1.
Stupa
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A stupa is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics that is used as a place of meditation. Stupas originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which śramaṇas were buried in a position called chaitya. After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated, the earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE in India. Buddhist scriptures claim that stupas were built at least a century earlier, however, some later stupas, such as at Sarnath and Sanchi, seem to be embellishments of earlier mounds. The earliest evidence of monastic stupas dates back to the 2nd century BCE and these are stupas that were built within Buddhist monastic complexes and they replicate in stone older stupas made of baked bricks and timber. Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are examples of stupas that were shaped in stone imitating previously existing wooden parts, the stupa was elaborated as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries, becoming, for example, the chörten of Tibet and the pagoda in East Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles, in the Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to Buddhism, the first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura being one of the tallest ancient structures in the world, the earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of Buddhist stupas dates to the late 4th century BCE. In India, Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut are among the oldest known stupas, the tallest is the Phra Pathommachedi in Nakhon Pathom Province, Thailand, at a height of 127 metres. The Swat Valley hosts a well-preserved stupa at Shingardar near Ghalegay, another stupa is located near Barikot, in Sri Lanka, the ancient city of Anuradhapura includes some of the tallest, most ancient and best preserved stupas in the world, such as Ruwanwelisaya. The most elaborate stupa is the 8th century Borobudur monument in Java, the upper rounded terrace with rows of bell-shaped stupas contained Buddha images symbolizing Arūpajhāna, the sphere of formlessness. The main stupa itself is empty, symbolizing complete perfection of enlightenment, borobudurs unique and significant architecture has been acknowledged by UNESCO as the largest buddhist monument in the world. It is also the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist monuments in the world. Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or his disciples, such as a bowl or robe. Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or his disciples, symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology, for example, Borobudur is considered to be the symbol of the Three Worlds and the spiritual stages in a Mahayana bodhisattvas character. Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, the shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire, his head is the square at the base, his body is the vase shape, his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace
2.
Buddhism
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Buddhism is a religion and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices largely based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. Buddhism originated in India sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE, from where it spread through much of Asia, two major extant branches of Buddhism are generally recognized by scholars, Theravada and Mahayana. Buddhism is the worlds fourth-largest religion, with over 500 million followers or 7% of the global population, Buddhist schools vary on the exact nature of the path to liberation, the importance and canonicity of various teachings and scriptures, and especially their respective practices. In Theravada the ultimate goal is the attainment of the state of Nirvana, achieved by practicing the Noble Eightfold Path, thus escaping what is seen as a cycle of suffering. Theravada has a following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana, which includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon, rather than Nirvana, Mahayana instead aspires to Buddhahood via the bodhisattva path, a state wherein one remains in the cycle of rebirth to help other beings reach awakening. Vajrayana, a body of teachings attributed to Indian siddhas, may be viewed as a branch or merely a part of Mahayana. Tibetan Buddhism, which preserves the Vajrayana teachings of eighth century India, is practiced in regions surrounding the Himalayas, Tibetan Buddhism aspires to Buddhahood or rainbow body. Buddhism is an Indian religion attributed to the teachings of Buddha, the details of Buddhas life are mentioned in many early Buddhist texts but are inconsistent, his social background and life details are difficult to prove, the precise dates uncertain. Some hagiographic legends state that his father was a king named Suddhodana, his mother queen Maya, and he was born in Lumbini gardens. Some of the stories about Buddha, his life, his teachings, Buddha was moved by the innate suffering of humanity. He meditated on this alone for a period of time, in various ways including asceticism, on the nature of suffering. He famously sat in meditation under a Ficus religiosa tree now called the Bodhi Tree in the town of Bodh Gaya in Gangetic plains region of South Asia. He reached enlightenment, discovering what Buddhists call the Middle Way, as an enlightened being, he attracted followers and founded a Sangha. Now, as the Buddha, he spent the rest of his teaching the Dharma he had discovered. Dukkha is a concept of Buddhism and part of its Four Noble Truths doctrine. It can be translated as incapable of satisfying, the unsatisfactory nature, the Four Truths express the basic orientation of Buddhism, we crave and cling to impermanent states and things, which is dukkha, incapable of satisfying and painful. This keeps us caught in saṃsāra, the cycle of repeated rebirth, dukkha
3.
