the Song developed revolutionary new military technology augmented by the use of gunpowder, in 1234, the Jin dynasty was conquered by the Mongols, who took control of northern China, maintaining uneasy relations with the Southern Song. Möngke Khan, the fourth Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and his younger brother Kublai Khan was proclaimed the new Great Khan, though his claim was only partially recognized by the Mongols in the west. In 1271, Kublai Khan was proclaimed the Emperor of China, after two decades of sporadic warfare, Kublai Khans armies conquered the Song dynasty in 1279. The Mongol invasion led to a reunification under the Yuan dynasty, the population of China doubled in size during the 10th and 11th centuries. The Northern Song census recorded a population of roughly 50 million, much like the Han and this data is found in the Standard Histories. However, it is estimated that the Northern Song had a population of some 100 million people and this dramatic increase of population fomented an economic revolution in pre-modern China. The expansion of the population, growth of cities, and the emergence of a national economy led to the withdrawal of the central government from direct involvement in economic affairs. The lower gentry assumed a role in grassroots administration and local affairs. Appointed officials in county and provincial centers relied upon the gentry for their services, sponsorship. Social life during the Song was vibrant, citizens gathered to view and trade precious artworks, the populace intermingled at public festivals and private clubs, and cities had lively entertainment quarters. The spread of literature and knowledge was enhanced by the expansion of woodblock printing. Technology, science, philosophy, mathematics, and engineering flourished over the course of the Song, although the institution of the civil service examinations had existed since the Sui dynasty, it became much more prominent in the Song period
3.
Edo period
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The Edo period or Tokugawa period is the period between 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when Japanese society was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and the countrys 300 regional daimyō. The period was characterized by growth, strict social order, isolationist foreign policies. The shogunate was established in Edo on March 24,1603. The period came to an end with the Meiji Restoration on May 3,1868, instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already powerful, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area, after Hideyoshis death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi family. Ieyasus victory over the western daimyōs at the Battle of Sekigahara gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy daimyō houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western daimyōs, but his assumption of the title of shogun helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada as shogun. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication, in 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa period brought 250 years of stability to Japan, the political system evolved into what historians call bakuhan, a combination of the terms bakufu and han to describe the government and society of the period. In the bakuhan, the shogun had national authority and the daimyōs had regional authority and this represented a new unity in the feudal structure, which featured an increasingly large bureaucracy to administer the mixture of centralized and decentralized authorities. The feudal hierarchy was completed by the classes of daimyō. Closest to the Tokugawa house were the shinpan, or related houses and they were twenty-three daimyōs on the borders of Tokugawa lands, all directly related to Ieyasu. The shinpan held mostly honorary titles and advisory posts in the bakufu, the second class of the hierarchy were the fudai, or house daimyōs, rewarded with lands close to the Tokugawa holdings for their faithful service. By the 18th century,145 fudai controlled such smaller han, members of the fudai class staffed most of the major bakufu offices. Ninety-seven han formed the group, the tozama, former opponents or new allies. The tozama were located mostly on the peripheries of the archipelago, because the tozama were least trusted of the daimyō, they were the most cautiously managed and generously treated, although they were excluded from central government positions. The Tokugawa not only consolidated their control over a reunified Japan, they also had unprecedented power over the emperor, the court, all daimyōs and the religious orders
4.