Sri Lanka
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Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, is an island country in South Asia near south-east India. Sri Lanka has maritime borders with India to the northwest and the Maldives to the southwest, Sri Lankas documented history spans 3,000 years, with evidence of pre-historic human settlements dating back to at least 125,000 years. Its geographic location and deep harbours made it of strategic importance from the time of the ancient Silk Road through to World War II. Sri Lanka was known from the beginning of British colonial rule until 1972 as Ceylon, Sri Lankas recent history has been marred by a thirty-year civil war which decisively ended when the Sri Lankan military defeated the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam in 2009. A diverse and multicultural country, Sri Lanka is home to many religions, ethnic groups, in addition to the majority Sinhalese, it is home to large groups of Sri Lankan and Indian Tamils, Moors, Burghers, Malays, Kaffirs and the aboriginal Vedda. Sri Lanka has a rich Buddhist heritage, and the first known Buddhist writings of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka is a republic and a unitary state governed by a semi-presidential system. The legislative capital, Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte, is a suburb of the capital and largest city. Along with the Maldives, Sri Lanka is one of the two countries in South Asia that are rated among high human development on the Human Development Index. In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names, according to the Mahavamsa, the legendary Prince Vijaya named the land Tambapanni, because his followers hands were reddened by the red soil of the area. In Hindu mythology, such as the Mahabharata, the island was referred to as Lankā, in Tamil, the island is referred to as Eelam. Ancient Greek geographers called it Taprobanā or Taprobanē from the word Tambapanni, as a British crown colony, the island was known as Ceylon, it achieved independence as the Dominion of Ceylon in 1948. The country is known in Sinhalese as Śrī Laṃkā and in Tamil as Ilaṅkai, in 1972, its formal name was changed to Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka. Later in 1978 it was changed to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, as the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority. The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years, the era spans the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and early Iron Ages. Among the Paleolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala and it is said that Kubera was overthrown by his demon stepbrother Ravana, the powerful emperor who built a mythical flying machine named Dandu Monara. The modern city of Wariyapola is described as Ravanas airport, early inhabitants of Sri Lanka were probably ancestors of the Vedda people, an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka. According to the Mahāvamsa, a written in Pāḷi, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are the Yakshas and Nagas. Ancient cemeteries that were used before 600BC and other signs of advanced civilization has also discovered in Sri Lanka
4.
Dutugamunu
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Dutugamunu, also known as Dutthagamani duṭṭhagāmaṇī and Gāmaṇī Abhaya, was a Sinhalese king of Sri Lanka who reigned from 161 BC to 137 BC. He is renowned for defeating and overthrowing Elara, the usurping Tamil prince from the Chola Kingdom, Dutugamunu also expanded and beautified the city of Anuradhapura and projected the power of his native Rajarata region across the island of Sri Lanka. Due to his significance as one of the most potent symbols of Sinhalese historical power, Dutugemunus story is swathed in myth and legend. However, many aspects of the accounts of his life have been verified by inscriptions. Dutugemunus given name was Gamini or Gamani as the first name, a traditional Buddhist name still popular in Sri Lanka today, the prince stated that If father were a man he would not speak thus and sent him a piece of womens jewellery. The resulting fury of the king caused many of his friends to flee to Malaya region, after his death, he was referred to as Dharma Gamini, but it is as Duttha Gamini or Dutugemunu that he is known to posterity. The Mahavamsa constitutes the source on Dutugemunus reign and dedicates some six chapters to his tale. In chapter 22 he is described as being descended from the ancient royal family of Rajarata through Devanampiyatissas brother Mahanaga, Kavantissa is portrayed in the Mahamvamsa as devoutly believing in the three gems, he provided the brotherhood continually with. needful things. Dutugemunus mother was Viharamahadevi, daughter of Tissa, king of Kalyani, legend has it that as punishment for Tissa slaying a Buddhist monk, Kalyani had been subject to a series of deluges from the sea. To placate it Tissa placed his daughter Devi in a boat with the words A Kings Daughter written on the side. Miraculously the princess washed ashore, alive and well, in Ruhuna, during her pregnancy with Dutugemunu, Viharamahadevi had a series of peculiar cravings, including the urge to sleep on a pillow made of honeycombs. Viharamahadevi gave birth to a son named Gamani Abhaya some time later, and after that to another child, around the time of Gamanis birth, an elephant of the six-tusked race brought his young one thither and left him here and went his way. Named Kandula, he went on to become Gamanis mount and accompanied him through much of the princes adventures, Dutugemunus sister Recent archaeological studies have found evidence proving that King Kavantissa had a daughter who was a sister to King Dutu Gemunu. New evidence to this appeared in The Island of March 27,2017, by the age of 16 Gamani was vigorous, renowned, intelligent and a hero in majesty and might, if a little wayward. Determined to expel the king of Rajarata, Gamani levied an army from around Rohana. Kavantissa is known as a brilliant strategist who recognized early that he needed to make his kingdom powerful before waging a war against the invaders. He assembled armies and gave made his kingdom prosperous in rice, the legendary ten great giants - men who had great strength - are brought into the army at this time. Kavantissa repeatedly makes Dutugemunu and Tissa swear that they would never fight one another and he also makes the ten giants swear never to pick sides in a war between the brothers
5.
Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura
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Tissa, later Devanampiya Tissa was one of the earliest kings of Sri Lanka based at the ancient capital of Anuradhapura from 307 BC to 267 BC. His reign was notable for the arrival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka under the aegis of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka, the primary source for his reign is the Mahavamsa, which in turn is based on the more ancient Dipavamsa. Tissa was the son of Mutasiva of Anuradhapura. The Mahavamsa describes him as being foremost among all his brothers in virtue, the Mahavamsa mentions an early friendship with Ashoka. The king does not appear to have done this at the time, instead adopting the name Devānaṃpiya Beloved of the Gods, Devanampiyatissa is traditionally said to have been succeeded by his younger brothers Uttiya and Mahasiva. His other brother Mahanaga, Prince of Ruhuna was the founder of the Principality of Ruhuna. Emperor Ashoka took a keen interest in the propagation of Buddhism across the known world, the events surrounding Mahindas arrival and meeting with the king form one of the most important legends of Sri Lankan history. According to the Mahavamsa king Devanampiyatissa was out enjoying a hunt with some 40,000 of his soldiers near a mountain called Mihintale, the date for this is traditionally associated with the full moon day of the month of Poson. However, Thera Mahinda declared that Recluses we are, O great King, Devanampiyatissa recalled the news from his friend Ashoka and realised that these are missionaries sent from India. Thera Mahinda went on to preach to the company and preside over the kings conversion to Buddhism. Establishment of Buddhism in Sri Lanka due to the arrival of Thera Mahinda, planting of the Sacred Maha Bodhi and the establishment of the Bhikkuni Sasana due to the arrival of Theri Sangamitta and her group. Offering of the Mahamegavana to the Buddhist monks where the Maha Vihara monastery was built, construction of Thuparama, the first historical dagaba which enshrined the right collar bone of the Buddha. For example, whilst there are references to a Tissamahavihara and various other temples constructed by the king, what is fairly certain however is that the site of his initial meeting with Thera Mahinda is one of Sri Lankas most sacred sites today, going by the name Mihintale. The other major site associated with Devanampiyatissas reign is the planting of the Sri Maha Bodhi in Anuradhapura, the tree was yet another of Emperor Ashokas gifts to the island and was planted within the precincts of Anuradhapura, and is regarded as the oldest tree in the world. Devanampiyatissa built Tissa Wewa, which covers 550 acres, the embankment alone is 2 miles long and 25 feet high. It is an irrigation tank even today and is an essential resource for farmers in Anuradhapura. Later monarchs were to back to Devanampiyatissas conversion as one of the cornerstones of the Anuradhapuran polity. The city itself remained capital of a kingdom until the early Middle Ages
6.
Tomb
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A tomb is a repository for the remains of the dead. It is generally any structurally enclosed interment space or burial chamber and its central feature is a single, prominent pillar or column, often made of stone. Sarcophagus – a stone container for a body or coffin, often decorated and perhaps part of a monument, sepulchre – a cavernous rock-cut space for interment, generally in the Jewish or Christian faiths. Tumuli are also known as barrows, burial mounds, Hügelgräber or kurgans, a cairn, might also be originally a tumulus. A long barrow is a tumulus, usually for numbers of burials. As indicated, tombs are located in or under religious buildings, such as churches. However, they may also be found in catacombs, on land or, in the case of early or pre-historic tombs. The tomb of Emperor Nintoku is the largest in the world by area, however, the Pyramid of Khufu in Egypt is the largest by volume
7.