Nara, Nara
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Nara is the capital city of Nara Prefecture located in the Kansai region of Japan. The city occupies the part of Nara Prefecture, bordering Kyoto Prefecture. By the Heian period, a variety of different characters had been used to represent the name Nara, 乃楽, 乃羅, 平, 平城, 名良, 奈良, 奈羅, 常, 那良, 那楽, 那羅, 楢, 諾良, 諾楽, 寧, 寧楽 and 儺羅. A number of theories for the origin of the name Nara have been proposed, the second theory in the list, by notable folklorist Kunio Yanagita, is most widely accepted at present. The Nihon shoki suggests that Nara was derived from narasu, according to this account, in September in the tenth year of Emperor Sujin. leading selected soldiers went forward, climbed Nara-yama and put them in order. Now the imperial forces gathered and flattened trees and plants, therefore the mountain is called Nara-yama. This word gives rise to the verb narasu, adverb narashi, of course, the fact that historically Nara was also written 平 or 平城 as above is further support for this theory. The idea that Nara is derived from 楢 nara is the next most common opinion and this idea was suggested by a linguist, Yoshida Togo. This noun for the plant can be seen as early as in Manyōshū, the latter book states the place name Narahara in Harima derives from this nara tree, which might support Yoshidas theory. Note that the name of the city of Kashihara contains a semantically similar morpheme. Then, there is the idea that Nara is a word from Korean nara. This idea was put forward by a linguist Matsuoka Shizuo, however, almost nothing about the Old Korean language is known today. These 15th-century books used narah, an old form of nara in Korean, beckwith infers the Korean narak derives from the late Middle Old Chinese 壌, from early *narak, and has no connection with Goguryoic and Japanese na. Kusuhara et al. also points out this hypothesis cannot account for the fact there are lots of places named Nara, Naru, there is the idea that Nara is akin to Tungusic na. In some Tungusic languages such as Orok, na means earth, some have speculated about a connection between these Tungusic words and Old Japanese nawi, an archaic and somewhat obscure word that appears in the verb phrases nawi furu and nawi yoru. The Flat land theory is adopted by Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, various dictionaries for place names, history books on Nara and the like today, Nara was the capital of Japan from 710 to 794, lending its name to the Nara period. In 2010, Nara celebrated the 1, 300th anniversary of its ascension as Japans imperial capital, in the modern age, as the seat of the prefectural government, Nara has developed into a local center of commerce and government. The city was incorporated on February 1,1898
5.
Muromachi period
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The Muromachi period is a division of Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period ended in 1573 when the 15th and last shogun of this line, from a cultural perspective, the period can be divided into the Kitayama and Higashiyama periods. The early years from 1336 to 1392 of the Muromachi period are known as the Nanboku-chō or Northern and Southern Court period and this period is marked by the continued resistance of the supporters of Emperor Go-Daigo, the emperor behind the Kenmu Restoration. The years from 1465 to the end of the Muromachi period are known as the Sengoku period or Warring States period. Emperor Go-Daigos brief attempt to restore the power in the Kenmu Restoration alienated the samurai class. Ashikaga Takauji obtained the samurais strong support, and deposed Emperor Go-Daigo, in 1338 Takauji was proclaimed shogun and established his government in Kyoto. However, Emperor Godaigo escaped from his confinement and revived his political power in Nara, the ensuing period of Ashikaga rule was called Muromachi from the district of Kyoto in which its headquarters – the Hana-no-gosho – were located by third shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu in 1378. Nevertheless, the Ashikaga shogunate was not as strong as that in Kamakura had been, not until the rule of Ashikaga Yoshimitsu did a semblance of order emerge. Yoshimitsu allowed the constables, who had had limited powers during the Kamakura period, to become strong regional rulers, in time, a balance of power evolved between the shogun and the daimyō, the three most prominent daimyō families rotated as deputies to the shogun at Kyoto. The line of shoguns gradually weakened after Yoshimitsu and increasingly lost power to the daimyō, the shoguns influence on imperial succession waned, and the daimyō could back their own candidates. In time, the Ashikaga family had its own problems, resulting finally in the Ōnin War. The power vacuum that ensued launched a century of anarchy, the Japanese contact with the Ming dynasty began when China was renewed during the Muromachi period after the Chinese sought support in suppressing Japanese pirates in coastal areas of China. Japanese pirates of this era and region were referred to as wokou by the Chinese, wanting to improve relations with China and to rid Japan of the wokou threat, Yoshimitsu accepted a relationship with the Chinese that was to last for half a century. In 1401 he restarted the system, describing himself in a letter to the Chinese Emperor as Your subject. Japanese wood, sulfur, copper ore, swords, and folding fans were traded for Chinese silk, porcelain, books, and coins, in what the Chinese considered tribute but the Japanese saw as profitable trade. Zen played a role in spreading not only religious teachings and practices but also art and culture, including influences derived from paintings of the Chinese Song, Yuan. The proximity of the court to the bakufu resulted in a commingling of imperial family members, courtiers, daimyō, samurai. Art of all kinds—architecture, literature, Noh drama, Kyōgen, poetry, sarugaku, the tea ceremony, landscape gardening, there was renewed interest in Shinto, which had quietly coexisted with Buddhism during the centuries of the latters predominance
6.