Chola dynasty
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The Chola dynasty was one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of southern India. The earliest datable references to this Tamil dynasty are in inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE left by Ashoka, as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam, the dynasty continued to govern over varying territory until the 13th century CE. The whole country south of the Tungabhadra was united and held as one state for a period of two centuries and more, the Chola fleet represented the zenith of ancient Indian sea power. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of which is now Sri Lanka, Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully invaded cities of Srivijaya of Malaysia and Indonesia, the Chola dynasty went into decline at the beginning of the 13th century with the rise of the Pandyan Dynasty, which ultimately caused their downfall. The Cholas left a lasting legacy and their patronage of Tamil literature and their zeal in the building of temples has resulted in some great works of Tamil literature and architecture. The Chola kings were avid builders and envisioned the temples in their kingdoms not only as places of worship and they pioneered a centralised form of government and established a disciplined bureaucracy. The Chola school of art spread to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture, the Cholas are also known as the Choda. There is very little available in regarding their origin. Its antiquity is evident from the mentions in ancient Tamil literature, Later medieval Cholas also claimed a long and ancient lineage. Mentions in the early Sangam literature indicate that the earliest kings of the dynasty antedated 100 CE, Cholas were mentioned in Ashokan Edicts of 3rd Century BCE as one of the neighboring countries existing in the South. A commonly held view is that Chola is, like Chera and Pandya, the annotator Parimelazhagar said, The charity of people with ancient lineage are forever generous in spite of their reduced means. Other names in use for the Cholas are Killi, Valavan and Sembiyan. Killi perhaps comes from the Tamil kil meaning dig or cleave and this word often forms an integral part of early Chola names like Nedunkilli, Nalankilli and so on, but almost drops out of use in later times. Valavan is most probably connected with valam – fertility and means owner or ruler of a fertile country, in Tamil lexicon Chola means Soazhi or Saei denoting a newly formed kingdom, in the lines of Pandya or the old country. There is very little evidence available of the Cholas prior to the 7th century. Historic records exist thereafter, including inscriptions on temples, the main source for the available information of the early Cholas is the early Tamil literature of the Sangam Period
8.
Anuradhapura Kingdom
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The Anuradhapura Kingdom, named for its capital city, was the first established kingdom in ancient Sri Lanka and Sinhalese people. Nonetheless, the king of Anuradhapura was seen as the ruler of the country throughout the Anuradhapura period. Buddhism played a role in the Anuradhapura period, influencing its culture, laws. Invasions from South India were a constant threat throughout the Anuradhapura period, rulers such as Dutthagamani, Valagamba, and Dhatusena are noted for defeating the South Indians and regaining control of the kingdom. Other rulers who are notable for military achievements include Gajabahu I, who launched an invasion against the invaders, and Sena II, who sent his armies to assist a Pandyan prince. Several kings, most notably Vasabha and Mahasena, built reservoirs and canals. These constructions are an indication of the technical and engineering skills used to create them. In 543 BC, prince Vijaya arrived in Sri Lanka, having been banished from his homeland in India and he eventually brought the island under his control and established himself as king. After this, his retinue established villages and colonies throughout the country, one of these was established by Anuradha, a minister of King Vijaya, on the banks of a stream called Kolon and was named Anuradhagama. In 377 BC, King Pandukabhaya made it his capital and developed it into a prosperous city, Anuradhapura was named after the minister who first established the village and after a grandfather of Pandukabhaya who lived there. The name was derived from the citys establishment on the auspicious asterism called Anura. Anuradhapura was the capital of all the monarchs who ruled the country during in the Anuradhapura Kingdom, with the exception of Kashyapa I, the city is also marked on Ptolemys world map. King Pandukabhaya, the founder and first ruler of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, fixed village boundaries in the country and he constructed hermitages, houses for the poor, cemeteries, and irrigation tanks. He brought a portion of the country under the control of the Anuradhapura Kingdom. However, it was not until the reign of Dutthagamani that the country was unified under the Anuradhapura Kingdom. He defeated 32 rulers in different parts of the country before he killed Elara, the South Indian ruler who was occupying Anuradhapura, the chronicle Mahavamsa describes his reign with much praise, and devotes 11 chapters out of 37 for his reign. He is described as both a king and a devout Buddhist. After unifying the country, he helped establish Buddhism on a firm and secure base, another notable king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom is Valagamba, also known as Vatthagamani Abhaya, who was overthrown by five invaders from South India
9.