Woodworking
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Woodworking is the activity or skill of making items from wood, and includes cabinet making, wood carving, joinery, carpentry, and woodturning. Along with stone, clay and animal parts, wood was one of the first materials worked by early humans, microwear analysis of the Mousterian stone tools used by the Neanderthals show that many were used to work wood. The development of civilization was closely tied to the development of increasingly greater degrees of skill in working these materials, among early finds of wooden tools are the worked sticks from Kalambo Falls, Clacton-on-Sea and Lehringen. The spears from Schöningen provide some of the first examples of hunting gear. Flint tools were used for carving, since Neolithic times, carved wooden vessels are known, for example, from the Linear Pottery culture wells at Kückhofen and Eythra. Examples of Bronze Age wood-carving include tree trunks worked into coffins from northern Germany and Denmark, there is significant evidence of advanced woodworking in Ancient Egypt. Woodworking is depicted in extant ancient Egyptian drawings, and a considerable amount of ancient Egyptian furniture has been preserved. Tombs represent a collection of these artefacts and the inner coffins found in the tombs were also made of wood. The metal used by the Egyptians for woodworking tools was originally copper and eventually, commonly used woodworking tools included axes, adzes, chisels, pull saws, and bow drills. Mortise and tenon joints are attested from the earliest Predynastic period and these joints were strengthened using pegs, dowels and leather or cord lashings. Animal glue came to be used only in the New Kingdom period, Ancient Egyptians invented the art of veneering and used varnishes for finishing, though the composition of these varnishes is unknown. Woodworking was essential to the Romans and it provided, sometimes the only, material for buildings, transportation, tools, and household items. Vitruvius dedicates a chapter of his De architectura to timber. Pliny, while not a botanist, dedicated six books of his Natural History to trees and woody plants which provides a wealth of information on trees, the progenitors of Chinese woodworking are considered to be Lu Ban and his wife Lady Yun, from the Spring and Autumn period. Lu Ban is said to have introduced the plane, chalk-line and his teachings were supposedly left behind in the book Lu Ban Jing. Despite this, it is believed that the text was written some 1500 years after his death. This book is filled largely with descriptions of dimensions for use in building various items such as pots, tables, altars, etc. It mentions almost nothing of the intricate glue-less and nail-less joinery for which Chinese furniture was so famous, with the advances in modern technology and the demands of industry, woodwork as a field has changed
7.
Japanese Buddhist architecture
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Japanese Buddhist architecture is the architecture of Buddhist temples in Japan, consisting of locally developed variants of architectural styles born in China. The first Buddhist sects were Naras six Nanto Rokushū, followed during the Heian period by Kyotos Shingon, later, during the Kamakura period, in Kamakura were born the Jōdo and the native Japanese sect Nichiren-shū. At roughly the same time Zen Buddhism arrived from China, strongly influencing all other sects in many ways, the social composition of Buddhisms followers also changed radically with time. In the beginning it was the religion, but slowly it spread from the noble to warriors, merchants. On the technical side, new woodworking tools like the pit saw. Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines share their characteristics and often differ only in details that the non-specialist may not notice. This similarity is because the division between Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines is recent, dating to the Meiji periods policy of separation of Buddhism. Before the Meiji Restoration it was common for a Buddhist temple to be built inside or next to a shrine, if a shrine housed a Buddhist temple, it was called a jingū-ji. Analogously, temples all over Japan used to adopt tutelary kami (chinju, Buddhist architecture in Japan during the countrys whole history has absorbed much of the best available natural and human resources. Particularly between the 8th and the 16th centuries, it led the development of new structural and ornamental features, for these reasons, its history is vital to the understanding of not only Buddhist architecture itself, but also of Japanese art in general. Its history is as a consequence dominated by Chinese and other Asian techniques and styles on one side, first of all is the choice of materials, always wood in various forms for almost all structures. Unlike both Western and some Chinese architecture, the use of stone is avoided except for specific uses, for example temple podia. The general structure is almost always the same, columns and lintels support a large and gently curved roof, while the walls are paper-thin, often movable, arches and barrel roofs are completely absent. Gable and eave curves are gentler than in China and columnar entasis limited, the roof is the most visually impressive component, often constituting half the size of the whole edifice. The slightly curved eaves extend far beyond the walls, covering verandas and these oversize eaves give the interior a characteristic dimness, which contributes to the temples atmosphere. The interior of the building consists of a single room at the center called moya, from which sometimes depart other less important spaces. Inner space divisions are fluid, and room size can be modified through the use of screens or movable paper walls, the large, single space offered by the main hall can therefore be altered according to the need. The separation between inside and outside is itself in some measure not absolute as entire walls can be removed, verandas appear to be part of the building to an outsider, but part of the external world to those in the temple
8.
Banister Fletcher (junior)
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Sir Banister Flight Fletcher was an English architect and architectural historian, as was his father, also named Banister Fletcher. They wrote the standard textbook A History of Architecture, which is often referred to just as Banister Fletcher. He became a partner in 1889, and on his fathers death in 1899 took over the practice, Fletcher worked closely with his younger brother Herbert Phillips Fletcher as well as his father. Herbert was also a partner in the firm and they wrote some books together. He was regarded as a figure in the modernist movement in his early career. He was knighted in 1919 and elected president of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1929, Fletcher was surveyor to the Worshipful Company of Carpenters, and became Master in 1936, a position also held by his father. He married twice, first, in 1914, to Alice Bretherton and he and his father wrote the first edition of A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method. This became a reference work, with updated editions published throughout the 20th century. There was a revision with the 6th edition in 1921. This was over twenty years after his father’s death, and for this edition his father’s name was dropped, according to J. Mordaunt Crook this edition concentrated on supplying an epitomised history of world architecture such that Fletcher turned a useful handbook into a veritable students bible. Fletcher produced the sixteenth edition shortly before his death in 1953, a centenary 20th edition edited by Dan Cruickshank was produced in 1996. A thundering classic appears again with useful additions, as Sir Banister Fletcher said, The study of architecture opens up the enjoyment of buildings with an appreciation of their purpose, meaning, and charm. These words aptly summarise what this book has become for generations of students and architects, no serious fan of architecture should be without it. the whole point of Banister Fletcher is that it does cram everything into a single volume. It will remain one of the most thumbed tomes in Building Designs office library. above all, gloriously and frustratingly, Recent scholarship has been critical of Fletchers hierarchical emphasis on the primacy of Western European architectural traditions. In his will, he left a bequest to the Bartlett School of Architecture inaugurating an annual prize, in his will, he left a bequest to the London Society to hold an annual lecture in his name. The Authors Club, of which Fletcher was president, presents an annual Banister Fletcher Award for the best book on art or architecture. Fletcher, Banister, Recent development of renaissance in England, London, C. W. Sweet,1894 Andrea Palladio. Batsford,1904 ODNB, H. V. M. Roberts, Fletcher, Sir Banister Flight, ISSN 1466-4410 Rabbat, Nasser Islamic Art at a Crossroads. in Ed