Ancient stupas of Sri Lanka
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Stupas, also called dagobas and cetiyas, are considered an outstanding type of architectural creation of ancient Sri Lanka. Under the influence of Buddhism, there were changes in the field of architecture in Sri Lanka. The stupa commands a prominent place among these changes, the Stupa is also known by synonymous names such as Chaithya, Dagaba, Thupa, Seya and Vehera. Stupas designed and constructed in Sri Lanka are the largest brick structures known to the pre-modern world, the earliest monument found in Sri Lanka is the Stupa, which is described as a hemispherical dome surmounted with a spire. Afterwards many stupas were built, some colossal stupas, biggest of which is Jetavanaramaya and this event is mentioned in an inscription written in Sanskrit found at this site. During the time of Ashoka, numerous ‘stupas’ were built at hallowed sites in India, in these were enshrined relics of the Buddha which people venerated. When it was observed there were no Buddha relics in Sri Lanka. He responded to the king’s request and sent the right collarbone relic of the Buddha, King Devanam Piya Tissa built the Thuparamaya to enshrine this relic, the right collarbone of the Buddha. The Thuparamaya is regarded as the first ever historical stupa built in Sri Lanka, the building of colossal stupas started during the reign of King Dutugamunu. The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit, the purpose of stupas were mainly to enshrine relics of Buddha. The design specifications are consistent within most of the stupas, entrances to stupas are laid out so that their centre lines point to the relic chambers. The fine plaster at Kiri Vehera used small pebbles, crushed seashells mixed with lime, a stupa usually has six parts, Pesavalalu – Berms or terraces A stupa consists of three such berms at its base. The three berms rising from the base gradually reduce in size, gharbaya – Hemispherical dome The hemispherical dome is constructed on the three berms. In the middle of the dagaba was built a relic chamber, the Buddhas relics are enshrined there. In the centre of the Relic Chamber was placed a bo-tree made of metals. Hatharas Kotuwa - Tee cube Relics are enshrined in this part too, Devatha Kotuwa - Cylindrical neck This is built on the Hatharas Kotuwa. Figures of deities are carved on the surface, koth Kerella - Conical spire This is built on the Devatha Kotuwa. A crystal on a made of metal is placed at the top of the spire to adorn it
10.
Ellalan
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Ellalan, was a member of the Chola dynasty, who upon capturing the throne became king of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, in present day Sri Lanka, from 205-161 BCE. Ellāḷaṉ is traditionally presented as being a just king even by the Sinhalese, Ellāḷaṉ is a peculiar figure in the history of Sri Lanka and one with particular resonance given the ongoing ethnic strife in the country. Although he was an invader, he is regarded as one of Sri Lankas wisest and most just monarchs, as highlighted in the ancient Sinhalese pali chronicle. According to the chronicle, even Ellāḷaṉs nemesis Dutugamunu had a respect for him. Often referred to as the Just King, the Tamil name Ellāḷaṉ means the one who rules the boundary. Ellāḷaṉ is described in the Mahavamsa as being A Tamila of noble descent. from the Chola-country and he has been mentioned in the Silappatikaram and Periya Puranam. His name has since then used as a metaphor for fairness. Despite Ellāḷaṉs famously even-handed rule, resistance to him coalesced around the figure of Dutugamunu, towards the end of Ellāḷaṉs reign, Dutugamunu had strengthened his position in the south by defeating his own brother, Tissa, who challenged him. Confrontation between the two monarchs was inevitable and the last years of Ellāḷaṉs reign were consumed by the war between the two, the Mahavamsa contains a fairly detailed account of sieges and battles that took place during the conflict. Particularly interesting is the use of war elephants and of flaming pitch in the battles. Ellāḷaṉs own war elephant is said to have been Maha Pambata, or Big Rock, the climactic battle is said to have occurred as Dutugamunu drew close to Anuradhapura. On the night before, both King Ellāḷaṉ and prince Dutugamunu are said to have conferred with their counsellors, the next day both kings rode forwards on war elephants, Ellāḷaṉ in full armour. with chariots, soldiers and beasts for riders. Dutugamunus forces are said to have routed those of Ellāḷaṉ and that the water in the tank there was dyed red with the blood of the slain, following his death, Dutugamunu ordered that Ellāḷaṉ be cremated where he had fallen, and had a monument constructed over the place. The Mahavamsa mentions that even to this day the princes of Lanka, unfortunately this monument has not been found - the stupa which was earlier considered as Ellāḷaṉ Sohona is today identified as the stupa, Dakkhina Stupa. The identification and reclassification is considered controversial, the Mahavamsa contains numerous references to the loyal troops of the Chola empire and portrays them as a powerful force. They held various positions including taking custody of temples during the period of Parakramabahu I, there were instances when the Sinhalese kings tried to employ them as mercenaries by renaming a section of the most hardcore fighters as Mahatantra. According to historian Burton Stein, when troops were directed against the Chola empire. But they continued to exist in a state by taking up various jobs for livelihood
11.
Anuradhapura
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Anuradhapura is a major city in Sri Lanka. It is the city of North Central Province, Sri Lanka. Anuradhapura is one of the ancient capitals of Sri Lanka, famous for its ruins of an ancient Sri Lankan civilization. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Rajarata, following the kingdoms of Tambapanni. The city, now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, was the center of Theravada Buddhism for many centuries, the city lies 205 km north of the current capital Colombo in Sri Lankas North Central Province, on the banks of the historic Malvathu Oya. It is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world and it is believed that from the fourth century BC until the beginning of the 11th century AD it was the capital of the Sinhalese. During this period it remained one of the most stable and durable centers of political power, the ancient city, considered sacred to the Buddhist world, is today surrounded by monasteries covering an area of over sixteen square miles. Protohistoric Iron Age Although according to records the city was founded in the 5th century BC. Very little evidence was available about the period before the 5th century BC, further excavations in Anuradhapura have uncovered information about the existence of a protohistoric habitation of humans in the citadel. The protohistoric Iron Age, which spans from 900 to 600 BC, marked the appearance of iron technology, pottery, in the time period 700 to 600 BC, the settlement in Anuradhapura had grown over an area of at least 50 hectares. The city was situated of major ports northwest and northeast. It was surrounded by irrigable and fertile land, the city was also buried deep in the jungle providing natural defence from invaders. Lower Early Historic period The Lower Early Historic period, spanning from 500 to 250 BC, is studied on the lines of the chronicles, during this time King Pandukabhaya formally planned the city, with gates, quarters for traders etc. The city at the time would have covered an area of 1 square kilometre makes it one of the largest in the continent at the time. A hermitage was made for many ascetics, eastward of that same cemetery and it is believed that King Pandukabhaya made it his capital in the 4th century BC, and that he also laid out the town and its suburbs according to a well-organized plan. He constructed a reservoir named Abhayavapi and he established shrines for yakkhas such as Kalawela and Cittaraja. He housed the Yaksini-Cetiya in the form of a mare within the royal precincts, the slaves or Candalas were assigned their duties, and a village was set apart for them. They build dwellings for Niganthas, for wandering ascetics and for Ajivakas and Brahmanas, the tradition that King Pandukabhaya made Anuradhapura the capital city of Sri Lanka as early as the 4th century BC had been very important
12.
James Fergusson (architect)
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James Fergusson FRS was a Scottish architectural historian, mainly remembered for his interest in Indian historical architecture and antiquities. He was an important figure in the 19th century rediscovery of ancient India and he was originally a businessman, and though not formally trained as an architect, designed some buildings and decorative schemes. Fergusson was born at Ayr, the son of William Fergusson an army surgeon, after being educated first at the Royal High School, Edinburgh, and then at a private school in Hounslow, he went to Calcutta as a partner in a mercantile house. Here he became interested in the remains of the ancient architecture of India, the successful conduct of an indigo factory, as he states in his own account, enabled him to retire from business after about ten years and settle in London. His observations on Indian architecture were first published in his book on The Rock-cut Temples of India and it was followed in 1862 by one entitled A History of the Modern Styles of Architecture, being a sequel to the Handbook of Architecture. The 1855 work was reissued ten years later in a more extended form in three volumes, under the title of A History of Architecture in all Countries from the Earliest Times to the Present Day. The 1876 work was revised with additions by James Burgess and Richard Phené Spiers in 1910. He received the medal of the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1871. Fergusson died in London on 9 January 1886, attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain, Chisholm, Hugh, ed. Fergusson, James. Fergusson, An historical inquiry into the principles of beauty in art, more especially with reference to architecture, London, Longman, Brown, Green. Fergusson, An Essay on a Proposed New System of Fortification, with Hints for its Application to our National Defences, London, Fergusson, The Illustrated Handbook of Architecture. Fergusson, Tree and Serpent Worship, or Illustrations of Mythology and Art in India, London, rude Stone Monuments in all countries, London, John Murray, Albemarle Street. Fergusson, History of the styles of architecture. History of Indian and Eastern Architecture, 2nd Edition, I and Vol. II Fergusson, James. James Fergusson and Indian Architecture James Fergusson, Chronological Table of Writings James Fergusson at arthistoricum. net
